University of Basrah for Gas and Oil

College of Oil and Gas Engineering

Department of
Chemical and Petroleum Refining Engineering
Process Dynamic and Control II
Second Semester (Fourth Year)

Dr. Seaar Al-Dabooni

Lecture(3)
 Final Control Elements and Controllers
 Controllers (Cont.)
3) PROPOTIONAL CONTROLLER (Present) + INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (Past): PI Controller

The introduction of integral control in a control system can reduce the steady-state error to zero. Integral control
creates a restoring force that is proportional to the sum of all past errors multiplied by time. PI controller is described
by the relationship:

with deviation variable

and Laplace transform

Let 𝜀(𝑡) = 1,∀𝑡, then

𝑡
Hints: σ𝑡𝑖=0 𝜀(𝑖) ≡ ‫׬‬0 𝜀 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑒 (𝑃 = 𝑝 − 𝑝𝑠 )
 Final Control Elements and Controllers
 Controllers (Cont.)
3) PI Controller For a constant value of error, the value of σ𝑡𝑖=0 𝜀(𝑖) will increase with time, causing there storing force
to get larger and larger. Eventually, the restoring force will get large enough to overcome friction and
move the controlled variable in a direction to eliminate the error.
Example: Consider the case where a robot arm has a
steady-state error position of 2°due to friction; this error
is shown on the graph in Fig. (a).
As time elapses, the error remains at 2°. Fig. (b) shows how the
restoring torque due to integral control increases with time.
The magnitude of their storing torque at any point in time is
proportional to the area under the error curve. For example,
after 2 s, the area under the error curve is 4 deg · s (area= 2
deg ×2 s), Assuming that Kc= 1 and 1/𝜏𝐼 = 1, then Kp*1/𝜏𝐼 = 1,
and the restoring torque due to integral control alone is 4. After
about 5 s, the restoring torque gets high enough to overcome
friction and nudge the arm the last 2° to remove the error.
Once the error goes to zero, the area under the curve stops
growing, the gravity problem to be overcome.
 Final Control Elements and Controllers
 Controllers (Cont.)
3) PI Controller (drawback)

Although the addition of integral feedback eliminates the steady-state-error problem, it reduces the overall
stability of the system. The problem occurs because integral feedback tends to make the system overshoot,
which may lead to oscillations.

*Figs: https://www.machinedesign.com/sensors/introduction-pid-control
 Final Control Elements and Controllers
 Controllers (Cont.)
4) PROPOTIONAL CONTROLLER (Present) + DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER (Future): PD Controller

Derivative control “applies the brakes,” slowing the controlled variable just before it reaches its destination.

with deviation variable

and Laplace transform
 Final Control Elements and Controllers
 Controllers (Cont.)
4) PD Controller
Example (pervious): Figures a, b and c show how a position
control system with derivative feedback responds to a set-
point change. Specifically, Fig. (a) shows the actual and
desired position of the controlled variable, Fig. (b) shows the
position error(E), and Fig. (c) shows the derivative control
output. Assume the controlled variable is initially at 0°. Then
at time A the set point moves rapidly to 30°. Because of
mechanical inertia, it takes time for the object to get up to
speed. Notice that the position error (E) is increasing (positive
slope) during this time period (A to B).Therefore, derivative
control, which is proportional to error slope, will have a
positive output, which gives the object a boost, to help get it
moving. As the controlled variable closes in on the set-point
value (B to C), the position error is decreasing (negative
slope), so derivative feedback applies a negative force that
acts like a brake, helping to slow the object.
 Final Control Elements and Controllers
 Controllers (Cont.)
4) PD Controller
 From the discussions so far, you can see that derivative control improves system performance in two ways.
First, it provides an extra boost of force at the beginning of a change to promote faster action; second, it
provides for braking when the object is closing in on the new set point. This braking action not only helps
reduce overshoot but also tends to reduce steady-state error. problems. In this case, too much derivative
feedback will slow the system response It is important to note that derivative control has no influence on the
accuracy of the system, just the response time, so it is never used by itself.

 Derivative action is based on how rapidly the error is

changing, not the magnitude of the error or how long the
error has persisted. It is based on the slope of the error
versus time curve at any instant in time. Therefore, a rapidly
changing error signal will induce a large derivative response.
“Noisy” error signals cause significant problems for
derivative action because of the rapidly changing slope of
the error caused by noise. Derivative control should be
avoided in these situations unless the error signal can be
filtered to remove the noise.
*Fig: https://www.machinedesign.com/sensors/introduction-pid-control
 Final Control Elements and Controllers
 Controllers (Cont.)
5) PID Controller
This mode of control is a combination of the previous modes (P, I and D) controllers and is given by the expression

𝐾𝑝 : Proportional Gain 𝐾𝑑 : Derivative Gain

𝐾𝑖 : Integral Gain
with deviation variable
and Laplace transform

1
𝑃 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑝 𝜀(𝑠)+𝐾𝑑 𝑠𝜀 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑖 𝜀(𝑠)
𝑠
 Final Control Elements and Controllers
 Controllers (Cont.)
5) PID Controller
 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 Redrawing the closed-loop block diagram and incorporates some standard symbols for the variables and transfer
functions, which are widely used in the control literature.

forward path.

feedback path
 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 OVERALL TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEMS

• Determining the transfer function relating C to R or C to U, which is called the overall transfer functions because
they apply to the entire system.

• For the present it is sufficient to note that they are useful in determining the response of C to any change in R
and U or both.

1) The response to a change in set point R, obtained by setting U = 0.

2) The response to a change in load variable U, obtained by setting R= 0.

3) The response C to both R and U

 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 OVERALL TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEMS (Cont.)

1) Overall Transfer Function for Change in Set Point (U=0)

The rule can be proved by considering two noninteracting blocks in series as follows:
 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 OVERALL TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEMS (Cont.)

1) Overall Transfer Function for Change in Set Point (U=0)

The transfer function relating C to R is:

a) Simplifications b) Substitutions c) Finally

 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 OVERALL TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEMS (Cont.)

2) Overall Transfer Function for Change in Load (R=0)

The transfer function relating C to U is:

a) Simplifications
b) Substitutions c) Finally

where
 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 OVERALL TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEMS (Cont.)

3) Overall Transfer Function for Change in Set Point and Load

The transfer function is:

Solving this equation for C, we obtain (after a bit of algebra)

 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 OVERALL TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEMS (Cont.)

General Format for Overall Transfer Function for Change in Set Point or Load

where

is product of transfer functions in forward path between locations of X and Y

is product of all transfer functions in loop

The same as before: (Please check it)

 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 OVERALL TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEMS (Cont.)

Example 1) Determine the transfer functions C/R, C / U1 and B / U2. Also determine an expression for C in terms
of R and U1 for the situation when both set point change and load change occur simultaneously.
 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 OVERALL TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEMS (Cont.)

Solution for Example 1) Either set point change or load change

 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 OVERALL TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEMS (Cont.)

Solution for Example 1) Both set point change and load change occur simultaneously
 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 OVERALL TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR SINGLE-LOOP SYSTEMS (Cont.)

Example 2) Determine the transfer functions C/R.

Solution for example 2:

 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 More Rules and Simplifications for Block Diagram:
Block diagrams can be systematically simplified.
 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 More Rules and Simplifications for Block Diagram: (Cont.)
 Closed-loop Transfer Functions
 More Rules and Simplifications for Block Diagram: (Cont.)
 Next Lecture

 Poles and Zeros

 Stability

 PID Stability

 Closed-loop steady state and final value theorems