NMAT Review: Biology

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1. 5 Plant hormones:

1) auxin - promotes growth & cell elongation, also allows for flowering
2) cytokinins - cell division
3) gibberellins - allows for cell division AND cell elongation
4) ethylene - promotes ripening
5) abscisic acid - inhibition of cell growth
2. Blood types A, B, AB, and O:

A - Has the antigen for A and the antibody for B

B - Has the antigen for B and antibody for B
AB - Has the antigen for A and B, no antibody; "universal recipient"
O - No antigen, has antibody for A and B; "universal donor"
3. C4 pathway:

More efficient pathway of photosynthesis to avoid photorespiration.

-performed by plants known for more sugar production like corn and sugar cane

-Stomata - pores in the leaves, where air enters into the cells.
-mesophyll cells - cells in the middle layer where most plants hold photosynthesis; these cells are open to the carbon dioxide, but
also oxygen (BAD cause photorespiration could occur)
-bundle-sheath cells - more embedded cells within the plant that don't have direct access to the air.

CO2 comes in through the stomata, into the mesophyll cells. And instead of reacting with RuBP, it reacts with the PEP (a 3-carbon
molecule), resulting in a 4-carbon molecule (oxaloacetate).
-enzyme PEP carboxylase catalyzes this reaction. It can only fix carbon, NOT oxygen.
Oxaloacetate gets converted to either malate or aspartate (4-carbon molecules).

Malate get transferred via plasmodesmata (which connects the plant cells) into the bundle-sheath cells. Malate then turns BACK into
CO2 and pyruvate (which goes back into the mesophyll cell to become PEP). Now we're in an environment that only has CO2 to
undergo the Calvin cycle with enzyme rubisco to create glucose.
4. Calvin cycle (light-independent reaction):

ATP + NADPH (both from light-dependent reaction) + CO2 -> sugar (PGAL / G3P)
-occurring in the stroma (outside the thylakoid)

The 6CO2 react with 6 RuBP to form 12 PGAL, using the ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reaction (12 each).
-enzyme RuBisCo catalyzes the reaction between CO2 and RuBP
10 of these PGALs will be reused to recreate RuBP, dropping 4 Pi and using the phosphate groups from 6 ATPs.
The other 2 PGALs (3 carbons each) are combined to make a glucose (6 carbon molecule)!

-Calvin cycle is a carbon fixation

-Also known as a C3 pathway
5. CAM pathway:

Rather than worrying about sugar production, this used for water conservation.
-plants like those found in the desert
-occurs in the cytoplasm of mesophyll cells

Stomata, while lets in air, it can also let out water vapor.
So the plants want them closed during the day time. However, photosynthesis can only occur during the day.
So, they utilize night and daytime.

At night, they keep their stomata open while, letting in CO2, fixing it just like we see in the C4 pathways (PEP -> oxaloacetate ->
malate). The malate is then stored.
During the day, the stomata is closed to prevent water loss. All the stored-up malate can be pumped out of the vacuole, breaking off
the CO2 to perform photosynthesis, producing sugar.
6. Cardiac cycle:

1) Deoxygenated blood travels into right atrium and right ventricle via vena cava, out of the heart into the lungs. The now-oxygenated
blood travels into the left atrium to the left ventricle and out the aorta to the rest of the body.
The pacemaker of the heart is dependent on the sinoatrial node which sends an electrical pulse through the atria (resulting in atrial
systole). This causes the atriventricular node to activate, sending impulses down to the bundle of His (resulting in ventricular systole)
7. Cellular Respiration:

The process of obtaining energy through the breakdown of glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen.

6O2 + C6H12O6 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

3 Stages: Glycolysis, Kreb's Cycle, Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Glycolysis: Glucose -> 2 pyruvic acid

-In the cytoplasm
-2 ATP is used up
-4 ATP and 2 NADH (which enters ETC) are produced from the reaction

Kreb's Cycle: pyruvic acid enters the Kreb's Cycle

-In the matrix of mitochondria
-Forms 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 (which enters ETC), and CO2 (which we exhale)

ETC: the NADH and FADH2 enter the ETC to donate electrons, getting passed down the chain until it is finally accepted by O2
-occurs in the inner folds (cristae of mitochondria)
-forms 32 ATP and H2O
8. Classification of organisms: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
(Kings Play Chess On Fine Grain Sand)
9. Dihybrid crossing:
10. embryonic development:

1) gametogenesis - making of sperm and egg

2) fertilization - sperm + egg = zygote
3) cleavage - sequence of cell division to become a multicellular organism, leading to blastula (hollow ball of cells)
4) gastrulation - leads to formation of germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm); pouch formed by gastrulation opens to the
outside via the blastopore which eventually becomes the anus.
5) organogenesis - germ layers develop into different tissues and organism
6) growth and histological differentiation - cells of each organ begin to grow and differentiate to eventually become the necessary
structure and function for that organ
11. Fermentation:

A series of reactions that allows the body to still make a small amount of ATP in the presence of anaerobic conditions.

It can't go into the Krebs Cycle or ETC. So after glycolysis, the NADH reacts with the pyruvic acid in the cytoplasm to create either
alcohol (in alcoholic fermentation) or lactic acid (in lactic acid fermentation).
12. Frameshift mutations:

A mutation where the whole frame of the genetic sequence is changed (most likely from an addition or subtraction of a nucleotide)
13. Function of membrane proteins: -Cell-to-cell communication
-cell-to-cell recognition site
-attachment to the cytoskeleton & extracellular matrix (infrastructure)
-across the membrane transportation
---> small, polar uncharged molecules can pass (water, CO2)
---> hydrophobic molecules can cross the lipid bilayer (hydrocarbons, O2)
---> large, polar uncharged molecules can't pass through (sugars, proteins)
---> ions can't pass without help from transport proteins/channels (H+, Na+, Cl-, K+)
14. Germ layers:

Ectoderm - eventually forms the skin and nervous system

Mesoderm - eventually forms the bones, muscles, organs, and blood vessels
Endoderm - eventually forms the digestive tract
15. Hardy-Weinberg equation : Equation: (p+q)^2 = p^2 + 2pq + q^2
-p is frequency of dominant allele (A)
-q is frequency of recessive allele (a)
-p^2 is frequency of homozygous dominant individuals AA
-2pq is frequency of heterozygous individuals Aa
-q^2 is frequency of homozygous recessive individuals aa

Note that p+q=1

16. How a reflex works:

Receptor receives stimuli -> sensory neuron transmits messages -> to dorsal root -> to interneurons (in spine) -> to ventral root (in spin)
-> to motor neuron -> effector receives response from motor neuron to act
17. hypertonic vs. hypotonic vs. isotonic solution:

Hypertonic solution/environment - where the solution has a higher concentration of solutes than in the cell, so the cell has a higher
water potential. This causes water from the cell to flow outwards, shrinking the cell/crenating it. Or in plant cells, plasmolyze it.
Hypotonic solution/environment - where the solution has a lower concentration of solutes than in the cell, so the environment has the
higher water potential. This causes a net movement of water into the cell, swell/lyse. Or in plant cells, become turgid.
Isotonic solution/environment - where the solution and the cell have equal concentration of solutes and equal water potential. There is
a zero net movement of water.
18. Light-dependent Reaction:

Light + H2O -> ATP + NADPH + O2

-Occurs in the thylakoid membrane

Photons from the light EXCITE the electrons in PSII to a high energy state. As the electrons travel between molecules to PSI, it goes to
a lower energy state. Part of the energy lost is used to transport H+ ions across the thylakoid membrane, creating a H+ higher
concentration gradient inside (will later be used to energize the ATP synthase).

Electrons in the PSII system come from P680^+, a strong oxidizing agent, that grabs the electrons from H2O. This is where the by-
product 1/2 O2 comes from, plus more H+ ions.

The photons from the light also EXCITE the electrons accepted in PSI to a higher energy state once again. And as it moves from one
molecule to another, going down in energy level, REDUCES NADP+ to become NADPH.

ATP synthase uses the energy from H+ going down its concentration gradient (from inside lumen of thylakoid to outside) to turn ADP
into ATP.
19. Meiosis stages:

Same stages as Mitosis but done twice in 2 parts: Meiosis I and Meiosis II
20. Menstrual cycle:

Occurs during lower levels of progesterone PRIOR to the follicular phase.

21. Meristem:

Zones of unspecialized cells whose sole function is to divide

-Apical meristems produce primary growth (length). Three types: protoderm (epidermal tissue), procambrium (central vascular cylinder
- stele), and ground meristem (ground tissue system)
-Lateral meristem produces secondary growth (girth). Two types: vascular cambrium (produces secondary xylem & secondary
phloem) and cork cambrium (produces cork cells and phelloderm)
22. Mitosis stages:

1) Prophase - condensation of chromosomes (coiling)

2) Metaphase - alignment of the chromosomes at the equatorial plate
3) Anaphase - Pulling apart of the chromosomes to opposite sides; separation of sister chromatids
4) Telophase - mitotic apparatus formed during prophase is disassembled as 2 cells are formed (cytokinesis).
23. Muscle activation: Muscle activation is triggered when Na+ ions flow INTO the muscle when sodium channels open. This influx of ions
causes a depolarization down the muscle, causing calcium ions kept in the sarcoplasmic reticulum to rush into the sarcoplasm.
These Ca+ ions bind to troponin, causing a change in shape of the troponin molecule. This displaces the tropomyosin from the myosin
binding sites on the actin, allowing the myosin heads to freely connect with the actin microfilament and cause muscle contractions.

When a muscle is at rest, the myosin heads on actin microfilaments are covered by the tropomyosin, which are held in place by
troponin as it binds to both tropomyosin and actin.
24. Na-K pump:

Usually in animal cells, there is low internal Na+ and high internal K+ concentrations.

3 Na+ attach to the transport protein along with a molecule of ATP. A phosphate group breaks from ATP (creating ADP), giving enough
energy to change the shape of the protein and drive the sodium ions to the other side of the membrane. The new shape of the channel
allow 2 K+ ions to bind to it.
The release of the phosphate group from the channel gives changes the shape of the protein back to its original form, bringing the
potassium ions into the cell.
25. Nitrogen cycle:

Ammonia (NH3) in atm -> nitrite (NO2) by chemosynthetic nitrite bacteria -> nitrate (NO3) by nitrate bacteria

Nitrate is taken up by plants -> ammonia (NH3) through reductase systems in the organism -> proteins through amination -> back to
ammonia (NH3) in organism through deamination OR ammonia (NH3) in atmosphere through decomposition.
26. Ocean zones:

-Littoral - intertidal zone/coastal zone where the low tide and high tide are; a wide variety of organisms
-Pelagic - made up of neretic & oceanic zones; the zone always covered by water from low tide until onwards.
---Neretic - covers the continental shelf where the sunlight hits. Where the coral reefs are at
---Oceanic - where the continental shelf ends. Goes into vertical oceans from there: Neustic & Epipelagic zones (Euphotic light zone),
Mesopelagic zone (Disphotic light zone), Bathypelagic & Abyssopelagic zone (Aphotic light zone), and finally Hadal zone
27. Phases of cell cycle:

1) Gap 1 (G1) phase - growth, increase of organelles, and production of substances needed inside and outside of cell are done
2) Synthesis (S) phase - DNA replication and formation of proteins in DNA happen; the sister chromatids are made
3) Gap 2 (G2) phase - Organization of specialized structures required for chromosome movement and cell replication; readying for the
cell to divide,chromosomes begin to condense and microtubules are synthesized
4) Mitosis (M) phase - cell division begins to occur

Checkpoints are in place to quality check the cells before continuing on. If they don't meet the standards, they are put into G0 phase
where they no longer continue to grow.
28. Photorespiration:

Sometimes, the enzyme RuBisCo, that fixes carbon to RuBP in the Calvin cycle, will fix oxygen to RuBP instead --> photorespiration.

Photorespiration - typically happens in normal plants in hot conditions when rubisco has more of an affinity to O2. Also in hot
conditions, the stomata close to conserve water, preventing CO2 from diffusing in and closing in the O2 by-product.
By using oxygen, there's not enough carbons to create enough PGALs to create a glucose product. So in the end, we've wasted a
bunch of ATP and NADPH for no product. Instead, CO2 is produced through the salvage pathway.
29. Photosynthesis:

Using light energy to synthesize sugar and oxygen utilizing water and carbon dioxide.

6CO2 + 6H2O + photons -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Two stages: light-dependent (light) and light-independent (dark) reactions

Light dependent reactions:

-needs photons and water
-produces O2, and ATP & NADPH (which are given to the dark reactions)

Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle):

-takes in the CO2, and ATP & NADPH
-produces glucose and other carbohydrates
30. Plant succession:
31. Point mutations: silent, missense, nonsense:

Silent - causes no change in activity of the protein

Missense - results in a change of the activity of the protein
Nonsense - results to a protein shorter than usual/most likely becomes non-functional
32. Protein synthesis:

Transcription:
-DNA splits up with helicase, RNA polymerase creates an mRNA strand from the DNA strands using RNA nucleotides. Once made, the
mRNA travels to the cytoplasm.
Translation: Ribosomes (rRNA) bind to mRNA and make polypeptide strands using the anticodon found on tRNA that complement the
codons on the mRNA.
33. Sporophyte vs. gametophyte: Sporophyte - stage in plant life where they are in a diploid state
Gametophyte - stage in plant life where they are in a haploid state, giving rise to the sex cells

Ferns, pine trees, and common weeds are usually in a diploid state while mosses are dominantly haploid gametophytes.
34. T-lymphocytes vs. B-lymphocytes: T-lymphocytes -- processed in the thymus that initiates the attack on foreign bodies. It's considered
a part of the cell-mediated response
B-lymphocytes -- released into the boodstream, it secretes antibodies which bind to the antigen and eventually destroy it. It's
considered a part of the humoral immune response