Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
L evel III
Study Guide
M agnetic P article
Testing M ethod
Published by The A m erican Society for
N ondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 A rlingate Lane
C olum bus, OH 43228-0518
(8(H)) 222-2768
C opyright © 2001 by T he A m erican Society for N ondestructive Testing, Inc. A SN T is n o t responsible for the
authenticity o r accuracy o f inform ation herein. Published opinions and statem ents do not necessarily reflect the opinion
of ASNT. Products o r services that are advertised or m entioned do not carry the endorsem ent o r recom m endation o f
ASNT.
IRRSP. M aterials E valuation. N D T H andbook. The N O T Technician and w w w.asnt.org are tradem arks o f T he A m erican
Society for N ondestructive Testing, Inc. ACCP, ASNT. L evel III Study G uide, N ondestructive Testing H andbook.
Research in N ondestructive E valuation and R N D E and are registered tradem arks o f The A m erican Society for
N ondestructive Testing. Inc.
A SN T exists to create a safer w orld by prom oting the profession and technologies o f nondestructive testing.
1. Review the questions at the end o f each section to assess your com prehension of the
m agnetic particle m ethod.
2. If the questions in a certain section arc found to be difficult, you should carefully study
the inform ation presented in that section as w,ell as the cited reference m aterial. This
review o f the inform ation in the study guide will refresh your m em ory o f theory and
facts long forgotten.
Preface
T his study guide presents the m agnetic particle testing m ethod in a logical flow starting
with electricity and m agnetism , and ending w ith indications and interpretations. Supporting
discussions include safety, probability o f detection, how to prepare a m agnetic particle test
procedure, electric currents and the m agnetic fields they produce, how to produce the various
fields in com m on shapes, how to determ ine the strength and direction o f these fields.
The current trend in m agnetic particle testing is to em ploy devices such as Hall effect
gauss m eters, shim s or sim ilar devices w hen establishing m agnetic particle techniques.
Form ulae can be utilized initially for estim ating, then supplem ented w ith a m ore quantitative
m ethod o f determ ining field strength and direction.
References
1. Reference A
Betz, C.F... Principles o f M agnetic P article Testing. M agnuflux Corp.. C hicago, Illinois.
1497.
2. Reference B
Schm idt. J. T hom as, and Kerm it Skeie. technical editors. Paul M clntire, editor.
N ondestructive Testing H andbook, second edition. Volume 6. M agnetic P article Testing.
T he A m erican Society tor N ondestructive Testing. Inc.. C olum bus. O hio. 1989.
3. Reference C
A STM E 1444 Standard P ractice f o r M agnetic P article E xam ination. ASTM Book o f
Standards. Vol. 03.03, A STM . West C onshohocken. Pennsylvania. C urrent Edition.
4. R eferen ce D
A STM E 1316 Term inology f o r N ondestructive E xam ination. A S T M Hook o f Standards.
Vol. 03.03, A STM . West C onshohocken. Pennsylvania. C urrent Edition.
5. R efe ren ce E
A STM E 709 Standard G uide fo r M agnetic P article E xam ination. A STM . West
C onshohocken. Pennsylvania. C urrent Edition.
v
Table of Contents
F o rw a rd ......................................................................................................................................................iii
P re fa c e ........................................................................................................................................................ iv
R e f e r e n c e s ...................................................................................................................................................v
T a b le o f C o n t e n t s ................................................................................................................................vii
C h a p t e r I - I n t r o d u c t i o n .................................................................................................................. 1
History ..................................................................................................................................................... I
Typical M agnetic Particle Testing Process ..........................................................................1
M agnetic Particle Testing Fundam entals ............................................................................ I
C h a p t e r 2 - M a t e r i a l s a n d th e T h e o r y o f M a g n e ti s m ..................................................... 3
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 3
M aterial C haracteristics ............................................................................................................ 3
D iam agnetic M aterials ...............................................................................................................3
Param agnetic M aterials ............................................................ 3
Ferrom agnetic M aterials ..........................................................................................................3
M agnetic Field C haracteristics ....................................................................................................... 4
E lectric C urrents and M agnetic Fields in C o n d u c to r s ..................................................... 4
M agnetic H ysteresis C urve - Induction by Coil ...................................................................... 5
M agnetic Field - Induction o f Ferrom agnetic M aterials (H ysteresis C urve) .......... 6
Perm eability ................................................................................................................................ 6
M agnetic Flux and Flux D e n s i t y .....................................................................................................7
M agnetization o f F errom agnetic M aterial ................................................................................... 8
Direct M agnetization ................................................................................................................. 8
Indirect M agnetization ............................................................................................................... 8
Perm anent M agnets ..........................................................................................................8
C entral C onductors ............................................................................................................ 8
C oils and Solenoids ..........................................................................................................9
Review Q u e s t io n s ...............................................................................................................................10
C h a p t e r 3 - C u r r e n t s U s e d in th e M a g n e ti c P a r tic le
T e s tin g I n s p e c tio n P r o c e s s ................................................................................................................13
M agnetizing C u r r e n t .......................................................................... 13
A lternating C urrent .................................................................................................................. 13
Direct C urrent ................................................................................................................ 13
H alf W ave R ectified C urrent ................................................................................................ 13
Full W ave R ectified C urrent (Single Phase) .....................................................................13
T hree Phase Full W ave R ectified C urrent ....................................................................... 13
M agnetization ....................................................................................................................................13
U sing Perm anent M agnets to Induce M agnetic Fields .................................................14
U sing Electric C urrents to Induce M agnetic Fields ......................................................14
A lternating C urrent ...........................................................................................................15
D irect C u r r e n t .....................................................................................................................15
H alf W ave D irect C urrent .............................................................................................. 15
Full W ave R ectified Single or T hree Phase ...........................................................15
Review Q uestions .............................................................................................................................. 16
C h a p t e r 4 - F ie ld S t r e n g t h a n d D i s t r i b u t i o n ...................................................................... 17
M agnetization ....................................................................................................................................17
C ircular M agnetization ...........................................................................................................17
Longitudinal M agnetization ................................................................................................... 17
L ow Fill-Factor C oils ......................................................................................................18
C able W rap or High F ill-Factor Coils ........................................................................18
Interm ediate F ill-Factor C oils .......................................................................................19
C alculating the L cngth-to-D iam eter Ratio for a Hollow
o r C ylindrical Part ...........................................................................................................19
P erm anent M agnets ..................................................................................... 20
A lternating C urrent ..................................................................................................................20
Direct C urrent ............................................................................................................................20
Solid and H ollow C ylinders ...................................................................................................20
N onm agnetic M aterial .............................................................................................................21
Central C onductor C arrying D irect C urrent .................................................................... 21
Field D istribution for A lternating C urrent C onductors ................................................ 22
O ther Sym m etrical S h a p e s ..................................................................................................... 23
Rings ............................................................................................................................................. 23
Disks ............................................................................................................................................. 25
Review Q u e s t io n s .............................................................................................................................. 28
C h a p t e r 5 - M a g n e ti c F ie ld D ir e c tio n a n d I n t e n s i t y ..................................................... 31
D irection and Intensity .................................................................................................................... 31
External M agnetic Field M easurem ent ...................................................................................... 31
Field Indicators ......................................................................................................................... 31
Pie G ages ................................................................................................................................... 31
Shim s ...........................................................................................................................................32
Hall Effect M eter (G auss M eter) ........................................................................................ 32
O ther D evices ............................................................................................................................33
Review Q uestions .............................................................................................................................. 34
C h a p t e r 6 - M a g n e ti c P a r t i c l e T e s tin g E q u i p m e n t ........................................................ 3 5
introduction .................................................................................. .35
Portable Equipm ent ..................................................................................................................35
Perm anent M agnet Yokes ..................................................................................................... 35
E lectrom agnetic Yokes .......................................................................................................... 35
Prods ............................................................................................................................................. 35
C oils ............................................................................................................................................. 36
O ther D evices ............................................................................................................................36
Portable P ow er Supplies ............................................................................................. 36
M obile Pow er Supplies ...................................................................................................36
A ncillary Equipm ent ........................................................................................................36
H eavy Duly E quipm ent ..................................................................................................................36
Pow er Supplies ......................................................................................................................... 37
Bench Equipm ent .................................................................................................................... 37
M ultidirectional U nits ..................................................................................................... 37
A utom atic U nits .......................................................................................................................37
Special Purpose U nits .............................................................................................................38
Light .....................................................................................................................................................38
U ltraviolet Light .......................................................................................................................39
Visible Light .............................................................................................................................. 39
A m bient Light ............................................................................................................................39
E xtraneous Light ...................................................................................................................... 40
Review Q u e s t io n s ...............................................................................................................41
C h a p t e r 7 - M a g n e ti c P a r t i c l e T e s tin g M a t e r i a l s ............................................................. 4 3
Inspection M aterials ................................................................. 43
M agnetic P articles ....................................................................................................................43
Dry P articles ..............................................................................................................................43
W et P articles ............................................... 43
Pastes .......................................................................................................................................... 43
C oncentrates ..............................................................................................................................43
C haracteristics and C ontrol o f M agnetic Particles ................................................................. 43
Size ............................................................................................................................................... 43
Shape .......................................................................................................................................... 44
D ensity ........................................................................................................................................44
C ontrast and V isibility ............................................................................................................ 44
M agnetic Perm eability and R etentivity ............................................................................44
C haracteristics and C ontrol o f Petroleum Suspensions ....................................................... 45
Viscosity ..................................................................................................................................... 45
FI am inability ..............................................................................................................................45
O dor .............................................................................................................................................45
C olor .............................................................................................................................................45
Fluorescence ..............................................................................................................................45
R eactive C onstituents ............................................................................................................ 45
C ontam ination ........................................................................................................................... 45
C haracteristics and C ontrol o f W ater S u s p e n s io n s ..................................................................45
C haracteristics and C ontrol o f R ubber S uspensions ............................................................ 46
Review Q uestions ...................................................................................................................... 47
C h a p t e r 8 - M a g n e ti c P a r t i c l e T e s tin g P r a c t i c e s ............................................................. 4 9
M agnetic Particle Test F undam entals ........................................................................................ 49
Dry Particles ..............................................................................................................................49
Wet S uspension .........................................................................................................................49
M agnetic R ubber ...................................................................................................................... 50
Residual M agnetization ..........................................................................................................50
C ontinuous M agnetization .....................................................................................................50
C hoice o f M agnetic Field D irection ................................................................................... 50
C ircular M agnetization ..........................................................................................................51
Longitudinal M agnetization .................................................................................................. 51
C om bination and Variable M agnetic Field A pplications ..............................................51
L evels o f F lux D ensity ..........................................................................................................52
Choice o f E quipm ent and A pplication ......................................................................................52
Perm anent M agnets ...................................................................... 52
Yokes and Coils ......................................................................................................................... 53
Portable P ow er Supplies ....................................................................................................... 53
M obile P ow er Supplies ..........................................................................................................53
Stationary Equipm ent .............................................................................................................53
D em agnetization ...................................................................................................................... 53
R easons for D em agnetizing .................................................................................................. 54
M ethods o f D em agnetization ................................................................................................54
C ontrolling and M easuring D em agnetization ..................................................................54
Effects o f Test O bject Variables .................................................................................................. 54
G eom etric C onsiderations .....................................................................................................54
Surface T reatm ent ....................................................................................................................55
S urface C ondition and C le a n lin e s s ......................................................................................55
Review Q u e s t io n s .............................................................................................................................. 56
C h a p t e r 9 - I n d ic a tio n s a n d I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ......................................................................61
O verview ............................................................................................................................................. 61
G eom etric and Section C hanges ........................................................................................ 61
Im proper Surface Preparation ............................................................................................. 61
E xcessive M agnetization ....................................................................................................... 61
M agnetic W r i t i n g ...................................................................................................................... 61
Perm eability V ariations ..........................................................................................................61
R esidual and External Fields ................................................................................................ 61
M etallurgical C hanges .............................................................................................................62
D iscontinuities ................................................................................................................................... 62
Surface D iscontinuities .......................................................................................................... 62
S ubsurface D is c o n tin u itie s ..................................................................................................... 62
E ffects o f D iscontinuities on S erviceability .................................................................... 62
D eterm ination o f D iscontinuity D epth ...............................................................................63
M etallurgical E x a m in a tio n ..................................................................................................... 63
Recording Indications .............................................................................................................63
Interpretation and Evaluation o f Test Indications ............................................................ 63
Review Q u e s t io n s .............................................................................................................................. 64
C h a p t e r 10 - P r o b a b ilit y o f D e te c tio n .................................................................................6 7
D etectability Versus Probability o f D etection ......................................................................... 67
Probability o f D etection ..................................................................................................................67
Reliability ................................................................................................................................... 67
H um an Factors that A ffect Reliability .............................................................................. 67
Reproducibility ......................................................................................................................... 67
C h a p t e r I I - P r o c e s s a n d E q u i p m e n t C o n t r o l s ................................................................ 6 9
C ontrol and Verification o f Equipm ent Functions ..................................................................69
E lectrical System and C ontrols ........................................................................................... 69
M axim um U nit O utput .................................................................................................. 69
Short Test ............................................................................................................................69
A m m eter Check ............................................................................................................... 69
Q uick Break Test .............................................................................................................69
Shot Tim er C heck .............................................................................................................70
System Perform ance C heck .................................................................................. . .70
O ther M achine C hecks ...................................................................................................70
Suspension Control Test ..................................................................................................................70
Particle C oncentration C h e c k ....................................................................................... .70
Particle C ondition C heck ........................................................................................................70
Particle C ontam ination C heck ..............................................................................................70
Vehicle (C arrier) C ontam ination C heck ............................................................................71
Particle Brightness C heck ......................................................................................... 71
M agnetic Panicle C heck ....................................................................................................... 71
W ater Break Check ..................................................................................................................71
V iscosity C heck .........................................................................................................................71
Light Intensity and Integrity .......................................................................................................... 71
M easurem ent o f U ltraviolet Light ......................................................................................71
M easurem ent o f Visible Light ..............................................................................................71
M easurem ent o f A m bient Light ........................................................................................... 71
Review Q u e s t io n s .............................................................................................................................. 72
C h a p t e r 12 - S p e c if ic a tio n s , P r o c e d u r e s , T e c h n iq u e s a n d S t a n d a r d s ................. 73
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 73
S pecifications ........................................................................................................................... 73
A cceptance C riteria ....................................................................................................... 73
Procedures .........................................................................................................................74
Sam ple M agnetic Particle Testing P rocedure .......................................................... 74
Techniques ................................................................................................................................ 74
O ther Types o f C ontrolling D o c u m e n ts ......................................................................................75
Review Q u e s t io n s ..............................................................................................................................76
C h a p t e r 13 - S a f e t y .............................................................................................................................79
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................79
Personnel ......................................................................................................79
Parts .............................................................................................................................................79
E q u ip m e n t .................................................................................................................................................... 7 9
A p p e n d ix 1 - T e s t P r o c e d u r e E x a m p le ............................................................................... 81
A p p e n d ix 2 - M a g n e tiz a tio n C h a r t ........................................................................................85
Appendix 3 - M aterials P ro p e rtie s .........................................................................87
A p p e n d ix 4 - G lo s s a r y ................................................................................................................... 89
A n s w e r s to R e v ie w Q u e s t i o n s .......................................................................................................95
Chapter 1
Introduction
1
2 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic P article Testing
R eference A
R eference B
Reference C
Chapter 2
Materials and the Theory of Magnetism
3
4 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
(Even though not an engineering m aterial, gadolinium is If a bar m agnet is U shaped (horseshoe), the polarity
added to m ost lists o f ferrom agnetic m aterials since it is rem ains but the m agnetic field and the lines o f force are
strongly ferrom agnetic at low er tem peratures.) T hese are m ore concentrated in the gap betw een the ends o f the
called ferrom agnetic elem ents. M any alloys and oxides bar. If the m agnetized bar is form ed into a closed or
o f these elem ents arc also ferrom agnetic. T here are also fused loop, the m agnetic field is fully contained w ithin a
alloys o f copper, m anganese and alum inum that are closed circuit in the m agnetic m aterial and no external
ferrom agnetic, as well as various ferrite ceram ics. m agnetic field exists.
M aterials such as iron, w hich have relative perm eability M agnetic lines o f force have die follow ing properties:
m uch greater than one. are called ferro m a g n etic 1. They form closed loops.
m aterials. A ppendix 3 lists m agnetic properties for a few 2. They do not cross one another.
com m on m aterials. 3. T hey seek paths o f least m agnetic resistance.
4. T heir density decreases as distance from the poles
increases.
M agnetic Field C haracteristics 5. T hey are considered to have direction by
convention, from north to south external to the
W hen m agnetic dom ains rem ain aligned or extended magnet.
alter rem oval from the influence o f a m agnetic field, the
m aterial is said to be m agnetized. T his residual field is W hen tw o m agnets are m oved into close proxim ity a
called rem anence or residual m agnetic fie ld . T he ability reaction occurs. The m agnets repel one another if like
o f m aterials to retain m agnetism after the m agnetizing poles are closest to each oth er and unlike poles attract
force has been rem oved is called retentivity. one another, as show n in F igure 2.2.
A lthough described as m agnetic lines, the m agnetic
field w ithin and surrounding m agnetized m aterials is
continuous. W hen a paper is placed over a m agnet and
fine iron particles are sprinkled on the paper, the iron
particles align with the m agnetic field in distinct lines o f
equipoteniial m agnetic intensity and appear to form
lines. T herefore, the m agnetic field is referred to as lines
or lines o f fo rc e. A lthough these term s seem to contradict
the definition o f a continuous field, they are used for
visualization and m athem atical purposes only. Figure 2.1
illustrates this effect for a bar m agnet. In a perm anent
m agnet m ore o f the m agnetic dom ains rem ain aligned
than are random ly oriented.
R eference A
Reference B
The nuclei o f atom s in m etals hold their outerm ost W hen a straight conductor is form ed into a loop or
orbital electrons so loosely that these electrons drift from coil (Figure 2.5) and electric current flow s through it, the
negative to positive. The negatively charged electron, direction o f the m agnetic field is perpendicular to the
moving in the negative to the positive direction through plane o f the coil. Because lines o f force form closed
the metal is exactly equivalent to a corresponding loops, the co il's m agnetic field outside the coil form s a
positively charged ion. m oving in the positive to toroid.
negative direction. A current m oving through metal will
be ID19 tim es greater than a current through glass Figure 2.5: Magnetic field in a coil
(operating at room tem perature and under the same
conditions).
Dislodging o f the outer electrons leaves positive ions
in the metal, however, there is no flow of positive ions in
metals as there is in gases and liquids.
T h e d ire c tio n o f a m a g n e tic f ie ld s u r r o u n d in g a
straight current-carrying conductor is circular, encircling «/-*■ W-+. VUfc
and perpendicular to the conductor. M ore im portant is
the concept that the direction o f the m agnetic field has a
perpendicular relationship to the direction o f current C u rren t
flow.
The m agnetic field surrounding a conductor exists as
long as electric current flows in the conductor, how ever, R eference A
for a ferrom agnetic m aterial the field will continue to R eference B
exist hut will be less intense w hen the current is R eference C
removed. T he intensity o f the m agnetic field is linear
along the length o f the conductor (if the m aterial is
uniform and hom ogeneous. F igure 2.3). is in direct M agnetic H ysteresis Loop -
proportion to the current (am peres) and dim inishes
Induction by Coil
inversely w ith increasing distance front the conductor.
In m agnetic particle testing technology, only
ferrom agnetic m aterials are o f interest. M ost o f the
m agnetic properties o f m aterials o f concern can be
Figure 2.3: Current versus magnetic field d escribed by exam ining the m agnetic hysteresis loop or
curve.
C ond uctor Di^ l of M ag n e tic Field In Figure 2.6, the flux density B that results from
variations in the m agnetizing force H is plotted. B is the
vertical axis and / / the horizontal axis. / / is the
m agnetom otive force per unit length o f a m agnetic path
having constant cross sectional area, w hich uses the
sam e m aterial throughout. For coils. H is m easured in
Direction of am pere turns p er centim eter. If the m agnetom otive force
C u rren t Flow is given in am peres, then / / is show n in am peres per
meter. B is norm ally show n in teslas.
said to be m agnetically saturated or saturated. As the T he m agnetizing fo rce energy. 0. c, required to reduce
m agnetizing force H is decreased to 0, curve a. b, the rem anence flux density (b. 0 ) to 0 is called the
( norm ally referred to as the field rem oval portion o f the coercive fo rce, or coercivity o f the m aterial. T he m aterial
curve) the m agnetic dom ains begin to change orientation is not com pletely dem agnetized, and will not be until
(direction). The flux density values in the m aterial heated above the C urie point and becom ing diam agnetic
follow the path a to b. H ow ever, when the m agnetizing (the dom ains are again random ly oriented). A s the
force reaches 0. the flux density is only reduced to b. the m agnetizing force is increased to d. the tlux density
m aterial still has a net. o r residual, m agnetic flux, 0. b. again reaches saturation, but in the opposite direction
T his m agnetic flux is called the rem anence o r residual and follow ing the path c. d. The m agnetizing force field
fie ld and is the result o f m agnetic dom ains still aligned is again reduced to 0, the flux density is reduced
in the m agnetized direction that have not all been follow ing the path d, e. W hen the m agnetizing force
reversed. The m agnetizing force is now reversed and reaches 0 at point e, there is a residual field rem aining in
gradually increased. W hen it has been increased to c, the the part. T he value o f this residual field. 0. e. w ill he the
residual m agnetic field, rem anence. is 0. The m aterial sam e as the value, 0, b. but in the opposite direction. The
has no net m agnetic field, there are sim ply as m any m agnetizing field is again reversed and increased to a.
dom ains aligned in one direction as the other, leaving a T he flux density does not follow the path from 0 to a
net flux density o f 0 for the part. (dashed curve), it follow s the path from e to a. This
closed curve (path a. b. c, d. e, f, a) is called the
Figure 2.6: Hysteresis curve hysteresis curve or hysteresis loop. If the m agnetizing
force is decreased, reversed and increased as previously
(Flux density) £ 1+ Saturatio n discussed, the value o f the tlux density will follow (he
a sam e path.
M aterials w'ith closed loops, very sm all b. e
R etentivity ^ (retentivity) and sm all c. f (coercive force), such as
m anm ade ferrites and m agnetic particles, are used in
electronic equipm ent, cores for coils in eddy current
C oercivity /
probes, etc. T hese m aterials have very low retentivity
H- ^ " * 7 / H and very high perm eability. M aterials w ith very open
° j f loops, very high values for b. c and c, f. such as alnico,
/ M ag n etizin g are used for perm anent m agnets. These m aterials have
force very high retentivity and perm eability.
e
Perm eability
d __
As stated previously, m agnetic lines o f force follow
Saturatio n of the path o f least m agnetic resistance. T hey concentrate
opposite polarity 3- (Flux density)
m ore in a piece o f iron placed betw een the poles o f a
m agnet, or w ithin a m agnetic field, than they do in air or
in a nonm agnetic m aterial (Figure 2.7).
Perm eability has been characterized as the ease with
w hich u m aterial can he m agnetized. T he relationship
betw een perm eability, p . m agnetic flux density. B. and
m agnetizing force, H. will be evaluated through the
hysteresis curve. In Figure 2.8. each point along the
curve 0. b represents a different value for the
perm eability o f that m aterial and is dependent on the
intensity o f the applied force H.
P erm eability can be expressed as:
E quation 1
B
C hapter 2 - M aterials and the T heory o f M agnetism / 7
Mi =
5T
Relative perm eability is defined as: e
<
in
.a>
M, = —
Mo
Equation 2
where:
H (A/m)
p () = 4 ji x 10‘'(H * m '1) in SI units,
perm eability o f free space.
m aterial becom es com pletely dem agnetized and rem ains
In the above exam ple the relative perm eability at dem agnetized if it is cooled from tem peratures above the
point P | is given by: C urie point, uninfluenced by m agnetic fields during
cooldow n. A ppendix 3 provides the C urie points o f some
com m on ferrom agnetic m aterials.
Mr. =
Mo
Reference A
Equation 3 R eference B
influenced by a m agnetic field, the relative strength o f conductor is called a circular fie ld because it circulates
the field in various regions o f the affected space is m ore around the axis o f the conductor. A m agnetizing current
significant. Thus, flux density is defined as the num ber can be applied directly to ferrom agnetic m aterials with
o f lines o f flux intercepting an area perpendicular to the heads, prods, clam ps, or other form s o f electrical
flux. It is calculated using contacts.
W hen using direct m agnetization techniques,
precautions m ust be taken to ensure good electrical
contact, w hich prevents arcing and/or burning o f the
A m aterial.
Eq uation 4
Reference A
where: Reference B
F = m agnetic flux in W b (1 W b = 10s R eference C
lines o f flux).
A area perpendicular to the flux in Indirect M agnetization
square m eters (nrr). Indirect (induced) m agnetism results when a
II flux density in W h /n r (1 W b /n r = 1 T). ferrom agnetic m aterial is influenced by an external
m agnetic field. T he external field can be created by a
R eference A perm anent m agnet or electrom agnetic devices such as
R eference B central conductors, coils and yokes.
R eference C
Permanent Magnets
P erm anent m agnets can m agnetize ferrom agnetic
M agnetization of Ferrom agnetic m aterials that are brought into close proxim ity to. or into
direct physical contact with, the m agnet. If a bar m agnet
Material
is used, an opposite m agnetic pole is established in the
Ferrom agnetic m aterials can be m agnetized using any m aterial being m agnetized. At the point o f contact or at
technique that produces a m agnetic field in the pari. the point o f nearest approach, the induced lines o f force
T hese techniques can be collectively classified as either will seek to close with the pole at the opposite end o f the
direct or indirect (induced ) m agnetization. inducing m agnet. H ence, the field direction is considered
longitudinal (parallel to the axis o f the part) if the
Direct M agnetization m aterial being m agnetized is bar shaped. I f on e end o f a
In direct m agnetization, an electric current is passed bar m agnet (single pole) is used to m agnetize a plate or
through the part: the part is the conductor o f the electric sim ilarly large area, the field will be radial aw ay from
current. the m ag n et's pole.
W hen the electric current is flow ing through a M ore com m only, perm anent m agnets used for
conductor, such as a rod. wire or portions o f a com plex m agnetic induction are U shaped and referred to as
shaped part, an encircling m agnetic field is established horseshoe m agnets. T he induced field is essentially
both within and outside the conductor. If the conductor is straight betw een the tw o poles.
Of uniform cross section and straight, the field (the
num ber o f m agnetic tines o f force) will be uniform along Central Conductors
its length. Externally, the force decreases with increasing A circular m agnetic field can be induced into a
radial distance from the conductor. T he external strength hollow cylinder by placing a current-carrying conductor
o f the field is directly proportional to the current flow inside the cylinder. T he circular m agnetic field around
(that is. the num ber o f am peres) and inversely the conductor induces a circular field in the m agnetic
proportional to the distance perpendicular to the axis o f m aterial o f the cylinder. T he strength o f the m agnetic
the conductor. The lines o f force assum e concentric field is controlled by adjusting the electrical current in
circular paths both w ithin and around the conductor. the conductor. The entire volum e o f the cylinder can be
T hus, the field is circular and aligned, norm ally at 90 m agnetized by this technique.
degrees to the axis o f the conductor or direction o f
current flow. (See Figure 2.3.) Coils and Solenoids
W hen the conductor is a ferrom agnetic m aterial, the C oils are conductors form ed by a num ber o f loops.
high p r tends to concentrate the m agnetic flux w ithin the Solenoids are coils w here the length is greater than the
conductor. Figure 2.7. The m agnetic field in the diam eter. The m agnetic fields around each turn o f a coil
combine, or link, to form a unified field, as show n in
Figure 2.5. The m agnetic field w ithin the coil is
essentially parallel to die axis o f the coil and strongest
on the inside surface o f the coil. Parts placed within the
coil are m agnetized in a direction parallel to the coil's
magnetic field. Parts are norm ally placed in the coil so
that the longitudinal axis o f the part is parallel to the axis
of the coil: hence the term longitudinal m agnetization. A
longitudinal m agnetic field produced by a coil induces a
longitudinal field into a bar o f m agnetic m aterial that is
placed w ithin the coil and parallel to the center line o f
the coil (indirect m agnetization). This field is essentially
perpendicular to the circular field produced by passing
the current directly through the part (direct
m agnetization).
R eference A
R eference B
R eference C
1(1 / A SN T I.evel III Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing
2.5 The m agnetic field surrounding an electrom agnet 2.11 W hen I f is reduced, the associated values o f B
containing a ferrom agnetic test part is the follow the curve a to b in Figure 2.6. The field at
strongest: b is called the:
a. im m ediately after the current ceases to flow. a. rem nant flux density.
b. w hen the m agnetizing current is flowing. b. saturation.
c. at the tim e the m agnetic particles are applied c. hysteresis.
to the part. d. characteristic perm eability.
d. just before current reversal. e. initial perm eability.
2.6 A solenoid is a coiled conductor that: 2.12 In m agnetic particle testing, the only m aterials
a. contains up to one loop. that can be tested are:
b. contains a num ber o f loops. a. ferrom agnetic.
c. contains a nonm agnetic metal core. b. param agnetic.
d. is used to induce circular m agnetism inside c. diam agnetic.
the coil. d. ferri m agnetic.
C hapter 2 - M aterials and the T heory o f M agnetism / 11
M agnetization
A SN T N D T Level III personnel are responsible for
selecting the type o f equipm ent used to induce
m agnetism . T his is an im portant responsibility because a
p roper inspection is highly dependent on the type.
13
14 / A SN T Level 111 Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing
direction and strength o f the electric current used to T he m agnetic particles used w ith perm anent m agnets
produce m agnetic fields in lest items. should be suspended in an approved liquid carrier
because a perm anent m agnet provides a static m agnetic
Using Perm anent M agnets to Induce field: the flow o f the solution provides m obility to
Magnetic Fields particles. Dry particles require pulsed, changing or
In m agnetic particle testing, applications involving alternating fields to becom e mobile.
perm anent m agnets are lim ited, m ainly because the F or m axim um visibility o f an indication, it should be
strength o f the field that can be induced is relatively low. located in the are a betw een the tw o pole pieces o f the
Som e perm anent m agnet yokes have adjustable legs that m agnet. T he long axis o f the indication should be
allow the induced flux level to be varied by changing the positioned 90 degrees ± 45 degrees w ith a line betw een
distance betw een the contacts. The prim ary value o f the poles. T he flux is stronger nearer to the poles than it
perm anent m agnets is in their portability w ith no need is in the center o f the gap. M axim um contact betw een
for external power. 'They are usually used to lest small the pole and the test surface should be m aintained.
areas o f parts w here fatigue cracks frequently occur. The
induced field is longitudinal because the m agnet is Using Electric Currents to Induce
positioned so the field betw een the m ag n et's poles is M agnetic Fields
perpendicular to the direction o f the discontinuities. W hen m aking recom m endations for the procurem ent
o f costly inspection equipm ent, the A SN T N D T Level 111
C hapter 3 —C urrents Used in the M agnetic P article Testing Inspection Process / 1 5
must consider the advantages o f different pow er subsurface discontinuities to be revealed. D irect current
supplies, the pow er available at inspection sites, the need from batteries or full w ave rectified alternating current is
for portability and a projection o f the pow er required for used w ith the wet particle technique because full wave
future production. The type o f pow er required influences direct current does not provide m obility for dry powder.
each o f the above considerations. A detailed A nother prim ary advantage o f direct current
understanding o f the advantages and disadvantages o f m agnetization is that it leaves residual m agnetism that
different m agnetizing currents is very im portant. holds an indication longer, allow ing m ore tim e for the
inspector to delect and evaluate indications.
Alternating Current
A lternating current is the pow er source supplied by Half Wave Direct Current
utility com panies and m uch o f the direct current is H alf w ave direct current results from rectification of
derived from it. No rectifiers are required so the w'eight single phase alternating current by clipping off the
o f the equipm ent is reduced. A lternating current is also negative voltage peaks o f the wave. (See Figure 3.2.)
used for d e m a g n e tiz e s. A utotransform crs and saturable H a lf w ave direct current has the penetrating
rectifiers transform alternating current into a w ide characteristics o f direct current w ith the added advantage
selection o f current requirem ents. B ecause transform ers that the pulsing current provides good m obility for dry
are not needed in alternating current equipm ent, the m agnetic particle pow der. P ortable h alf w ave direct
equipm ent is lighter and less expensive than m ost other current pow er sources are available for low current
pow'er supplies. applications because current can be obtained from one
As previously show n, alternating current does not dry plate rectifier or from solid state diodes. H alf w ave
penetrate deeply into m etal. T his lim itation is actually an direct current can also be used w ith a wet particle
advantage w hen inspecting inservice parts: the skin suspension to provide good sensitivity for revealing fine
effect o f alternating current em phasizes fatigue cracks, surface cracks. For detecting subsurface discontinuities,
w hich alw ays start at the surface. Irrelevant subsurface h a lf w ave direct current used w ith dry pow der is
variations, w hich m ay distract the inspector, are not considered to be the best com bination. For this reason,
detected by the m inim ally penetrating current. H ow ever, h alf w ave direct current is a prim ary pow er source for
if deeper penetration is desired, alternating current is not w eld and casting inspection. Because h alf w ave direct
a good choice. current leaves a part in a partially m agnetized state, most
h alf w ave direct current equipm ent provides
Direct Current d em agnetization options, cither alternating current,
D irect current has alw ays been the prim ary type o f reversing direct current or both. Up to 1500 A output is
pow er used for m agnetization for m agnetic particle readily available in portable units and 6000 A in m obile
testing. Initially, production inspection equipm ent used units.
w et-cell batteries connected in parallel to fulfill the high
current requirem ents. B ecause batteries require constant Full Wave Rectified Single or Three Phase
m aintenance to ensure they are adequately charged, their Full w ave rectified alternating current provides the
frequent replacem ent w as a continuing expense. The m ost efficient conversion o f alternating current pow er to
advantage o f battery-pow ered inspection equipm ent was direct current (Figures 3.3 and 3.4). Full w ave rectifiers
that it could be operated on low current line battery are dry plate rectifiers set up in a bridge circuit. Instead
chargers. Using dry plate rectifiers to obtain direct o f clipping o ff the negative going h alf cycle, the bridge
current directly from alternating current pow er proved rectifier converts it to positive going h alf cycle. Most
much more practical because alternating current is full w ave rectified alternating current equipm ent also
alw ays available as line pow er furnished by a utility uses three phase power. T he three phases provides very
com pany. D irect current pow er supplies for m agnetic low ripple direct current that closely m atches the direct
particle testing are available with outputs up to current output o f a battery.
20 000 A: 6000 A is standard lo r stationary equipm ent Three phase full w ave rectified alternating current is
w here three phase alternating current pow er is available. norm ally used in units that provide from 3000 to
However, up to 5000 A direct current is available from 10 000 A o f current.
single phase alternating current. D irect current is feasible
in low current yokes because small solid slate diodes are
available. T hese yokes and prew rapped coils need only
120 V alternating current sources.
A m ajor advantage o f direct current for m agnetization
is its deep penetrating ability in metal, w hich enables
16 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agnetic P article Testing
M a g n e tic field
i
Test article
There is disagreement between common practice and
electrical theory regarding current polarity. Therefore, the
current polarity is not shown.
17
18 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
Figure 4.3: Coil showing relationship of length-to-diam eter ratio and the perm eability within the
current, magnetizing field and induced field lim its previously specified.
T hese equations are as follows:
M ag n etic field
Coil
Nl ( ± 10 %)
1.1 n
E quation 6
where:
Nl = (+ 10%) A{ - total cross sectional area o f the part, and
(L / D + 2)
A hn - cross sectional area o f the hollow portions
E q uation 8 o f the part.
where:
K = 35 000 am pere turns, For cylindrical parts, this is equal to the following:
L length o f the part,
D diam eter o f the part (m easured in the
same units as the le n g th ). 0,r=[(ODf-(rof]‘
E quation 11
If the part has hollow portions, replace D with /) .ff as
in Equations 10 and 11. T hese form ulas hold only if L/L)
is greater than 2 and less than 15. If L/L) is less than 2. Figure 4.4: Magnetic field distribution in
pole pieces (pieces o f ferrom agnetic m aterial with the ferromagnetic material using alternating
same diam eter as the part being tested) shall be placed current (solid material)
on each end o f the part to effectively increase the I /D to B
2 or greater. If the I /D is g reater than 15. the value o f 15
shall be substituted for L/D.
O)
c w here:
<D
Intermediate Fill-Factor Coils R = R adius
W hen the cross sectional area o f the coil is between S , = M ax im u m field strength
tw o and ten tim es the cross sectional area o f the part S2 = Field strength at surface
being tested, the product o f the num ber o f turns N and
the current through the coil I shall be as follow s:
l O - r 'l ^ r
N I = ( N I ) I^ + (N I),
Eq uation 9
w here:
(N l), = value o f N l calculated for low fill-lacto r
coils,
(Nl),, = value o f N l calculated for high fill-factor
coils, and Figure 4.5: Magnetic field distribution in
ratio o f the cross sectional area o f the coil ferromagnetic material using alternating
to the cross sectional area o f the part. For current (hollow material)
exam ple, if the coil is 254 m m (10 in.) in
diam eter and the part is a rod 127 mm B
(5 in.) in diam eter
sz
r=i5*£ L 4 c
a>
o
w here:
R = R adiu s
( i t x 2 .5 " | V)
B, 2 S , = M ax im u m field strength
1 0) B2 = F ield strength a t surface
Ll
Calculating the Length-to-Diameter Ratio for a ,
Hollow or Cylindrical Part 1
W hen calculating the length-to-diam eter ratio fo r a a / '^ D is t a n c e
1 ♦ _ Z ---------------------------------------------------------- ». r
hollow or cylindrical part D shall be replaced with an
effective diam eter D efr calculated using the follow ing: W r -J
f) = 2 (A,-\ )
'c l I Z-
K
E q uation 10
20 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
Direct Current
Direct current is used in stationary units, large
portable units and m ost yokes, and is used for
applications with prods, clam ps, leeches, coils, etc. As
noted in C hapter 3. direct current can be h a lf w ave
rectified, full w ave rectified or three phase full w ave
rectified.
sectional area o f the part (section being m agnetized). If B ecause o f the field-concentrating effects o f m agnetic
the cross sectional area is increased, current density perm eability, the field strength is m uch greater within a
decreases and m agnetic flux density decreases. To m agnetic co n d u cto r carrying current as com pared to a
maintain a constant flux density, the am perage m ust be nonm agnetic conductor. Figures 4.6 and 4.7 represent the
increased as the cross sectional area is increased. field strength in solid and hollow' m agnetic conductors
carrying direct current. R em em ber that the field strength
outside the conductor is the sam e for both solid and
hollow cylinders, and it will also be the sam e as the field
strength outside nonm agnetic conductors. The field
strength will be 0 at the center o f the solid conductor and
at the inside surface o f the hollow conductor. There is no
field inside the hollow area o f the conductor.
R | 2R 3R
( l *j D is ta n c e ►
T V /\ I w here:
y /A R = R adiu s
r y //j B = F ield strength at surface
'/ / y B s/2 = Field strength at 2 R , etc.
22 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing
Figure 4.11: Field distribution in and around Central C onductor Carrying Direct
a solid magnetic conductor carrying Current
alternating current As show n in Figure 4.10, a m agnetic Field in the
central conductor will rise from 0 at the center on the
conductor to a m axim um , a. at the ou ter surface o f the
P e a k flux density central conductor. It will drop slightly in the space
at b ar surface betw een the central cond u cto r and the part. a. b. If the
part w ere not present, the field o f the central conductor
Direct curren t flux distribution w ould follow the path b. c. d. H ow ever, w ith a part
inside solid b ar surrounding the central conductor, the field will rise
sharply to a m axim um at e, at the inside surface o f the
part. T he field will then drop through the part to an
A lternating curren t flux intensity o f f. Im m ediately outside the part surface the
distribution inside solid b ar intensity will drop sharply to c. From this point the field
external to the part will follow the sam e path o f the
central co n d u cto r field if the part w ere not present, c to
d. In com paring this figure with Figure 4.8. the path 0. a.
b. c. d is sim ilar lo Figure 4.8. In Figure 4.10 a path f, c.
D istan ce from c e n te r of b a r = r d. is sim ilar to the path outside the part in Figure 4.6.
Field strength a t ce n te r
Field strength at of e ach fa c e = B
c o rn e r = B /2
P e a k flux density
at b ar surface
X m m (in.)
S te e l bar
phenom enon know n as the skin effect. The field diagonal. A fiat bar having the sam e area o f 102 m m 2
distribution curves for solid and hollow m agnetic (4 in.2) could be 13 m m x 203 mm (0.5 in. x 8 in.). The
conductors carrying both alternating current and direct perim eter o f this bar is 432 mm (17 in.). T he diam eter of
current are show n in Figures 4.11 and 4.12. A lternating a round bar w ith a 432 mm (17 in.) circum ference is
current provides a m uch greater field density in the outer 432 mm (17 in .)/3 .1416 = 137 mm (5.4 in.). Thus, to
layers o f the conductor, but the field strength outside the m agnetize a square b ar w ith a 102 m m 2 (4 in.2) cross
conductor is exactly the sam e as w hen direct current is sectional area w ould require about 2500 A. w hereas a
used as the m agnetizing force. The difference is that the flat bar with the same cross sectional area could require
alternating current is constantly varying, both in strength m ore than tw ice that current. T his approach is based on
and direction. the fact that m agnetism is a surface-oriented condition,
as Figures 4.4 through 4 . 12 show ; therefore, if the
Reference A surface for the sam e cross sectional area is doubled, the
R eference B surface m agnetic field (and hence the m agnetizing
current) should be in the sam e ratio.
Other Sym m etrical Shapes T he study that yielded this approach included surface
The direction o f a m agnetic field is quite predictable flux density m easurem ents that closely approxim ated the
as long as the item being m agnetized is constant and expected flux. U sing this approach. Equation 12 gives an
sym m etrical in cross section, such as a square, a ring or approxim ation o f the current required for direct contact
a disk. W hen m agnetizing shapes other than solid or m agnetization o f oddly shaped uniform cross sections:
hollow' round objects, configuration and cross section
must be considered. For exam ple, a m agnetic particle
testing inspection on a square bar will require m ore / = — x 1000
n
am perage than the sam e test on a round bar. The
m agnetic field in the square bar is greatest along the Equation 12
center o f the face and drops to about half that value on
the long com er. T he field distribution is uniform on the where:
curved surface o f the round bar. B ecause o f this, the / = m agnetizing current, am peres direct
diam eter o f the part is taken as the greatest distance current,
between any two points on the outside circum ference o f P = perim eter o f cross section, centim eters.
the part, as show n in Figure 4.13. 7t = 3.1416.
Also, as shapes becom e m ore com plex, it may be
extrem ely difficult o r im possible to predict the field A single part with m ultiple sections o f different
intensity in specific areas. For com plex shaped parts, diam eters requires that different m agnetizing current
m easuring devices are used to determ ine the m agnetic levels be selected fo r each section. The section requiring
field intensity in specific areas. the least am perage should be m agnetized and evaluated
If the square bar in Figure 4.13 is 50 m m (2 in.) per first. T he section requiring the next highest am perage
side, the diagonal dim ension is 71 mm (2.82 in.). If the should be m agnetized and evaluated next and so on. If
square bar is circularly m agnetized with direct current, the highest am perage section is m agnetized and
the 2540 A per m illim eter diam eter (1000 A per inch evaluated first, all sm aller sections requiring less
diam eter) rule w ould require 2820 A to m agnetize a am perage w ould be overm agnetized, resulting in false
50 m m (2 in.) square bar. A 50 m m (2 in.) round bar indications and other problem s. If the largest section
w ould require only 2000 A for m agnetization because its m ust be m agnetized first, the part m ust be dem agnetized
diagonal is 50 mm (2 in.). betw een m agnetizing operations. T his can be very time
A nother approach to determ ining the current needed consum ing and can cau se problem s in other areas.
for m agnetizing irregularly shaped bars requires the
com parison o f the perim eter o f the cross section o f the R eference A
bar with a bar having the sam e diam eter. If the cross R eference B
sectional perim eter o f the bar in Figure 4.13 is 483 mm
(10 in.) the diam eter o f a round bar w ith a 483 mm Rings
(19 in.) circum ference is 483( 19 in .)/3 .1416 = 154 mm A ring is another sym m etrical shape that can be
(b in). This suggests that a 5000 A current is adequate. m agnetized both in the circular direction and in the
U sing the perim eter approach, the equivalent diam eter longitudinal direction. T he directions o f flux for rings
for a 51 mm (2 in.) square bar w ould be 20.32/3.1416 = reflect a different concept than for a bar. C onceptually, a
6.47 (2.5 in), w hich is quite close to the 72 m m (2.8 in.) ring is a bar bent into a circle. T he longitudinal flux
2 4 / A SN T L evel III Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing
Figure 4.14: A ring as a slice of a cylinder along the length o f the bar now travels around the bent
bar to form the circle.
C e n tral Test articles A nother concept is that the ring is a slice cut from a
conductor hollow cylinder as show n in Figure 4.14. The
longitudinal flux in a ring flow s around the circle in the
sam e direction as the circular field flow s in the cylinder.
T herefore, to produce longitudinal m agnetization in a
ring, it is m agnetized using a through central conductor.
T his can be used for nuts, bearing races, w ashers, etc.
It is often desirable to have a longitudinal field in a
large ring, how ever, because o f size and w eight it is not
feasible to use a central conductor. O ne alternate
technique is to place it in a coil with the ring in a plane
p erpendicular to the plane o f the coil. A s show n in
Figure 4.15, the field will flow along tw'o sides o f the
ring in a longitudinal direction. In this instance, the ring
C entral Test m ust be rotated 90 degrees to evaluate the other two
conductor articles quadrants. A 60-degree rotation and three separate
inspections is preferred.
O ne technique for obtaining a circu lar field in a ring
Figure 4.15: A ring magnetized in a coil is by the direct m agnetizing m ethod o f flow ing the
C urrent
Test article
\ ^
flow
direction
article
D efects
in part
M ag n etizin g
current Torodial
D efects
J M ag n etizing
r
m ag netic
current
Iron core field
C hapter 4 - Field Strength and D istribution / 25
current through the ring as a conductor. Figure 4.16 forgings. Several m agnetizations are required to
shows a ring clam ped betw een tw o contacts w ith the com pletely m agnetize and test the ring.
current flow ing around each side o f the ring. For Rings also can be m agnetized in the circular direction
com plete m agnetization, the ring should be rotated at by induced m agnetism . Figure 4 . 18 show s this
least 90 degrees. Tw o additional m agnetizations (three technique, using a toroidal m agnetic field. This allow s
total), rotating the part 60 degrees for each subsequent the com plete ring to be m agnetized in one operation,
m agnetization is recom m ended. depending on the diam eter o f the ring and the size o f the
One w ay to induce a longitudinal field into a large bar. instead o f the tw o steps required by the direct
ring is to w rap a cable coil around the ring. T his allow s a contact technique illustrated in Figure 4 .I6 w hich is very
high tlux density to be created in the ring, because the susceptible to bum s.
cable coil can have a num ber o f turns. Figure 4.17 show s
the flow o f the current and flux in a ring with a w rapped Disks
coil. T his technique is often applied on large ring T he disk is another sym m etrical shape often found in
m achinery com ponents such as w heels, gears and
Figure 4.19: Disk inspection circular saw blades. C onceptually, the disk is sim ilar to a
round fiat plate. T he through central conductor. Figure
4.19(a). provides a flux in the circum ferential direction
Head
around the disk to locate radial discontinuities. Using the
disk as a conductor, as show n in Figures 4 . 19(b) and
4.19(c), a flux is provided across the disk to detect
discontinuities that are generally perpendicular to the
radius or circum ferential. For com plete m agnetization
Field
Field Discontinuity
26 / A SN T Level H i Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
and inspection, the disk must be rotated 90 degrees after In a part shaped like the one in Figure 4.20 that is
the first shot is inspected, as show n in Figure 4.19(c). m agnetized in a coil, a longitudinal field will flow out
T herefore, the disk w ould be m agnetized into the upset portion o f the m agnetized bar. The field
[Figure 4 . 19(b)J. inspected and then rotated 90 degrees will tend to becom e radial along the surface B. C. This
from its original position [Figure 4.19(c)!. m agnetized varying field direction provides advantages and
and inspected again. T he flux crosses the opposite part disadvantages in locating discontinuities. T he probable
(quadrants) o f th e disk. The toroidal m agnetic field can path should alw ays be considered w hen m agnetizing an
be used for saw blades w here contact cannot be m ade irregularly shaped part.
with the saw teeth. Caution m ust be exercised to ensure W here the cross section o f a part varies greatly, as in
that the bottom side is w etted with the bath and tested. F igure 4 .2 1, the 1000 A per 25 m m (1 in.) rule will not
A s the cross section or shape o f a part becom es m ore be practical. If the 1000 A rule w ere used to circularly
com plex, it becom es increasingly m ore difficult to m agnetize the part in Figure 4.21. the recom m ended
predict the probable path o f the m agnetic field. current w ould be unrealistically high. A ssum ing that the
C om plicated shapes may require experim entation and distribution o f the m agnetizing current is uniform over
separate coil m agnetization on various projections o f the the cross section, the resultant m agnetic field distribution
part to ensure the proper field direction at all locations. will not be uniform . H ow ever, using the 1000 A rule,
To avoid false indications on parts that have varying each 13 mm (0.5 in.) cross sectional elem ent o f the w eb
diam eters, the low est current value should be applied show n in F igure 4.21 w ould require som ew hat m ore than
first. 500 A for proper current density for a total o f som ew hat
m ore than 2000 A. Because current density is uniform
C u rren t ^ C urrent
M ag n et
field
Yoke
C u rren t ^ C urrent
W eld M ag n et
field
(b ) (d)
There is disagreement between common practice and electrical theory regarding current polarity. Therefore, the current polarity
is not shown.
through the cross section o f the part, this w ould indicate
a need for 8000 A in each o f the 1250 m m 2 (2 in.2)
sections lo obtain the sam e current density. A dding
8000 A for each edge and 2000 A fo r the w eb, an
unrealistically high total current o f 18 000 A w ould be
required.
As show n in Figure 4.21, only 6000 A is actually
required to adequately perform the test on the / shaped
part. Because the field distribution is not uniform in a
square or rectangle, the field strength at the center o f the
face (web) is m ore than adequate.
As the size o f the part being m agnetized increases,
the sim ple rules-of-thum b governing m agnetization often
become im practical. R ules-of-thum b should only be used
on objects o f uniform cylindrical shape.
Prods or yokes, as show n in Figure 4.22. are often
used to secure high strength fields w ithout the need for
extremely high currents. For exam ple, to test a w eld, it is
not necessary to m agnetize the w hole w cldm ent. The
magnetic field set up by a yoke is essentially
longitudinal to a line draw n betw een the contact points.
The m agnetic field set up by a pair o f prods is
essentially circular, o r perpendicular to a line draw n
between the contact points, as show n in Figure 4.22.
With the yoke positioned as show n in Figure 4.22(a),
the m agnetization is longitudinal and perpendicular to
the axis o f the weld. W ith the prods positioned as show n
in Figure 4.22(b), the m agnetization is circular and
parallel to the axis o f the weld. T he field set up by the
yoke is essentially longitudinal to the axis o f the w eld,
as illustrated in Figure 4.22(c). and rotated about
90 degrees for circular m agnetization.
Regardless o f the technique used for establishing the
magnetic field, it is essential to know', as near as
possible, the intensity o f the m agnetic field in the area o f
interest. T his is especially true w hen processing parts
w ith com plex shapes. Equations can be used as
reasonable estim ates for sim ple shapes, how ever,
mechanical or electronic devices are required for
com plex configurations.
Reference A
Reference B
R eference C
28 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
4 .11 T he m agnetic field at the surface o f a conductor 4.16 F igure 4.23 show s a ring form ed from 75 mm
carrying alternating current i s ________ the field (3 in.) diam eter bar stock. The ring is 419 mm
in a conductor carrying direct current. (16.5 in.) in diam eter. T he current required to
a. about the sam e as m agnetize the ring is (use equations in
b. greater than C hapter 4):
c. not com parable to a. 1000 A.
d. nonlinear to b. 3000 A.
c. 5500 A.
4.12 A cylindrical part is to be tested using circular d. 16 500 A.
m agnetization. T he part has three different
diam eters along its length. A rule-of-thum b for
current values for each diam eter provides three
current levels. T he current value that should be
applied first is:
a. the highest value.
b. the m edian value.
c. the low est value.
d. it does not m atter w hich is applied first.
4.21 In Figure 4.24, a disk is being m agnetized. T he 4.26 A five-turn coil will be used on a part that is
disk is made o f a plate 25 mm ( I in.) thick and 457 m m (18 in.) long and 38 m m (1.5 in.) in
the diam eter is 133 mm (5.3 in.). T he am ount o f diam eter. W hat is the length-to-diam eter ratio o f
current required for circular m agnetization is: the part if 5000 A o f m agnetizing current is
a. 6000 A. used?
b. 4000 A. a. 90
c. 8000 A. b. 12
d. none o f the above. c. 16.5
d. 1.8
e. N one o f the above.
evaluated by one o f the follow ing devices: field .ections furnac 3 b razed
o g e th e r & copp >er plated
indicators, pie gages, shim s. Hall effect m eters or other
devices. Because these devices are affected solely by the ?
external field surrounding the m agnetized object,
ferrom agnetic and nonferrom agnetic fields are indicated
as the current is flow ing. T hese devices are used
3/4" to 1 "
(1.91 to
A t / \
7 (\
extensively when developing technique cards and
sparingly for verification purposes for each setup. / / I
Field Indicators
Field indicators are sm all handheld devices used to A / M
Monferrous handles
m easure the external residual field after dem agnetization.
}f con venient
They norm ally read in tesla (gauss) and are reasonably
accurate to 0.002 T (20 G). Field indicators norm ally
read from ±0.001 T (0 to ±10 G ) or ±0.002 T (0 to 1/32" M ax
t x ength and sh a p e
I
±20 G). - C o p p e r sh im
. f
Pie Gages 0 .1 2 6 O // I
The pie gage w as developed in G erm any to indicate
the direction o f a m agnetic field— it is not a good t -------------
31
32 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic Particle Testing
f~7w
y~pr ~ y ~ }j .••• / CZ>:
S e c tio n A -A S ection B-B S ection C -C
Shims
These devices are thin, low -retentivity ferrom agnetic
indicators that have been w idely used in Japan for som e
tim e. Use o f the shim is grow ing in the U nited States as
a result o f new fabrication technology, an im petus for
m ore accurate, easier-to-apply techniques and the quest
for a m ore universal indicator. Figure 5.2 illustrates three
basic notch configurations. The notches illustrated are
controlled by Society o f A utom otive E ngineers
specification AS 5 3 7 1 and usage is specified in
A STM F 1444. The shim s are norm ally bonded or glued
to the part, with the notches facing the part. D epending
on the method o f attachm ent and the care w ith which
they are rem oved, they may be used m ore than once.
Shim s can be used on any part configuration as long as m eets the 0.003 to 0.006 T (30 to 60 G) required. The
they can be placed in contact with the surface o f the part probe is placed on the part perpendicular to the part
being m agnetized. Several shim s can be used at the sam e surface. (See A STM Ei 1444. A nnex X 3.) It should be
tim e on various sections o f the part. These devices are a understood that this device only m easures external field
relatively good indicator o f field strength and a good that passes through the elem ent.
indicator o f direction. T he relationship o f the external field and the voltage
generated is given by:
Hall Effect M eter (Gauss Meter)
In the early 1900s. Edw in Hall noticed that som e v _ V fl,
m aterials developed a potential difference \'H at right b
angles to both the current / passing through the material
and an externally applied m agnetic field R (Figure 5.3). E q u a tio n 1 3
This production o f an electrom otive force w ithin a
conductor o r sem iconductor through w hich a current is where:
flow ing w hen there is a strong transverse m agnetic field VH = potential difference.
is the Hall effect. An elem ent reacting in this m an n er is / applied direct current.
the heart o f the H all effect probe. B com ponent o f applied field at right angle
The Hall device is a very effective technique for to current (W b /n r).
m easuring the tangential or norm al field direction and b thickness o f Hall elem ent in field
intensity when m agnetizing a part. However, only direction.
tangential or norm al field direction and intensity should R„ = Hall coefficient.
be m easured when determ ining if the field intensity
C hapter 5 - M agnetic Field D irection and Intensity / 33
Other Devices
O ther devices that can be used to m easure external
fields are sim ilarly configured parts w ith discontinuities
in critical locations, other shim configurations,
m agnetom eters and flux m eters. N one are com m only
used.
R eference B
R eference C
R eference E
34 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
Review Q uestions
The surface o f the prod tip should be inspected 1500 A o f half w'ave direct current or alternating current
frequently and all scale and pits should be rem oved w ith m agnetizing pow er. O utput o f the sm aller units are
a file. The tips should alw ays be bright, w hich reduces norm ally rated w ith 4.5 m (15 ft) o f 4 /0 cable. L onger or
arcing to a m inim um and provides a m axim um , sm aller diam eter cables are m ore resistive and. therefore,
low -resistance contacting area. Dual prods, in w hich reduce the am perage available for m agnetizing the part.
both prods are m ounted on a single handle, are also T hese portable units can be handled by one person
available. A dual prod allow s the inspector to hold both clim bing up a ladder, and will fit through a ITS. Navy
prods with one hand w hile the other is free to apply specification m anhole. They are designed to be used
pow der or wet suspension. The dual prod is m ost w ith flexible cables attached lit prods, clam ps, central
frequently used on w eld inspections. conductors or preform ed coils. A lso, the portable pow er
supplies can be used w ith a sm all bench to provide an
Coils inexpensive horizontal unit that can be used w ith cither
Coils are cables w rapped around the test p an . T hey w et o r dry particles.
can be preform ed or m ade with flexible cables. Wet
horizontal m agnetic units norm ally have a preform ed, Mobile Power Supplies
copper b ar enclosed w ith a nonferrom agnetic m aterial. Because o f their w eight, the larger m obile units are
T hese coils are norm ally five turns. C ables wrapped m ounted on w heels and are tow ed or rolled w here
around the part are m ade w ith the num ber o f turns needed. T hese units norm ally operate on 240 or 480 V
required to produce the proper flux density w hile using a alternating current circuits and provide both alternating
m inim um am ount o f cable. A m perage is norm ally c u n e n t and half w ave direct current output up to 6000 A.
expressed in am peres o r am pere turns. A m pere turns is M obile units are rated for their m axim um output using,
the m agnetizing current as show n on the am p meter, norm ally. 9 m (30 ft) o f 4 /0 cable. L onger or sm aller
tim es the num ber o f turns. For exam ple. 3000 am pere diam eter cables are m ore resistive and reduce the
turns can be obtained with a three-turn coil carrying am perage available for m agnetizing the part. These units
1000 A. o r a five-turn coil carrying 600 A. N orm ally the can be used with m odular bench units, but it is not a
w raps are kept as close together as possible. com m on practice.
W here m obile pow er supplies are to be used, a survey
Other Devices o f the pow er receptacles throughout the facility should
C urrent is also applied using other devices such as be m ade to ensure they are properly located, adequate in
m agnetic contacts (leeches) and spring or screw' clam ps, size and all o f a standard configuration.
when an edge is available. These devices are used for
special applications and are usually used w ith a portable Ancillary Equipment
or m obile pow er supply. Portable kits include spray cans o f m agnetic particle
aerosol suspensions, pow der b low er bulbs and dry
Portable Power Supplies pow der. Solvents and other cleaning m aterials are also
Portable pow er supplies require cables and contact included in m ost portable kits.
devices to apply the pow er for m agnetization. The cables M agnetic rubber kits are com m ercially available. In
used are norm ally 00 (2/0) extra flexible and ()()()() (4/0) addition to all o f the necessary supplies and equipm ent,
extra flexible cable w ith connectors covered w ith rubber. they contain m olding clay for m aking dam s around a test
The 4/0 cables are recom m ended to carry the current area, and m agnetizing yokes with adjustable current
from the m achine to the inspection area: 00 cables can input.
then be used to form coils or to be attached to the prods.
G enerally, a m axim um o f about 9 m (30 ft) o f cable R eference B
length can be used w ith a pow er supply and still provide R eference C
current w ithin 100 to 150 A o f its m axim um rated
output. W hen alternating current output is being used,
the cables should be kept at least 457 mm (18 in.) apart Heavy Duty Equipm ent
to m inim ize im pedance losses resulting from mutual
induction. The cables should not form loops o r coils Stationary equipm ent is usually referred to as heavy
because large drops in line voltage will occur due to duty because o f its size and output capabilities. Pow er
im pedance losses. supplies, bench equipm ent, m ultidirectional units,
The small portable pow er supply can be carried by autom atic units and special purpose units are all
hand and operates on either 120 V or 240 V circuits. m anufactured in heavy duty styles.
D epending on the m odel, these units provide up to
C hapter 6 - M agnetic Particle Testing and E quipm ent / 37
incorporate photocells connected to scanning m irrors. types o f light include visible light, am bient light and
Som e scanners use a laser for illum ination w here very ultraviolet light. U ltraviolet light and visible light (as
small discontinuities arc to he detected. applicable) are used during the testing/inspection
M aintenance o f autom atic m achines is an im portant process: visible light is used during the evaluation
consideration. W hile the m agnetizing units are quite process, if needed; am bient and extraneous light are
rugged, autom atic m echanism s require specialized undesirable visible light during the inspection process.
m aintenance. If at all possible, an inhouse m aintenance T he electrom agnetic spectrum defines radiant energy
capability is desirable because the autom atic system is by w avelengths from several m eters long (very long) to
usually a unique m achine. Inspection personnel rely on w aves m illionths o f a m illim eter long (very short). For
autom atic system s to handle high production volum es convenience, this spectrum is divided into several
and when autom atic system s becom e inoperative, total regions including long and short radio w aves,
production capability can be lost. m icrow aves (radar w aves), infrared w aves, visible
w aves, ultraviolet w aves, long and short X -rays, gam m a
Special Purpose Units rays and cosm ic rays as show n in F igure 6 . 1.
Special purpose units may be m anual, autom atic or T he term light norm ally refers to the small portion o f
sem iautom atic m achines. They are designed for one the electrom agnetic spectrum that includes infrared
specific part or a class o f items. T he m agnetizing system (below red), visible and ultraviolet (above violet). The
and handling devices are designed for specific material hum an eye can detect o nly the visible portion o f the
or part configurations. M agnetizing features are designed spectrum — red through violet. Infrared and ultraviolet
to m inim ize handling o f large or heavy parts and provide are included in the light spectrum because
for sufficient localized flux density to ensure that critical electrom agnetic frequencies in these regions react
discontinuities o f certain types and sizes are detected. prim arily the sam e to optical devices as visible light.
Specialized m achines can be designed to control the Longer frequencies (m icrow aves and radio w aves) do
m ethod and reproducibility level o f the test at specific not react in the sam e m anner to transparent optical
quality levels. devices. S horter frequencies (X -rays an d gam m a rays)
penetrate these devices w ithout reaction. R adiation in
Reference C infrared, visible and ultraviolet ranges are norm ally
m easured in centim eters and are referred to as centim eter
w aves.
Light F requencies at the bottom end o f red are about
720 ntn and the upper end o f violet is about 400 nm.
Light is o f prim ary im portance to the m agnetic U ltraviolet ranges from about 290 to 400 nm. w hich is a
particle testing inspector during the testing process. The m uch longer region than visible light.
i “ TT i
1 11 i
i 1 IJ i
\ G am m a i X -rays i Ultra- lB Infrared i Radio
) Rays i i Violet l3 i
i r\ i
/ ' : i i i i EHF SHF IH F VI IF HF MF LF VLF
i i
i i
o.m o.i i to o.i v C ' v io too o.oi o.i t l in 100 i 10 100
nm nm nm nm /<m /<mN N //I ik //m mm mm m m m m m km km km
W avelength
380 770
nanometers
C hap ter 6 - M agnetic Particle Testing and Equipm ent / 39
The ultraviolet region divided according its effect on T he intensity to be used is determ ined by code or
the skin includes: near field. 320 to 400 nm (UV-A); specification. The referencing docum ent is required to
intermediate field. 290 to 320 nm (UV-B): and far field. determ ine correct intensity. M any specifications require
230 to 290 nm (UV-C). T he portion o f the ultraviolet a m inim um intensity o f 1200 p W /c n r at the test surface
range that inspection lights transm it is the near field w hereas MIL-1 landbook-333 U SA F recom m ends
(UV-A). T hough this range is not considered harm ful to 1500 p W /c n r . T hese recom m endations have an
the eyes o r skin, and is used clinically to treat vitam in D econom ical advantage because an aging light that is
deficiencies, psoriasis and other skin conditions, it is losing its intensity m ay be held closer than 381 mm (15
recom m ended that exposure he lim ited, especially to the in.) to the test surface and still produce the proper
eyes. lighting. W ith regard to the data in specifications and
som e publications, m ost inspectors hold the light less
Ultraviolet Light than 381 m m (15 in.) from the part for inspections. The
U ltraviolet lights are used in conjunction with intensity o f a good ultraviolet light at 127 mm (5 in.) can
fluorescent particles. U ltraviolet lights norm ally consist exceed 5000 p W /c n r in a dark area.
of a high pressure m ercury-vapor lamp, a filter and a All specifications require a daily inspection o f the
transformer. T he lamp provides high-intensity light w ith filter for cleanliness and integrity (cracks, chips, etc.).
a w ide spectral range that includes several spectral lines T his is an im portant requirem ent because cracked and/or
in the ultravoilet region that peaks at 365 nm. T he filter chipped filters may leak visible light and dilute the
limits the light to 320 to 400 nm. The transform er integrity o f the evaluation.
supplies pow er to the lamp. T he hum an eye cannot It is also im portant that the ultraviolet light does not
detect radiation in this range. L am ps producing light in em it an excessive am ount o f visible light. Som e
this region are com m only referred to as fluorescent com panies require that the visible light em itted by an
lights. Som e tuhular fluorescent lights produce light in ultraviolet light be m easured and lim its have been
this range. established.
Fluorescent m agnetic particle testing system s require T he I00W mercury' vapor lamp bulb used for testing
an ultraviolet light source in the above range w hen using is a prefocused spot bulb with a m edium screw base. A
particles with a dye coating that absorbs light in this transform er m ust be used w ith this bulb to provide the
region and em its visible light. T he dye on the fluorescent proper voltage. A 400W ultraviolet light is available and
m agnetic particles readily absorbs ultraviolet light in the is good for illum inating the entire inspection booth to an
365 nm range and em its visible light in the green-yellow acceptable intensity level.
range o f the visible spectrum (520 to 550 nm).
W hile the frequency o f the exciting source and the Visible Light
em itted light determ ines the color o f the particles, W hen using visible dye particles (red. black, etc.) the
another im portant consideration involves the brightness light intensity m ust be bright enough to see the
or intensity o f the energy radiated by the lamp. The indication but not so bright that glare from the test
intensity o f the em itted light is a function o f the intensity surface o r reflections from nearby objects or structures
o f the ultraviolet source. T he intensity o f ultraviolet light interfere w ith results. Per A STM E 1444 the norm ally
is not specified in term s o f lux (footcandles) like visible accepted m inim um intensity is 1000 Ix (100 ftc). There
light and the intensity cannot be m easured with visible is no established m axim um .
light m eters because o f the spectral response o f the A lso per E 1444, visible light (1000 Ix. 100 ftc) is
meters. T he intensity o f visible light is com pared to the required in the area to aid in the evaluation o f indications
light produced by one candle, w hereas the intensity o f w hen using fluorescent particles.
ultraviolet light is m easured in term s o f energy.
U ltraviolet light m eters are calibrated in m icrow atts per A m bient Light
square centim eter (pW /cm -). T he radiation sensing A m bient light (background light) should be as low as
device in both the visible and ultraviolet light sensors is possible. The m axim um acceptable am bient light for
basically the sam e— the difference is the spectral m ost specifications is 20 Ix (2 ftc) at the test surface,
response. A ccording to A STM E 1444. the intensity level m easured w ith the ultraviolet light on. A hooded booth in
that is typically used for purchasing and m onitoring the a shop area should have no light leaks that w ould distract
intensity o f ultraviolet lights is 1000 p W /c n r m inim um the inspector o r otherw ise interfere w ith the inspection
at 381 mm (15 in.) from the part surface. T he tubular process. A sm all am ount o f light in the inspector's line
lam ps used at w ash stations do not supply sufficient o f sight could adversely affect the inspector’s eyes or be
energy. a distraction.
4(1 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic P article Testing
Extraneous Light
Light from sources such as reflections, holes in
curtains or w alls and other sources, m ust he kept to a
m inim um and under no circum stances should they
interfere w ith the inspection or distract the inspector.
R eference A
R eference B
R eference C
C hapter 6 - M agnetic Particle Testing and Equipm ent / 41
6 . 11 For detecting sm all indications, per A STM 6.17 W hen m agnetizing with m ultidirectional
E-1444. the com m only recom m ended m inim um equipm ent:
ultraviolet light intensity at the test surface is: a. the currenl is applied in both directions at
a. 900 pW /cm - at the part surface, the sam e tim e.
h. 1000 p W /c n r at the part surface. b. the current m ust be balanced for both the
c. 2000 p W /c n r at the part surface. longitudinal and the circu lar m agnetizations.
d. 3000 p W /cm - at the part surface. c. it is not critical that the fields be balanced.
d. the current m ust be on when the particles are
6 . 12 The latest revision o f specification applied.
ASTM E 1444 requires that the w hite light
intensity for testing with visible m agnetic 6.18 W hen using an ultraviolet light, am bient light:
particles be: a. is the visible light background in the review
a. 900 lx (90 ftc) at the lest surface. areas.
b. 1000 lx (100 ftc) at the lest surface. b. m ust be m aintained at 20 lx (2 ftc) or less.
c. 1250 lx ( 125 ftc) at the test surface. c. reduces the visibility o f fluorescent
d. 2000 lx (200 ftc) at the test surface. indications.
d. all o f the above.
6.13 Heavy duly pow er supplies are norm ally used
with:
a. special equipm ent.
b. large stationary units.
c. cables.
d. all o f the above.
43
4 4 /A S N T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
Reference C
C hap ter 7 - M agnetic P article Testing M aterials / 47
Review Q uestions 7.7 W hen com pared with dry particles, wet particles
should:
7.1 M agnetic particles should have: a. have considerably different properties.
a. asym m etric hysteresis. b. have basically the sam e properties.
b. low perm eability. c. have opposite properties.
c. high retentivity. d. have som e equal properties.
d. low retentivity.
7.8 A bout ten tim es m ore red or black pow der must
7.2 W hich o f the follow ing is not true? be used in a slurry than is needed using
a. M agnetic particles can be too sensitive. fluorescent particles because:
b. E xcessive clum ping reduces the ability o f a. fluorescent particles do not have to build as
particles to form indications. large o f an indication to be seen, because
c. P articles are available in colors to im prove they provide greater contrast.
contrast. b. red and black pow ders do not have as high
d. All particles are elongated to keep them o f a perm eability as fluorescent particles.
from rolling o ff the part. c. red and black pow ders have more globular
particles than fluorescent particles.
7.3 T he particle content o f m agnetic rubber is: d. red and black pow ders have a higher density
a. checked by a settling test. than fluorescent particles.
b. prem ixed to the proper proportions.
c. variable, depending on how often the spray 7.9 The prim ary reason for using w ater as a
can is shaken. suspension is that:
d. checked w ith a centrifuge. a. w ater is cheaper than oil.
b. a w ater suspension is easier to rem ove from
7.4 Fluorescent m agnetic particle testing is preferred the part.
over visible m agnetic particles: c. w ater is not as flam m able as oil.
a. when parts are big and bulky. d. w ater wets the test surface better.
b. to take advantage o f the fluorescent lights
that are norm ally used in plants. 7.10 A disadvantage o f using w ater suspensions is
c. if the parts are for railroad applications. that:
d. to increase the speed and reliability o f a. a w etting agent (surfactant) m ust be added to
detecting very sm all discontinuities. the w ater so that it will wet the particles and
the test surface.
7.5 The viscosity o f the suspension oil should be as b. a defoam er m ust be used to reduce the foam
low' as possible to provide m obility to the in the suspension tank that is caused by
particles. T he suspension should be discarded agitating the bath.
when: c. the tanks o f the m achine m ust be treated to
a. the viscosity equals 3 m i r / s (3 centistokes) reduce rust.
at 38 C (100 °F). d. all o f the above are disadvantages.
b. the viscosity exceeds 3 m m 2/s
(3 centistokes) by the closed cup test. 7.11 C oncentrates are:
c. the viscosity exceeds 5 m rn’/s a. particles that are highly concentrated in
(5 centistokes) at 38 °C (100 UF). slurry.
d. it has a reddish color. b. particles that have been pressed together for
shipping purposes.
7.6 An oil suspension with a high flashpoint is c. particles that are coated w ith a wetting
desirable to provide: agent.
a. low flam m ability. d. particles in a w'et paste.
b. high flam m ability.
c. good mobility.
d. a pleasant odor.
48 / A SN T Level 111 Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
49
5 0 /A S N T Level III Stud> G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing
applied on any surface and it is easy to determ in e that can be cast into the rubber to perm anently identify the
the surface has been covered. W hile w et suspensions can specim en.
be applied on rough surfaces, they are not as effective as T he disadvantages o f m agnetic rubber are that it is a
dry powder. Wet suspensions are best for detecting very slow process, it is im practical for large areas and it
sm all discontinuities. Small leakage fields require tim e requires control and precision that is difficult to obtain
to attract enough particles to form an indication and w et under m any conditions.
suspensions hold the particles on the surface and allow
the particles to float to small leakage fields. Residual M agnetization
W et-suspended particles can be pum ped through a T he residual m agnetization technique is the
hose, applied by hand or applied by autom atic m achines. application o f current (m agnetization) follow ed by the
By using nonfiuorescing oils, wet suspensions can be application o f m agnetic particles. High carbon steels that
used to apply fluorescent particles. Suspensions can be have been heat treated and have relatively high
applied as sprays and arc available as prem ixed solutions retentivity can be evaluated adequately using this
in spray cans. Spray cans arc used prim arily in field technique. T h e pace o f the testing process can be
applications in conjunction w ith portable or m obile increased considerably if only one m agnetizing unit is
m agnetizing units. used to m agnetize parts. T he parts containing residual
Wet particle suspensions are best used with residual m agnetism are suspended in a w ell agitated m agnetic
m agnetization testing m ethods because the residual field particle bath or passed through a spray station on a
is w eaker than the field w hen the current is flowing. The conveyor before arriving at the inspection booth. The
suspension helps to hold the particles on the pail and the entire process can be autom ated and closely controlled to
suspension provides som e mobility. provide good reproducibility and reliability. The residual
technique is applied prim arily to bolts, piston pins,
Magnetic Rubber bearing races and sim ilar item s produced in large
M agnetic rubber w as introduced in 1970 as a quantities.
technique for detecting very fine cracks in critical steel
aircraft com ponents. U sing m agnetic rubber has several Continuous M agnetization
advantages: it reveals finer cracks than other m agnetic In the continuous m agnetization technique, current is
particle testing techniques, the plugs can be rem oved and applied (m agnetization) w hile the suspension is on the
exam ined under ideal conditions and m agnification part. M agnetism is applied in a short pulse or shot
optics can be used to locate sm aller indications. (typically 0.5 to 1 s in duration), as the suspension is
In this technique, m agnetic particles are suspended in being applied. Tw o or three m ore shots are m ade
an uncured (liquid state) silicon-type rubber. T he rubber im m ediately after the application o f the suspension. For
that cures at room tem perature contains low volatiles and parts being m agnetized by alternating current or h alf
noncorrosive activators. The viscosity o f liquid rubber is w ave direct current, the m agnetizing current is turned
much higher than that o f typical light oil suspensions. on. the suspension is applied and the inspection is m ade
T he m ixture o f rubber, activator and m agnetic particles before the current is turned off.
is applied directly to the area w here a crack is suspected C ontinuous m agnetization provides the m ost
o r has been ground out. such as in a bolt hole or other sensitivity because the flux density is the greatest w hile
critical area o f the structure. An energized the current is being applied. C ontinuous m agnetization is
electrom agnetic yoke is applied across the puddle until used with both w et and dry particle techniques and is
the rubber is partially cured. T his takes from 10 to essential for the m agnetic rubber technique.
30 m inutes, depending on the type o f rubber used and
the w ay that the rubber and activator are mixed. Choice of M agnetic Field Direction
In som e instances, a dam o f m odeling clay is m ade D eterm ining the proper direction for the m agnetic
around the area to be tested and the liquid rubber is field is critical for the successful developm ent o f a
poured into the mold. D rilled holes and even threaded m agnetic particle testing technique. The reason flux
holes can be filled with the m agnetic rubber follow ed by direction is so im portant is because only discontinuities
the application o f a m agnetic field to the area o f the with principal dim ensions relatively transverse
hole(s). A fter the rubber is cured, it is rem oved from the (perpendicular) to the m agnetic field are detected. The
part and inspected visually, som etim es w ith a configuration o f the part, know ledge o f past failures or
m icroscope if very sm all cracks are to be detected. The know ledge o f the stress levels in different areas o f the
rubber conform s to the surface contour, provides a part are helpful when determ ining the appropriate
replica o f the surface condition and provides a direction o f the m agnetic field. For direct (circular)
perm anent record o f the inspection. A paper or m etal lag m agnetization, the m agnetic field is 90 degrees to the
C hapter 8 - M agnetic Particle Testing Practices / 51
current flow and is parallel to the applied m agnetic field T he flux collector (extension) increases the m agnetic
for indirect (longitudinal) m agnetization. length o f a part and enables the production o f the desired
direction o f flux in this special application.
Circular Magnetization Longitudinal m agnetization is the principal technique
In circular m agnetization, the m agnetic field is used for detecting fatigue cracks because fatigue cracks
directed around the circum ference o f the pan. C ircular are usually form ed transverse to the centerline o f a part,
magnetization is applied by passing the current through w hich is often in the m ost critical alignm ent.
the part using heads, clam ps, prods or w ith central
conductors. C ircular m agnetization is used to detect slag C om bination and Variable Magnetic
inclusions and seam s in bars (round, square and Field Applications
rectangular) and other sim ilar stock and parts. It is also C ircular and longitudinal m agnetism can be com bined
used to determ ine the cleanliness o f steel forging stock w hen m agnetizing a part lo continuously vary the
in accordance with nationally recognized standards. direction o f the m agnetic field. The circular and
Rings, nuts and other angular item s arc m agnetized on longitudinal fields are induced into the part in rapid
central conductors to detect transverse discontinuities sequence. A utom atic equipm ent is required for these
(discontinuities parallel to the axis o f the central techniques.
conductor). Bolt holes and other types o f fastener holes Special m agnetization equipm ent is designed lo
and bearing bosses for cross shafts are critical high stress m agnetize parts with com plex configurations. These
areas w here fatigue cracks initiate on inservice parts. m achines are very com plicated and expensive, but if the
These holes are best tested on central conductors to part quality is critical or if a large quantity must be
detect radial cracks. tested, they are worth the cost.
With the direct m ethod o f passing current through the T he configuration o f a com plex part must be analyzed
part, or the indirect m ethod o f m agnetization using a to determ ine the type and location o f m agnetization
central conductor, the flux density is proportional to the needed to ensure that the flux density is sufficient and
current because a bar carrying current can be considered that the direction is correct lo delect the type of
to be a finite elem ent o f a one-turn coil. Both alternating discontinuities that are likely to occur in the part.
current and direct current can be used to produce circular A line draw ing o f the basic part configuration should
m agnetization using either w et or dry particles. be m ade. The location o f each coil shot and the required
current are noted for each location. T he location o f each
Longitudinal Magnetization inspection area using direct circular m agnetization
In longitudinal m agnetization, the m agnetic field is should be noted and the current requirem ent indicated. If
directed parallel to the axis o f the coil. (C hapter 2) and cable w raps. through conductors, prods or if other
therefore, the induced field is parallel to the co il's axis. devices w ill be used to ensure that the flux has the
Cracks in a direction w'ithin ±45 percent o f the co il’s proper direction and m agnitude, special notes should be
axis are leasi detectable, those perpendicular to the co il's m ade on the draw ing. C om plex parts may also require a
axis are m ost readily detectable. Longitudinal specific sequence o f operations to ensure that leakage
m agnetization is applied by electrom agnetic induction fields from a heavy area that requires high flux will not
using coils, cable w raps and yokes. T he flux density m ask indications in fillets or other adjacent areas o f
resulting from longitudinal m agnetization is controlled lesser cross section.
by the current, the num ber o f turns in the coil (m ost coils
on com m ercially supplied stationary m agnetic particle Figure 8.1: Longitudinal magnetization with
testing m achines have five turns), the air gap betw een a flux collector to increase the length of the
the coil and the part, and other factors. B ecause o f these part
param eters, procedures should specify the orientation
and position o f the part with respect to the coil.
The am ount o f current needed as a function o f the
length-to-diam eter ratio and the m anner in w hich various
shapes are m agnetized w as discussed in C hapter 4. The
length-to-diam eter ratio m ust be considered; how ever, a
part that is shorter Ilian its length (based on the direction
in w hich the m etal was form ed) can be m agnetized in a
coil at very high flux densities by increasing its m agnetic
length, as shown in Figure 8.1.
52 / A SN T L evel III Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing
Levels of Flux Density will increase or decrease w ith the llux density in the
The level o f flux density is critical in m agnetic part. These investigations show that the eddy current
particle testing applications. Serious part failures can be instrum ent can be calibrated to m easure flux density by
the result o f not finding an anom aly because o f an circularly m agnetizing a steel bar w ith the same
im proper level o f m agnetic flux density. T here are som e chem istry and heat treatm ent as the lest object. The
inexpensive, sim ple devices that are placed on the circular direct m agnetization technique provides a
surface o f a part to determ ine the approxim ate qualitative uniform field that is directly related to the m agnetizing
(lux density and/or direction. current. W ith a calibrated am m eter on the m agnetizing
O ne such device is the pie gage. A pie gage consists m achine, a graph can be plotted that show s eddy current
o f triangular segm ents o f soft iron brazed into a single instrum ent readings as a function o f the m agnetizing
bar. A slice cut from the end o f the bar looks like a sliced current. The eddy cu rren t probe is placed in contact with
pie. W hen placed in a m agnetic field, indications arc die surface o f the part being m agnetized. Variations in
form ed at the brazed joints, as show n in Figure 8.2. The the m agnetizing current result in variations o f the eddy
brazed section show ing the strongest indication is the current instrum ent readings.
one that is m ost perpendicular to the m agnetic flux. T he A differential probe w ith side-by-side coils can also
line at a 45-degree angle collects few er particles to indicate flux direction. T his technique o f llux density
produce a sm aller indication. The longitudinal jo in t m easurem ent uses off-the-shelf eddy current instrum ents
collects no particles. and m easures both llux density and direction with no
Pie gages should not be used as flux density effect from static external fluxes. L ongitudinal
indicators because they are affected not only by fluxes in m agnetism and circular m agnetism induced w ith a
the m etal being tested, but also by external fluxes. through co nductor is also m easured by this technique.
Flux m eters, w ith small perm anent m agnets that are A very practical procedure for determ ining relative
constrained with a spring, can give a crude relative flux density w as prepared by an aircraft engine
m easure o f field strength near the surface during m anufacturer for use by their overhaul agencies. T he
m agnetization. Som e flux m eters have a coil that m anufacturer m ade a set o f rings from AISI 4340 steel
contacts the surface and provides a relative m easure o f that w as heat treated to a specific hardness characteristic
the m agnetic field strength but not the flux density. o f certain engine parts. The rings w ere also the same
These coil style instrum ents can also be used to thickness and width as the actual engine parts. N otches
determ ine flux direction. Instrum ents using Hall effect o f differing paths and thicknesses were m achined into
transducers can also provide a m easure o f the field near the inside diam eter o f the ring. T he rings w ere placed on
the surface and show direction. a copper through cond u cto r and the current control on
T hese m eters and indicators can be useful tools by the m agnetic particle testing m achine w as raised in small
using com parisons with parts that are know n to be increm ents until the notch o f that ring w ould ju st barely
adequately m agnetized. T he ideal technique o f produce an indication. F or each engine part and each
m easuring flux density w ould perm it m easurem ent o f the area o f the part to be m agnetized, the inspection standard
llux density w ithin the metal. H ow ever, any technique specified w hich ring to use to set the current for that test.
for attem pting internal m easurem ents produces T he advantage o f such a procedure is the uniform ity and
variations in perm eability that affect the relationship o f reproducibility that is achieved on the sam e part by
H and B in that area during m agnetization. different inspection facilities.
W hen the surface o f a m agnetized part com es into
contact w ith an eddy current differential probe, an
indication is obtained on the instrum ent. T he indication C hoice of Equipm ent and
A pplication
In the developm ent o f testing procedures, an A SN T
N D T Level III m ust have a com prehensive know ledge of
the types o f equipm ent available and the recom m ended
uses.
allow the induced flux level to be varied by changing the burned copper. This is especially im portant w hen
distance betw een the contacts. T he prim ary value o f inspecting highly heat-treated pails or parts with a finely
permanent m agnets is in their portability with no need ground surface. The cables can also be w rapped around
for external pow'er. T hey are usually used to test small parts form ing a coil to provide longitudinal
areas o f parts w here fatigue cracks frequently occur. The m agnetization. Dry pow der is norm ally used with
induced field is neither circular nor longitudinal because portable equipm ent because the availability o f both
the magnet is positioned so the field betw een the pulsed h a lfw a v e direct current and alternating current
magnets is perpendicular to the direction o f the provides the necessary dry pow der mobility. Wet
discontinuities, as show n in Figure 4.22 a and b for suspensions, as provided in pressurized spray cans, are
yokes. also used w ith this equipm ent. This type o f equipm ent
The m agnetic particles used w ith perm anent m agnets typically w eighs from 16 to 34 kg (35 to 75 lbs) and can
should be suspended in oil because the perm anent be handled by one person.
magnet provides a static m agnetic field. Dry particles
require pulsed, changing or alternating fields to becom e Mobile Power Supplies
mobile. M obile pow er supplies are equipped w ith w heels that
For m axim um visibility o f an indication, the allow m obility, how ever, they typically cannot be lifted
indication should be located in the area betw een the two w ithout m echanical assistance. They range in outputs
pole pieces o f the m agnet. T he long axis o f the from a lew hundred up to 20 000 A. U nits up to 6000 A
indication should be positioned 90 degrees ± 45 degrees have alternating cu n e n t and h alf w ave direct current
with a line betw een the poles. The flux is stronger nearer outputs w ith line pow er requirem ents o f 220/440 V
to the poles than it is in the center o f the gap. A flat single phase alternating current. The output pow er is
surface is desirable so that the m axim um contact applied by coils or prods and both dry pow der and
between the pole and the test surface can be m aintained. w et-suspended particles can be used.
D em agnetization is the rem oval o f this unidirectional therefore, is m ore expensive. T he reversing direct current
orientation o f the atom ic polarity. R educing the strength provides deeper penetration than the alternating current
o f the field to an acceptable level is the purpose o f and thus has an advantage in applications on thicker
dem agnetization. Reversal o f the m agnetic field as it is parts and for parts that are difficult to dem agnetize.
reduced helps to rem ove the orientation o f the atom ic Yokes can be used in the alternating current mode to
polarity. reduce the m agnetism in localized areas o f large
A com m on technique o f dem agnetization is to place com ponents.
the m etal in an alternating current coil that rapidly O ne advantage o f m agnetization w ith alternating
reverses the polarity. G radually rem oving the metal from current is that it does not leave a strong residual field in
the coil w hile the coil is still energized has the effect of a part so that, in a sense, it is selfdem agnetizing.
gradually reducing the induced m agnetism . A nother
technique is to hold the part stationary and gradually C ontrolling and Measuring
reduce the current in the coil. Dem agnetization
D irect current can be used for dem agnetization by T he initial dem agnetizing field should be higher than
reversing direction o f the current and at the sam e tim e the highest m agnetizing current applied during m agnetic
reducing its strength. particle testing. C aution should be taken to avoid
burning the part w here direct conduction
Reasons for Dem agnetizing dem agnetization is being undertaken.
D em agnetization o f parts is often needed before the A m agnetic field strength m eter should be used to
final com ponent is assem bled. Highly m agnetized parts m easure the retained m agnetism . Sm all m eters, the size
can induce fields in adjacent parts and can cause a o f a pocket w atch, are available that read in relative
variety o f m alfunctions. For exam ple, m agnetism in units: they are useful for com parative m easurem ents.
engine parts can attract metal particles into bearings, Because m agnetic leakage fields are strongest at an edge
leading to early bearing failure. A high residual field or corner o f a part, these are the best places to m easure
near an aircraft com pass can substantially affect its for dem agnetization.
accuracy.
At one tim e, dem agnetizing parts betw een
longitudinal and circular m agnetizing cycles was Effects of Test O bject Variables
considered to be a necessity: how ever, experience has
show n that it is not alw ays true. In som e cases, it is O ne reason that a surface field strength m eter is
advantageous not to dem agnetize when changing valuable is that parts o f different chem istry and heat
m agnetizing directions can em phasize indications that lie treatm ent can have significantly different m agnetic
in off-axis orientations. properties. Each part to be tested using m agnetic particle
Parts that are to be electric arc w elded m ust be testing should have a specific technique established to
dem agnetized because residual m agnetic fields can ensure that the tlux density is adequate. W hen a flux
attract the arc and cause it to wander, not follow ing the m eter is not available, the part should be m agnetized to a
joint. This is especially a problem w hen an autom atic point w here the particles start to stand on end on the
w elding m achine is used because it cannot com pensate edges o f the part. T he m agnetizing current should then
for the shift in the arc as a w elding operator can during be reduced slightly from this level and the inspection
m anual welding. perform ed. A lim itation in this approach during the use
o f direct conduction is that parts can be overheated and
Methods of Dem agnetization burned by too m uch current at the contact points. Ferritic
The m ost com m on method o f dem agnetization uses stainless steels can be tested this way. but m uch higher
an alternating current coil from w hich the part is currents m ust be used in com parison with the currents
rem oved or, on large parts, a coil that is m oved aw ay used on carbon steels.
from the part w hile the pow er is still on. It is desirable to
begin the dem agnetization process using a stronger field G eom etric Considerations
than that used during the initial m agnetization o f the C om plex parts m ust be studied to provide sufficient
part. tlux at about 90 degrees to the expected orientation o f
The m ultiple step-dow n, reversing direct current discontinuities. Various flux densities m ay be necessary
dem agnetizer w orks sim ilarly to the alternating current to ensure that a leakage field in a radius does not m ask a
step-dow n system . Because o f the difficulty in reverse critical stringer, forging lap or other discontinuity. A
sw itching o f direct current, the equipm ent is m uch m ore through conductor in holes can detect radial anom alies
com plicated than that used for alternating current and w here overall circular and longitudinal m agnetization
does not provide sufficient flux or the proper direction of
flux. Many very large parts w ith openings, such as
trusses, w eldm ents. forgings and rings, may he too large
to fit in a stationary m achine o r the m achine may not
have enough pow er to m agnetize the entire part. For
these types o f parts, cable w rap techniques will reduce
the current requirem ents and increase the flux density in
local areas.
Surface Treatment
Surface coatings, such as plating, paint or cladding,
can affect the sensitivity o f m agnetic particle testing. For
field inspections and overhaul, and repair very thick hard
surface oxides, paint, or plating up to 0.03 mm
(0.001 in.) thick can be tolerated at no increase o f
amerage over that o f bare metal. C oatings thicker than
0.03 mm (0.001 in.) require additional am perage.
Caution m ust be exercised since these thicker coatings
can easily m ask defects. C oatings cause indications from
surface defects to appear as indications from subsurface
defects in uncoated m aterial. C oatings are not perm itted
on new parts prior to m agnetic particle testing in
accordance with E 1444 except for electroplated
coatings. M ost cadm ium o r zinc electroplating does not
norm ally exceed 0.13 m m (0.005 in.) in thickness, and
during field inspections and overhaul and repair are
generally ignored. Hot dip plating, such as galvanic
coating, can be quite thick. If the coating cannot be
readily rem oved, the m agnetizing current should be
increased accordingly. Hard chrom ium plating on w ear
surfaces can exceed 0.13 mm (0.005 in.). O ne problem
with hard plated parts is that they are som etim es ground
after plating. The grinding can cause burning o f the steel
under the plating. T hese fine grinding cracks arc very
light and shallow. Special techniques are necessary to
detect these cracks.
Because paint is not a conductor, it m ust be rem oved
from areas w here electrical contact is to be m ade for
m agnetization.
8.5 A piece o f bar stock in the yard o f a fabricating 8.10 C ontinuous m agnetization provides the most
shop w as tested for inclusions using clam ps and sensitivity because:
cables. The m agnetism in the bar was: a. the m agnetic particles are present w hile the
a. induced circular. part is being m agnetized.
b. longitudinal. b. the m agnetic field is greatest w hile the
c. direct longitudinal. m agnetizing current is on.
d. direct circular. c. both a and b above.
d. none o f the above.
8.6 A particular field inspection for fatigue cracks
requires that a wet particle suspension be used. 8.11 T he sensitivity o f m agnetic particle testing is
Wet particle suspensions can best be applied greatest w'hen the discontinuity is:
w ith a: a. parallel to the direction o f the m agnetic flux
a. fine cam el hair brush. lines.
b. spray can. b. perpendicular to the flow o f the m agnetizing
c. swab. current.
d. pow der bulb. c. perpendicular to the direction o f the
m agnetic flux.
d. perpendicular to the line betw een prods.
C hapter 8 - M agnetic P article Testing Practices / 57
8.12 M agnetic particle testing is used to determ ine the 8.18 W hich o f the follow ing is not an advantage of
cleanliness o f steel bars and the num ber and m obile m agnetic particle testing pow er units?
length o f discontinuities in forging stock. The a. T heir w heels allow them to be used
type o f m agnetization to be used is: anyw here in a shop.
a. circular. b. They use single phase pow er with high
b. longitudinal. current and voltage.
c. tangential. c. D ry or w et continuous m ethods can be used.
d. toroidal. d. They can be equipped with an autom atic
step-dow n dem agnetizer.
8.13 To provide reliability and reproducibility in
m agnetic particle testing, w ritten procedures 8.19 A shop has a num ber o f autom atic screw
should include: m achines that produce thousands o f small pins
a. the location o f the coil and current for each and other parts that m ust be tested. The best type
m agnetization. o f dem agnetizer for these parts w ould be:
b. the requirem ents for am m eter calibration. a. an alternating current coil.
c. the type and concentration o f the particles. b. an alternating current step-dow n
d. all o f the above if applicable. dem agnetizer.
c. an alternating current yoke.
8.14 Flux density is a m easure o f the num ber o f d. a reversing direct current step-dow n
m agnetic flux lines perpendicular to a unit area dem agnetizer.
o f cross section. If a discontinuity is in the plane
o f the unit area, the largest m agnetic particle 8.20 T he 1000 am pere-per-inch diam eter
testing indication will be form ed w hen the rule-of-thum b should be used with caution
discontinuity is: because:
a. 45 degrees to the flux lines. a. it does not take into account part shape.
b. parallel to the flux lines. b. it does not account for differences in
c. 90 degrees to the flux lines. perm eability.
d. 135 degrees to the flux lines. c. it may not provide adequate flux densities
e. none o f the above. for detecting small discontinuities.
d. all o f the above.
8.15 Prods are used to m agnetize a w eld area. W hen
dry pow der is dusted onto the surface, there is no 8.2 1 C ircular m agnetization at 1000 am pere-per-inch
m obility o f the particles. T he m ost probable diam eter o f cross section:
reason for this observation is that: a. provides proper flux densities in com plex
a. the m agnetizing current is not high enough. parts.
b. the flux density is too low. b. will not provide proper tlux direction in
c. direct current is being used. com plex parts.
d. all o f the above. c. is best used on round bar stock.
d. is a rule-of-thum b for applying current in
8.1ft The current from portable, high am perage units any application involving circular
can be applied to the test object using: m agnetization.
a. prods.
b. cable coils. 8 .2 2 A cable w rapping procedure:
c. prew rapped coils. a. can induce a higher circular field in a part at
d. all o f the above. a low er current.
b. can increase the coil fill factor.
8.17 A torsion bar suspension spring failed. An c. can conduct the sam e m axim um am ount of
investigation show ed that the failure initiated alternating current as direct current.
from the surface. A possible reason could be: d. cannot be used for dry pow der inspections.
a. that the current w as too high in direct
circular m agnetization.
b. that the probe coil that w as used burned the
surface.
c. that prods w ere used to detect fatigue.
d. none o f the above.
58 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
8.23 A large 152 mm (6 in.) diam eter shaft o f 8.27 T he com ponents o f a helicopter transm ission
heat-treated, high alloy steel m ust be m ust be tested for discontinuities at overhaul.
dem agnetized. The best results are produced by: T he proper procedure is to:
a. a reverse direct current step-dow n a. use the inspection procedure originally
dem agnetizer w ith a cable w rapped around suggested by the m anufacturer.
the shaft fo r its full length. b. review the part configuration and failure
b. placing the shaft north and south in an data and develop test techniques based on
alternating current coil and tapping it this analysis.
repeatedly with a sledge hammer. c. let the inspector use a standard procedure.
c. using an alternating current step-dow n d. perform only visual inspection with a lOx
dem agnetizer w ith a cable w rapped around m agnifier.
the shaft for its full length.
d. m oving an alternating current coil along the 8.28 Hall effect generators used to m easure llux
length and extending it past the ends o f the density are:
shaft. a. unreliable.
b. not capable o f m easuring the H com ponent
8.24 From a production standpoint, sm all item s o f m agnetization in air.
should be dem agnetized: c. capable o f m easuring the II com ponent of
a. w ith a 30-point dem agnetizer. m agnetization.
b. in a basket using a m agnetic coil. d. not affected by perm eability variations in the
c. in a coil, one at a lime. part.
d. all o f the above, depending on how difficult
it is to dem agnetize the items. 8.29 Eddy current instrum ents used for flux density
m easurem ents:
8.25 To determ ine if parts have been adequately a. require differential coils.
dem agnetized, they should be tested by: b. are com m ercially available.
a. bringing a suspended paper clip near the c. m ust be calibrated if quantitative
m iddle o f the part. m easurem ents are desired.
b. using a sm all horseshoe shaped perm anent d. all o f the above.
m agnet.
c. using a sm all m agnetom eter held at a co m er 8.30 Eddy current instrum ents used for flux density
o f the part. m easurem ents:
d. sprinkling som e m agnetic particles on the a. m easure the B com ponent o f m agnetization.
part. b. can indicate flux direction.
c. m easure the H com ponent o f m agnetization.
8.26 A heat-treated bolt w as tested for quench cracks d. satisfy both a and b above.
and m ust be dem agnetized. Using die boll as a e. satisfy a, b and c above.
conductor, the dem agnetizing current:
a. should be high enough to m agnetically 8.31 T he statem ent "m agnetic particle testing can be
saturate the part. applied to plated and painted parts":
b. need not exceed the m agnetizing current. a. is true regardless o f the thickness o f the
c. should som ew hat exceed the original coaling.
m agnetizing current. b. may be true if flux densities are increased to
d. is irrelevant because dem agnetization is not com pensate for the coating thickness.
necessary on heat-treated parts. c. is true only for circular m agnetism .
d. is not true under any circum stances.
C hapter 8 - M agnetic P article Testing Practices / 59
61
62 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic P article Testing
T hese can be confusing to the inspector because they background and m ask the presence o f a surface
may or may not show a full recognizable pattern. The discontinuity. A subsurface discontinuity is characterized
only effective technique fo r elim inating such indications by an indication that is broader and fuzzier than that o f a
is to dem agnetize the area and retest it. surface discontinuity. T he features o f the tw o indications
arc basically the sam e except that the indication details
Metallurgical Changes are less distinguishable as the depth o f the discontinuity
M etallurgical changes produce sim ilar problem s in increases.
the form o f perm eability variations. T hese are com m on
in w eldm ents because the weld metal has a different R eference A
m etallurgical structure from the heal affected zone. R eference B
M etallurgical changes also include areas w here the R eference C
tem per is draw n, decarburized areas, strain lines from
cold form ing, or stretch form ing w here the metal is Effects of D iscontinuities on
m oved in the plastic range. O ther m etallurgical changes Serviceability
that can produce nonrelevant indications are cold D iscontinuities located during m agnetic particle
w orking (flow ing the m etal rather than cutting it), grain testing can be gross enough to directly affect the strength
boundaries (norm ally in large grain m aterials) and flow' o f m aterials and pints; they can also act as stress risers
lines in forgings. Many o f these are only seen at very that can result in fatigue cracks. A discontinuity can
high levels o f m agnetism . produce a notch effect that will allow its size to grow by
fatigue loading. A discontinuity that is subjected to a
R eference A corrosive environm ent m ay allow corrosion to propagate
Reference B in an unexpected m an n er and cause problem s more
Reference C rapidly than expected.
M any serviceable parts are scrapped because the
effects o f d iscontinuities are m isunderstood. Scrapping
Discontinuities may be the m ost econom ical approach w here the cost o f
the part is low and w here its failure could cause a larger
D iscontinuities detectable by m agnetic particle testing subassem bly to fail.
are either on the surface or close to the surface. The effect o f a discontinuity on strength is based on
the safety facto r used by the designer. If the part is
Surface Discontinuities designed overstrength and if the discontinuity is not in a
Surface indications are characterized by their sharp, high stress area w here it can act as a stress riser, it may
fm elinc definition. A surface discontinuity has certain be entirely acceptable. W here possible, a part that is
physical characteristics including depth, w idth and expensive or in short supply may be salvageable by
length, that cause the form ation o f the indication. A light rew orking. T he design engineering function provides
discontinuity may be so narrow that it can only be seen data on item s with critical loading factors that show how
w ith a m icroscope. A typical discontinuity is alm ost deeply an area can be ground and in w hat direction.
alw ays deeper than it is wide. C lear indications generally G rinding out a discontinuity w ith proper filleting to
occur when the depth is five tim es greater than the equalize the loading o f the area is often used to salvage a
width. part after appropriate engineering analysis. G rinding out
The length o f the indication, its orientation and its discontinuities in castings and repair w elding is quite
direction in relation to the way the metal w as w orked acceptable in many cases, how ever, docum entation o f
and form ed are all good indicators o f the cause o f the such repairs is norm ally required. R epair w elding a
discontinuity. The shape o f the indication (straight, forged part is generally not acceptable because the
curved or irregular) is also important. w elding is essentially cast metal and can adversely affect
the strength o f the parent forged metal.
Subsurface Discontinuities Periodic testing and continued operation is standard
Subsurface discontinuities arc detectable if they are procedure for aircraft structures. M any tim es, a small
not loo deep. The m axim um depth cannot be slated crack will not continue to grow during inservice usage.
specifically because size and orientation are im portant The nondestructive testing program s used by airlines and
factors. A procedure using the penetrating capabilities of the U.S. Air Force are indispensable m aintenance tools
direct current must be used if subsurface discontinuities that provide a m eans o f checking critical areas to
are to be detected. H ow ever, using the sam e procedure at determ ine w hen fatigue has begun and then lo follow the
a high am perage could cause high overall surface
C hapter 9 - Indications and Interpretations / 63
indication's grow th until it reaches a specific subcritical specim en. Breaking the specim en at the reduced cross
size. section will allow the discontinuity to be seen on the
The high cost o f an industrial breakdow n or shutdow n fracture face. Exam ination o f the fracture face can reveal
caused by a broken part is intolerable in most cases. In m uch inform ation to the trained failure analyst about the
industry, m achinery can be m aintained by periodic d iscontinuity’s origin.
inservice tests. B ecause it may take m onths to fabricate A cut across an indication can reveal the cross
critical com ponents, such as large gears for industrial sectional shape o f the discontinuity and. in the case o f a
machinery, periodic inservice tests help to elim inate crack, show its depth. The specim en can be polished and
machinery com ponent failures. view ed under m agnification. T he specim en itself can
Fracture m echanics, a science that studies how cracks also be rem agnetized to show the depth o f the crack.
grow, has developed an o th er param eter in the strength o f Som etim es it is im portant to determ ine if a
materials called fra c tu re toughness. Fracture m echanics discontinuity is caused by an im proper forging practice.
is a great asset to industry because this technique allow s T he forging can be cut across the discontinuity and deep
engineers to determ ine the size o f a crack in a critical etched. The deep etch will show the How lines o f the
part that w ould cause the part to fail. It is not necessary m etal and often reveal the cause o f the discontinuity.
to apply fracture m echanics to all item s, but when a
critical item is designed (i.e.. a pressure vessel, boiler or R eference A
cryogenic container) a fracture m echanics analysis could R eference B
be very im portant during the design stage. C rack siz.e R eference C
tolerances arc becom ing part o f the contractual
requirem ents for new aircraft. T hese requirem ents Recording Indications
essentially specify that a critical com ponent m ust have R ecording indications for project books or reports is
sufficient toughness that a crack that grow s to a often very im portant. It is also desirable to record
detectable size is still below the critical crack size. indications w hen parts are tested and retained in use. If
Critical crack size is the m inim um length o f a crack that desired, a history o f the part can be m aintained to show
would cause catastrophic failure. crack grow'th. T here are a num ber o f techniques that can
be used for recording indications, such as tape transfers,
Determ ination of Discontinuity Depth lacquer fixing and photography (either co lo r or black
The norm al destructive m ethod for determ ining crack and w hite). T he details o f these procedures are presented
depth is by filing, chipping o r grinding a groove to in considerable detail in the references.
measure the depth o f the indication. T here are electronic
instrum ents available to m easure crack depth R eference C
nondestructively. but they are expensive and their
accuracy is questionable. U ltrasonic shear w aves and Interpretation and Evaluation of Test
surface w aves can be used in som e cases to estim ate Indications
crack depth, but the part configuration regularly lim its Reliable interpretation and evaluation o f test
the application o f such techniques. indications is affected by hum an factors. For the
Many tim es, a discontinuity is ground out and interpretation and evaluation process to rem ain reliable,
retested to determ ine that it has been rem oved tests must be reproducible and indications m ust be
com pletely. C are m ust be taken during the reinspection recorded. See C hapter 10. P robability o f D etection.
to use a m ore sensitive test technique to guarantee the
discontinuity is rem oved. Also, care m ust be taken so
that the am ount o f m aterial rem oved does not reduce the
cross section below allow able tolerances.
Review Q uestions 9.6 The cope side o f a casting show ed a hazy group
o f indications in about a 75 m m (3 in.) area. The
9.1 N onrelevant indications are caused by: probable cause o f the indication is:
a. brazed joints. a. porosity.
b. grain boundaries. b. shrinkage.
c. joints betw een dissim ilar m etals. c. both a and b above.
d. all o f the above. d. that such indications arc alw ays nonrelevant
on the cope side o f castings.
9.2 An indication w as noted during a test using
direct current m agnetization. To determ ine if the 9.7 A forging test revealed that som e indications
discontinuity is surface or subsurface: with irregular sharp lines were enclosing an area.
a. dem agnetize the part and retest it with T hey could be caused by:
alternating current. a. hard scale on the surface.
b. retest the part with surging current. b. slag on the surface.
c. increase the voltage. c. paint on the surface.
d. dem agnetize the part and use dry powder. d. porosity.
9.3 To determ ine w hether an indication is a crack or 9.8 W hen a part w as m agnetized, a broad but very
a nonrelevant indication: distinct indication was found along the edges.
a. rem agnetize the part w ith half w ave direct T his indication could be caused by a:
current. a. subsurface burst.
b. w ipe off the indication and apply more b. seam on the edge.
suspension. c. nonrelevant indication caused by excessive
c. dem agnetize the part and apply more current.
suspension. d. crack.
d. use higher m agnetizing current.
9.9 A group o f indications, som e sharp and some
9.4 A seam -w elded pipe that had the w eld ground broad and hazy, w ere found on an area o f a small
flush show ed broad, fuzzy indications near the forging. D em agnetization and retesting
toes o f the w eld that extended the com plete elim inated these indications. The probable cause
length o f the pipe. T he probable cause o f the was:
indication is: a. a forging lap.
a. m agnetic w riting. b. m agnetic writing.
b. the geom etry o f the weld. c. a change in perm eability.
c. a surface crack. d. a subsurface variation.
d. a perm eability change in the base m etal at
the heat affected zone. 9.10 M etallurgical variations can cause changes in
perm eability. An exam ple o f a m etallurgical
9.5 A large nonrelevant indication caused by a indication is:
leakage field that w as bridging the fillet radius a. luder lines.
could be covering a fatigue crack in this critical b. heat affected zone alongside a weld.
area. The m ost effective test to detect the c. grain boundaries in som e large grain
presence o f fatigue cracks is: m aterials.
a. to increase the current gradually. d. all o f the above.
b. to reduce the level o f m agnetization below
that w hich causes the leakage field. 9 . 11 A surface indication on bar stock is fine and
c. to dem agnetize and rem agnetize with sharp and runs lengthw ise. This is m ost likely a:
alternating current. a. fatigue crack.
d. all o f the above. b. burst.
c. stringer.
d. heat-treat crack.
C hapter 9 - Indications and Interpretations / 65
9.12 A forged and draw n bar show s a num ber o f 9.18 A subsurface indication is located ju st outside the
transverse subsurface indications along its w eld in the parent metal. T his discontinuity is
length. The condition that causes this type o f m ost likely related to:
indication is: a. lack o f fusion.
a. heat-treat cracks. b. slag inclusion.
b. chevron cracks. c. the heat affected zone.
c. inclusions. d. undercut.
d. flakes.
9.19 An interm ittent subsurface indication at the toe
9.13 M agnetic particle testing w as used on the edge o f o f a fillet w eld w as located along the length o f
the plate w ith prods and a discontinuity was the weld. T his discontinuity is m ost likely:
found in the plate about halfw ay through the a. lack o f fusion.
thickness. T he discontinuity is probably a: b. slag inclusion.
a. lam ination. c. transverse cracks in the heal affected zone.
b. stringer. d. heat crack.
c. seam.
d. burst. 9.20 A surface indication is detected along the length
o f a restrained w eld bead in the center of the
9.14 A short, very sharp indication w as found in an bead. This discontinuity is most likely:
axle at the corner o f a spline; it runs at about a. stress cracking.
45 degrees to the centerline o f the shaft. T his b. slag indications.
discontinuity is m ost likely a: c. heat-treat cracking.
a. fatigue crack. d. lack o f fusion.
b. plating crack.
c. scam . 9.21 M ultiple surface indications are detected
d. stringer. transversely across a w eld that had been part o f a
bridge deck. This discontinuity is m ost likely:
9.15 M agnetic particle testing o f the first pass in a a. flakes.
U groove butt w eld show ed a large fuzzy b. heat cracks.
indication at short intervals along the center o f c. fatigue cracks.
the weld. T his discontinuity is m ost likely: d. linear porosity.
a. lack o f fusion.
b. a crater crack. 9.22 A punch press die w as surface ground. The
c. a stringer. m agnetic particle testing conducted before heat
d. lack o f root penetration. treatm ent show ed short, very fine cracks on the
ground surface o f the die. Som e o f the cracks are
9.16 A star-shaped surface indication is seen on the in clusters. T hese discontinuities arc m ost likely:
cover pass o f a w eld. This discontinuity is m ost a. stringers.
likely: b. grinding cracks.
a. a cooling crack. c. seam s.
b. a crater crack. d. forging laps.
c. slag inclusion.
d. lack o f fusion. 9.23 A forging die has large cracks in the com ers o f
the die cavity after it w as rem oved from the
9.17 Two longitudinal subsurface indications are seen forging press. The m ost likely cause o f these
running side-by-side along the length o f the cracks is:
cover pass o f a w eld. This discontinuity is m ost a. exposure o f the die to excessive heat and
likely: pressure during service.
a. lack o f root penetration. b. im proper heat treatm ent.
b. porosity. c. forging laps that enlarged during forging.
c. cooling cracks. d. shrinkage in the casting from w hich the die
d. slag inclusions. w as made.
66 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agn etic P article Testing
9.24 D uring m agnetic particle testing, a precipitation 9.29 M agnetic particles bunch in som e fillet areas and
hardening steel part appears to he covered with stand on end on the edge o f the part being
very sm all, sharp, linear indications. m agnetized. T hese observations indicate that the:
Exam ination under high pow er m agnification a. particle concentration is too low.
reveals no surface discontinuities. T he most b. flux density is excessive.
likely cause o f these indications is: e. llux has the im proper orientation.
a. im proper grinding procedures, d. flux density is too low.
h. lam inations. e. m agnetizing current should be changed from
c. im proper m achining procedures. alternating current to direct current.
d. a m etallurgical m icrostructure inherent in
som e precipitation hardening steels.
67
68 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agnetic P article Testing
69
70 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
Review Q uestions 11.6 T he K etos ring test provides inform ation about:
a. the m agnetic properties o f the particles.
11.1 The am m eter should be checked against a b. the particle concentration.
calibration shunt/am m eter: c. the functioning o f the m agnetizing machine.
a. at the start o f each shift. d. all o f the above.
b. daily.
c. weekly. 11.7 A settling test show s that the m agnetic particle
d. annually o r as otherw ise specified. bath is too high in particle content. To correct the
situation:
11.2 T he m agnetizing current am m eter should be a. turn o ff the circulating pum p for 30 min and
calibrated by: recheck; continue this procedure until the
a. a field strength meter. bath concentration is w ithin lim its.
b. nothing - installed am m eters are considered b. dem agnetize the bath sam ple in the
to be accurate unless dam aged by overload centrifuge tube and recheck.
or accident. c. add suspension vehicle o r solvent, as
c. a calibrated am m eter and m aster shunt appropriate, to achieve an allow able particle
placed betw een the m achine’s current content.
contacts. d. continue to circulate the bath until an
d. a calibrated galvanom eter and bridge circuit allow able concentration is achieved.
connected across the installed am meter.
11.8 T he test used to check the strength or
11.3 The alternating current am m eter should be concentration o f the w et m ethod is called the:
checked: a. hardness test.
a. with a shunt and a m aster alternating current b. sensitivity test.
am meter. c. settling test.
b. with an im pedance bridge and an d. hydrom eter test.
oscilloscope.
c. w ith a m aster current transform er and a 11.9 The m agnetic particle bath concentration should
calibrated alternating current am meter. be checked:
d. only if it is dam aged. a. daily.
b. weekly.
11.4 W hich o f the follow ing is not a m eans of c. m onthly
verifying the correct operation o f the m agnetic d. in accordance w ith the applicable procedures
particle testing process? and specifications.
a. C hecking the ultraviolet light intensity.
b. C hecking the w ater w ashability o f the
em ulsifier.
c. Calibrating the am m eter with a m aster
am m eter and shunt.
d. C hecking the m agnetic properties o f the
particles with a K etos ring.
73
74 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agnetic P article Testing
either m agnetic particle testing or liquid penetrant that m ake the preparation o f the standard
testing. C lasses B and C have low er reliability necessary.
requirem ents and require full m agnetic particle testing 2. T he applicable docum ents are com pany docum ents
and a sam pling plan for radiographic testing. The grade that are referenced.
o f the m aterial determ ines its acceptability. T he grade is 3. M aterials and other expendable supplies are
based on the design and structural requirem ents o f the occasionally listed w ith their trade nam e and
casting. T here is a tabulation in the docum ent o f the source.
quantitative ranges and lim its o f acceptable 4. Equipm ent to be used is listed.
discontinuities. A com ponent specification referencing 5. R equirem ents are presented. T hese stale the
this particular docum ent must specify both the class and acceptable ranges o f the factors being m easured
grade o f casting required. and controlled as well as the frequency that they
T he A S M E B oiler anil Pressure Vessel Code also should be m easured.
provides sim ilar data. Welds in pressure vessels are 6. P rocedures detail the m anner and m eans o f
loaded differently, depending on their location. As a obtaining the desired m easurem ents.
consequence, the acceptance criteria can be different. For 7. Safety requirem ents are presented w here
exam ple, the configuration o f the head provides different applicable.
types o f loads on the w elds. A hem ispheric head may 8. N otes m ay be included regarding item s o f advice
have prim arily tensile loads if the plates m atch perfectly or o f caution.
with no offset. A vessel with a flatter head could 9. R eference docum ents are som etim es listed to
experience tensile loads but also a bending stress. These provide background inform ation for the user.
different load factors can result in the need to apply
different acceptance criteria from one location to A procedure should detail at least the follow ing items:
another. 1. M aterials, shapes o r sizes to w hich the procedure
D ocum ents containing acceptance criteria present a is specifically applicable.
technique o f grading certain types o f m aterials or 2. The type o f m agnetization to be used.
products. Certain variables are categorized, such as the 3. T he equipm ent to be used for m agnetization.
alloy, type o f fabrication, finish, coaling, strength, safety 4. Surface preparation (finishing and cleaning).
and function. T hese factors should be considered in the 5. T he ferrom agnetic particles to be used
design analysis before assigning a class o r grade to the (m anufacturer, color, type).
product. T he acceptance criteria state the size and type 6. M agnetization current and tim e involved.
o f discontinuities acceptable in a specified area. The 7. Sketches o r charts indicating the location, type and
product can be zoned to allow different grade levels in am perage o f each test area and. if necessary, the
different locations on the product, if so desired. sequence o f tests.
However, in som e cases, acceptance criteria may have
only one discontinuity size above w hich it m ust be For more specific inform ation on the content o f
rem oved, rem oved and repaired, or scrapped. procedures reference ASTM E 1444.
O ccasionally, procedures contain the acceptance
Procedures criteria from the specification that relates to the specific
T he scope o f a procedure is intended to cover a single part. This w ould present the exact procedure and
process, com plex o r critical com ponent, or a group o f acceptance criteria for each specific part as stated in the
sim ilar item s. Procedures contain the requirem ents, specification o r the engineering draw ing. The procedure
lim itations and criteria set forth by the engineering, should be retained and filed by num ber in the m agnetic
m anagem ent and quality departm ents o f the p urchaser particle testing area and it should be referred to each
and supplier. The procedure should present everything an tim e a batch o f parts is to be tested.
inspector needs to know to apply the process and test the
parts to the intended specification. Though procedures Sample Magnetic Particle Testing Procedure
are frequently developed in laboratory conditions on A sam ple m agnetic particle testing procedure can be
special test objects, they should be tried under found in A ppendix 1.
production conditions by production personnel before
actual im plem entation. Techniques
P rocedures establish the details for controlling Techniques are m uch more specific than procedures
specific processes. and often require no m ore than one page. These
I. The scope should establish the lim its o f docum ents outline the very basic requirem ents, such as
applicability o f the docum ent or special conditions specific equipm ent, solutions, m agnetization am perages.
C hapter 12 - S pecifications, Procedures, T echniques and Standards / 75
Reference A
Reference B
Reference C
76 / A SN T Level 111 Study G uide: M agnetic Particle Testing
12.2 A docum ent in w idespread use by large segm ents 12.6 A cu sto m er's specification for a particular part
o f industry is titled R ecom m ended P ractice fo r includes a detailed procedure for m agnetic
M easurem ent a nd C ontrol o f M agnetic P article p an icle testing. T he inspection facility does not
M aterials used in M agnetic P article Inspection. have equipm ent o f the specific type that the
This docum ent is m ost probably a: custom er has required. H ow ever, the A SN T N D T
a. code. Level III is fam iliar w ith the cu sto m er's
b. standard. equipm ent and can verify that the inspection
c. process specification. facility's equipm ent is at least as effective. The
d. m aintenance m anual. A SN T N D T Level 111 is asked to com m ent on
e. com ponent quality specification. the cu sto m er’s procedure because the com pany
w ishes to bid com petitively. The
12.3 T he organization that most probably developed recom m endation should be that:
and issued the docum ent referenced in 12.2 is: a. m anagem ent should be inform ed that the
a. a large corporation. facility 's equipm ent, w hile different, has
b. an industry association representing a equal capabilities on the equipm ent specified
num ber o f corporations that all produce the and that the A SN T N D T Level III will
sam e type o f product. prepare a procedure based on the equipm ent
c. a technical o r professional society that can be sent to the custom er for approval
representing design engineers. along with the bid.
d. an association o f m agnetic particle b. because this situation represents an
equipm ent m anufacturers. opportunity for the facility to get additional
e. a national or international consensus equipm ent, the A SN T N D T Level 111 should
standards w riting organization. inform m anagem ent that the only safe way
to bid on this jo b is to prom ise to purchase
12.4 Sm all parts are som etim es fabricated from the custom er specified equipm ent.
engineering draw ings that contain acceptance c. the A SN T N D T Level III should recom m end
criteria in the notes on the face o f the draw ing. that the com pany not bid on the jo b because
In such cases, the draw ing m ost nearly the inspection facility does not have the
represents a: proper equipm ent.
a. code. d. the A SN T N D T Level III should inform
b. standard. m anagem ent that after the inspection facility
c. specification. gets the jo b , the details can be w orked out
d. procedure. w ith the custom er.
e. m anagem ent should be inform ed that it is
inappropriate for the A SN T N D T Level III
to be asked to supply such com m ents,
because such touchy situations should be
dealt w ith by a higher level o f responsibility.
C hapter 12 - S pecification s, Procedures, Techniques and Standards / 77
12.7 O ne step in a procedure m akes reference to a 12.9 Procedure P-2468 provides for step-dow n
sequence o f steps contained in another docum ent specim ens that have various step lengths. If
w ithout reproducing them in the procedure being specim ens w ere received for testing under
used. W hich o f the follow ing statem ents is true? P-3650 that had step diam eters o f 1. 2 and 3 in.
a. The referenced docum ent is for advisory use and step lengths o f 3 in.. the areas o f the survey
only: it is not necessary to perform the steps surfaces for each step w ould be. for the 1 .2 and
included in the referenced docum ent. 3 in. diam eter steps, respectively:
b. It is im proper to reference one procedure in a. 9.42, 6.28 and 3.14 in.-.
another. T he referenced docum ent steps need b. 3.14, 6.28 and 9.42 in.2.
not be perform ed unless they are reproduced c. 9.42. 18.84 and 28.26 in.2.
in the docum ent being used. d. 28.26. 18.84 and 9.42 in.2.
c. The referenced docum ent steps should be e. none o f the above.
perform ed, but only if the inspector is
fam iliar with the referenced docum ent and 12.10 Fluorescent particles are not readily available for
can perform the steps w ithout having the these tests. It is perm issible to use visible
docum ent in hand. m agnetic particles:
d. The referenced docum ent steps should be a. under no condition.
perform ed, based on oral instructions in the b. if the concentration as m easured in the
steps contained in the referenced docum ent centrifuge tube ranges betw een 1.0 and 1.2.
by the inspector's supervision. c. if the slurry sensitivity test produces
e. None o f the above statem ents represent the indications o f at least four holes in the Ketos
proper approach. ring.
d. with any technique because the procedure
The follow ing questions refer to the procedure P-3650. does not specify the use o f either fluorescent
Steel Cleanliness by the M agnetic P article M ethod, o r visible particles.
found in A ppendix I .
12.11 To reveal all o f the inclusions o f interest, the
12.8 The inspection personnel w ho should perform specim ens should be m agnetized by:
the m agnetic particle testing to P-3650 is: a. alternating current longitudinal
a. a certified Level I w orking under the m agnetization.
supervision o f a certified Level II. b. direct current circular m agnetization.
b. a certified Level II w orking under the c. direct current circular m agnetization
supervision o f a certified A SN T N D T follow ed by three fast alternating current
Level III. circular shots.
c. a certified Level I should perform the d. alternating current circular m agnetization.
m agnetizing procedure and a certified e. both circular and longitudinal m agnetization.
Level II should count the indications and
record the results. 12.12 A specim en was received for testing in
d. a Level II or A SN T N D T Level III should accordance w ith P-3650. T he specim en was
perform the test because this procedure is 3 1 x 6 0 mm (1.25x2.38 in.) cross section and
com plex. 103 mm (4.06 in.) long. The m inim um
e. laboratory personnel— they need not be m agnetizing current that should be used is:
qualified o r certified as m agnetic particle a. 1156 A.
testing personnel. b. 2311 A.
c. 4691 A.
d. 7260 A.
e. none o f the above.
78 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agnetic Particle Testing
Parts
P ails should be handled carefully to prevent dam age
and im proper contact with current-producing equipm ent
when m agnetizing or dem agnetizing.
Im properly handled parts and equipm ent can cause
dam age that renders the parts unsatisfactory for their
intended use. D eep nicks, scratches and oth er dam age
may not be repairable or m ay require excessive tim e and
79
Appendix 1
Test Procedure Example
The follow ing is a sam ple procedure for perform ing a m agnetic particle test. This procedure is typical o f many
found in industry.
T he A SN T N D T Level 111 m ust sign this docum ent, technique sheets and other docum ents related to the m agnetic
particle test prepared w ithin the com pany in accordance with com pany procedures.
(Rev. C),
Nov. I, 20(15
Supersedes
Rev. B
Jan. 14. 2002.
P rocedure No.: P-3650
1.0 Scope
This docum ent provides a procedure for m agnetic particle inspection o f the steel cleanliness specim ens prepared
in accordance with P rocedure P-2468.
2.0 R eferences
PBA -1004. A ircraft Q uality Steel Cleanliness— M agnetic P article M ethod
PBA -906, M agnetic P article Inspection
A STM E 1444. Standard P ractice f o r M agnetic P article E xam ination
A SN T-CP-189. P ersonnel Q ualification and Certification in N ondestructive Testing (2001 edition)
P-2468. Steel C leanliness Specim en Preparation
3.0 Personnel
Personnel shall be certified in accordance w ith A SN T-C P-189. 2001 edition. T hese tests shall be conducted by
certified Level I personnel w orking to this procedure under the supervision o f certified Level II personnel.
4.0 Equipm ent
1. Wet horizontal m agnetic particle m achine w ith fluorescent suspension
2. K etos ring
3. 2.5 cm diam eter copper bar, 45.7 cm long
4. 100 W m inim um pressure m ercury-vapor ultraviolet light
5. 100 tnL pear-shaped centrifuge lube
5.0 D efinition o f Term s
Stringers— nonm elallic inclusions in the steel
Steel cleanliness specim en— a steel specim en that has been m achined in accordance with Procedure P-2468
Perim eter— perim eter o f a square o r rectangle is the sum o f the four sides
M agnetizing current for a square or rectangular specim en cross section —
am perage = perim eter/3.1416 x 1000
For exam ple, for a bar 1.3 cm thick and 10.0 cm wide:
perim eter = 10.0 cm + 10.0 cm + 1.3 cm + 1.3 cm = 22.6 cm
am perage = 22.6 c n t/3 .1416 x 1000 = 7194 A.
Note: T he next highest current available shall be used if current selection is not continuous.
81
82 / A SN T Level i l l Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
6.0 S ta n d a rd iz a tio n
Prior to any lest in accordance w ith this procedure, the pum p on the m achine shall be operated continuously for
30 m inutes A 100 m L centrifuge tube shall be filled with suspension taken from the exit noble to the 100 m L level
and allow ed to stand for 30 m inutes A range o f 0.2 to 0.7 m L o f particles shall be indicated in the tube. If
necessary, the suspension shall be adjusted or changed to com ply w ith the requirem ents o f PBA -906.
C onduct a slurry sensitivity test in accordance w ith M IL -I-6868 using the K etos ring. Atleast four holes in the
ring must be indicated at 2500 A on a 2.5 cm (1 in.) copper bar. T his test m ust be m ade im m ediately prior to the
cleanliness test in accordance w ith this procedure.
7.(1 Test P rocedure
7.1 C leaning
D egrease the specim ens to rem ove oil or antirust coatings in accordance w ith PBA -906
7.2 Inspection
Using a w et continuous direct current fluorescent particle procedure, start at the sm allest size on the
specim en and m agnetize at 1000 A p er 2.5 cm (1 in.) diam eter. To com pute the am perage for a rectangular
specim en, m easure the perim eter o f each step o f the specim en and divide by 3.1416. The form ula for the
am perage o f a 2.5 cm (1 in.) square bar w ould be:
am perage = 10.0 c m /3 .1416 x 1000 = 3183 A.
Note: T he next highest current available shall be used if current selection is not continuous.
The specim en shall be clam ped betw een the contact plates and direct circu lar m agnetism used. M agnetize
one tim e, cover the part with suspension, stop the flow o f suspension and m agnetize three tim es in a fast
sequence. The m agnetization shall not be less than 0.2 s.
7.3 On each successive step o f the specim en, count the num ber o f stringers and record on the record sheet as
required by paragraph 8.0 o f this procedure.
7.4 Repeat steps 7.2 and 7.3 for each step o f the specim en.
7.5 Postcleaning
W ipe the specim en w ith a clean cloth to rem ove m agnetic particles and oil. then w rap in paper.
8.0 R ecording Procedure
A separate recording form shall be used for each specim en. The form used shall be as attached to this procedure.
(See Figure A L L )
a. On the form s accom panying the specim ens, record the M aterial Spec.. P.O. N um ber and H eat N um ber
in the upper corner. Fill in the largest diam eter in Size in the upper com er.
b. Fill in the date.
c. Fill in the diam eter o f the first step in the first colum n.
d. Com pute the area o f the step and record in the second colum n.
T he area o f the circular cross section = diam eter x 3.14 x length o f step.
T he area o f the rectangular cross section step = perim eter x length o f step.
e. C ount and m easure the length o f each indication on each step. Record the num ber o f indications in (he
proper colum n according to their length.
f. A dd all o f the indications for each step and record in the Sum colum n.
g. D ivide the sum by the area and enter the num ber in Sum /A rea colum n.
h. Add all o f the Sum /A rea entries and record in F requency p e r Specim en colum n.
i. M ultiply the num ber o f indications o f each length range by the P rogression F actor at the top o f the
colum n.
j. Add all o f the products for each sheet and record in the Total P roduct colum n,
k. D ivide the Total Product by the A rea for each step and enter in P roduct/Area colum n.
1. Total the Product/Area colum n and enter in the Severity p e r Specim en space.
m. If m ore than one specim en is tested for a single H eat Number. P.O. N u m b er and M aterial Spec., add
the F requency p e r Specim en from each record sheet to obtain the Total F requency o f Heat. D ivide the
Total Frequency o f H eat by the N um ber o f Specim ens and enter the result in the A verage Frequency o f
H eat space on each record sheet,
n. Sim ilarly, add the Severity P er Specim en from each record sheet to obtain the Total Severity o f Heat.
D ivide the Total S everin ’ o f H ea t by the N um ber o f Specim ens and enter in the A verage Severity o f
H eat space on each record sheet.
M aterial Spec. ________
CO
Record for Determ ination of Frequency-Severity P.O. No. ______________ c
-1
O' <0
'j i
Appendix
F requency per Specim en 21.7
Product = Total N um ber o f Indications x the Progression F actor for each Length o f Indication
Inspector Signature
Appendix 2
Magnetization Chart
Material Chemical Curie Point Pm ax ® Sat Hc — Remanence P in t
Iro n , 5 % S ilic o n 7 2 0 (1 3 2 8 )
Iro n , 1 0 % C h r o m iu m 7 4 0 (1 3 6 4 )
Iro n , 4 % M a n g a n e s e 7 1 5 (1 3 1 9 )
Iro n , 6 % V a n a d iu m 8 1 5 (1 4 9 9 )
C o b o lt ( E le m e n t) 1 1 3 0 (2 0 6 6 ) 250 18 2 0 0 1 0 .0 70
Materials Properties
N ic k le ( E le m e n t) 3 5 8 (6 7 6 ) 600 6100 0 .7 110
F e r rite '
F e r rite 2
F e r rite 3
Appendix 3
S u p e r a llo y 7 9 N i, 5 M o 400 1 000 000 8000 0 .0 0 2 100 000
M ild S te e l 0 .2 C a r b o n 4 .0
( N o r m a liz e d )
A ln ic o V 2 4 C o , 1 4 N i, 8 6 0 0 .0 13 0 0 0
A l. 3 C u
A ln ic o V III 3 . 5 C o , 1 4 .5 N i, 1 4 5 0 .0
7 A l, 5 T i, 4 . 5 C u
B iz m a n o l M nBi 3 6 5 0 .0
P la tin u m -C o b a lt P IC o ( 7 7 % C o ) 4 3 0 0 .0
(1) Ferrite material used for core material in electronics. Base material is either spinel, garnet or magnetoplumbite. (2) Ferrite in Nodular iron castings. (3) Ferrite in
pH hardening alloys (17-4. 15-5. etc.) (4) From saturation
Appendix 4
Glossary
acceptance standard: A specim en lest object sim ilar to B arkhausen effect (B arkhausen steps) - The
the product to be tested, containing natural or m agnetization o f a ferrom agnetic substance by an
artificial discontinuities that are well defined and increasing m agnetic field; takes place in
sim ilar in size to. o r extent of. the m axim um discontinuous steps rather than continuously. The
acceptable in the product, effect results from the orientation o f m agnetic
alternating current: An electric current that reverses the dom ains. It w as first observed by H. Barkhausen in
direction o f its flow at regular intervals, 1919.
alternating current field: The active m agnetic field hath: See suspension.
produced around a conductor by an alternating bearding: S ee fu rrin g .
current flow ing in the conductor, B erthold penetram eter: A m agnetic flux indicator
alternating current m agnetization: M agnetization by a containing an artificial discontinuity in the shape ol
m agnetic field that is generated when alternating a cross, m ounted below an adjustable cover plate.
current is flow'ing.
am pere: A unit o f electric cu n e n t. A bbreviated A or cap acitor discharge m ethod: A single-shot
amp. m agnetization m ethod using discharge from a bank
am pere per m eter: The m agnetic field strength in air at o f capacitors. A m eans by w hich electrical current
the center o f a single-turn circular coil having a is built up and stored until a sufficient level is
diam eter o f I meter, through w hich a current o f achieved to provide a predeterm ined m agnetic field
I A is flow ing. A bbreviated A*m-1 o r A/m. in a test object, usually saturation,
am pere turns: The product o f the num ber o f turns o f a carrier fluid: The liquid vehicle in w hich fluorescent or
coil and the current in am peres flow ing through the non fluorescent m agnetic particles are suspended
coil. for ease o f application. See vehicle.
arc: A lum inous high tem perature discharge produced central conductor: An electric conductor passed
w hen all electric current flow s across a gaseous through the opening in a part w ith an aperture, or
gap. through a hole in a test object, for the purpose of
arc strikes: Localized bum dam age to an object from creating a circular m agnetic field in the object,
the arc caused by breaking an energized electric circular m agnetic field: The m agnetic field surrounding
circuit. A lso called arc burns. an electrical conductor (test object) w hen a current
arcing: C urrent flow through a gap. often accom panied is passed longitudinally through the conductor,
by intense heat and light, circular m agnetization: The m agnetization in an object
articulated pole pieces: On a m agnetizing yoke, resulting from current passed longitudinally
independently adjustable m agnetic elem ents through the object itself or through an inserted
enabling the m agnetization o f irregular test object central conductor,
profiles. circum ferential m agnetization: See circular
artificial discontinuity: A m anufactured material m agnetization.
anom aly. Sec acceptance standard and reference coercive force H : T he m agnetizing field strength
standard. required to bring the m agnetic flux density o f a
artificial flaw standard: See acceptance standard. m agnetized m aterial to 0.
coil m ethod: A m ethod o f m agnetization in w hich all or
background: In m agnetic particle testing, the a portion o f the object is encircled by a
appearance o f the surface against w hich test current-carrying coil,
indications are viewed. coil shot: A technique o f producing longitudinal
m agnetization by passing electric current through a
coil encircling the test object,
coil technique: See coil m ethod.
89
9 0 /A S N T Level III Study G uide: M agnetic P article Testing
conditioning agent: An additive to w ater suspensions discontinuity: A change in the physical structure or
that im parts specific properties such as proper configuration o f an object. M ay be intentional or
w etting, particle dispersion or corrosion resistance, unintentional,
contact head: E lectrode assem bly used to clam p and dom ain: A saturated m acroscopic substructure in
support an object to facilitate passage o f electric ferrom agnetic m aterials w here the elem entary
current through the object for circular particles (electron spins) are aligned in one
m agnetization, direction by interatom ic forces. A dom ain w ould be
contact m ethod: See currenl flow technique. a saturated perm anent m agnet,
contact pad: R eplaceable m etal pad. usually m ade o f dry m ethod: A m agnetic particle testing m ethod in
lead or copper braid, placed on electrodes to give w hich the ferrom agnetic particles are applied in a
good electrical contact thereby preventing dam age dry pow der form,
such as arc strikes to the test object, dry powder: Finely divided ferrom agnetic particles
continuous technique: A sequence where m agnetic selected and prepared for m agnetic particle testing.
particles are applied to the test object w hile the
m agnetizing force is present. electrode: A conductor by m eans o f w hich a current
C urie point: T he tem perature at w hich ferrom agnetic passes into o r out o f a test object,
m aterials can no longer be m agnetized by outside electrom agnet: A soft iron core surrounded by a coil o f
forces and at w hich they lose residual m agnetism w ire that tem porarily becom es a m agnet when an
(betw een 650 and 870 °C for m ost m etals). electric current flow s through the wire,
C urie tem perature, '/'c:The transition tem perature above encircling coil: See coil m ethod.
w hich a m aterial loses its ferrom agnetic properties. evaluation: The process o f determ ining the m agnitude
A pproxim ately 760 °C (600 °F) for iron, and significance o f a discontinuity causing a test
current flow technique: A m eans o f m agnetizing by indication after it has been interpreted as being
passing current through an object using prods or relevant.
contact heads. The current may be alternating exam ination: T he process o f testing m aterials,
current or rectified alternating current, interpreting and evaluating indications to determ ine
current induction technique: A m eans o f m agnetization if the test object m eets specified acceptance
in w hich a circulating current is induced in a ring criteria.
com ponent by the influence o f a fluctuating exam ination m edium : A pow der or suspension o f
m agnetic field. m agnetic particles applied to a m agnetized test
surface to determ ine the presence o r absence o f
dark adaptation: T he adjustm ent o f the eye o ver tim e to surface or slightly subsurface discontinuities.
reduced illum ination, including increased retinal
sensitivity, dilation o f the pupil and other reflex false indication: An indication that m ay be interpreted
physical changes, as being caused by a discontinuity but is located
defect: A discontinuity w hose size, shape, orientation or w here no discontinuity exists.
location m ake it detrim ental to the useful service o f F arad ay’s law o f m agnetic induction: (1) An e.m .f. is
the test object o r w hich exceeds the accept/reject induced in a conductor w hen the m agnetic field
criteria o f an applicable specification, surrounding it changes: (2) the m agnitude o f the
dem agnetization: T he reduction o f residual m agnetism e.m .f. is proportional to the rate o f change in the
to an acceptable level, field: (3) the sense o f the induced e.m .f. depends
dem agnetizing coil: A coil o f conductive m aterial on the direction o f the rate o f change o f the field,
carrying alternating current used for ferrite: A very ductile form o f practically pure iron (no
dem agnetization, carbon) that occurs in the m atrix o f cast iron and
diam agnetic m aterial: A m aterial w ith m agnetic therefore in rolled and forged steel products. It has
perm eability less than one. a tensile strength o f - 5 0 000 lbs.
direct contact m agnetization: See current flo w ferrom agnetic m aterial: A m aterial that exhibits the
technique. p henom ena o f m agnetic hysteresis and m agnetic
direct current: An electric current flow ing continually saturation and w hose m agnetic perm eability is
in one direction through a conductor, dependent on the m agnetizing field strength,
direct current field: A residual m agnetic field or an field flow technique: See m agnetic flo w technique.
active m agnetic field produced by direct current field strength, H The p aram eter characterizing the
(low ing in a conductor. am plitude o f the m agnetizing field strength.
A ppendix 4 - G lossary / 91
fill-factor: In the coil m ethod o f m agnetization, the ratio Produced w hen a current flow s along a rectangular
o f the cross sectional area o f the object w ithin the co nductor subjected to a transverse m agnetic field.
coil to the cross sectional area o f the coil, The m agnitude o f the voltage is proportional to the
flash m agnetization: M agnetization by a current flow o f applied field.
b rief duration. See ca pacitor discharge m ethod. heads: The clam ping contacts on stationary m agnetic
flash point: The lowest tem perature at w hich vapors particle system s,
above a volatile, com bustible substance ignite in head shot: A short pulse o f m agnetizing current passed
air w hen exposed to flam e, through an object or a central conductor w hile
flaw: Sec defect. clam ped betw een the head contacts o f a
fluorescence: T he em ission by a substance o f visible m agnetizing unit, generating circular m agnetization
radiation as a result of. and only during, the o f the object. D uration o f the current is usually less
absorption o f ultraviolet energy, than 1 s.
fluorescent m agnetic particle testing: T he process h orseshoe m agnet: A b ar m agnet bent into the shape o f
using finely divided ferrom agnetic particles that a horseshoe so that the tw o poles are adjacent. The
fluoresce w hen exposed to ultraviolet light (320 to term usually applies to a perm anent m agnet,
4 00 nm). hysteresis: ( I ) The lagging o f the m agnetic effect when
flux density, B. The corresponding param eter for the the m agnetizing force acting on a ferrom agnetic
induced m agnetic field in an area perpendicular to body is changed. (2) T he phenom enon exhibited by
the flux path. See m agnetic flux density. a m agnetic system w herein its state is influenced
flux density, saturation. Bs: T he m axim um intrinsic by its previous history,
induction possible in a m aterial. hysteresis loop: A curve show ing flux density B plotted
Ilux indicator: A sm all device, generally a metal strip or as a function o f m agnetizing force H as the
disk, containing artificial discontinuities. Used to m agnetizing force is increased to the saturation
determ ine when correct m agnetizing conditions or point in both the negative and positive directions
m agnetic field direction have been achieved, sequentially. The curve form s a characteristic S
flux leakage field: The m agnetic field that leaves or shaped loop. Intercepts o f the loop w ith the BH
enters the surface o f an object, axis and the points o f m inim um and m axim um
flux leakage m ethod: A m ethod for the detection and m agnetizing force define im portant m agnetic
analysis o f a discontinuity using the flux that characteristics o f a m aterial.
leaves a m agnetically saturated, or nearly saturated,
test object at a discontinuity. indication: A m agnetic particle accum ulation that serves
Ilux lines: See lines o f fo rc e . as evidence o f a leakage field and requires
fluxm eter: An electronic device for m easuring m agnetic interpretation to determ ine its significance,
flux. induced m agnetization: A m agnetic field generated in
lull w ave direct current: A single phase or three phase an object w hen no direct electrical contact is made,
alternating current rectified to produce direct induced current technique: See current induction
current characteristics o f penetration and flow, technique.
furring: Build up or bristling o f m agnetic particles inductance: The m agnetism produced in a ferrom agnetic
resulting from excessive m agnetization o f the test body by som e outside m agnetizing force,
object. inherent fluorescence: Fluorescence that is an intrinsic
characteristic o f a material,
gauss: A unit o f m agnetic flux density or m agnetic inspection: See exam ination.
induction. M agnetic field strength B is m easured in in spection m edium : See exam ination m edium .
gauss (G); 1 G is one line o f m agnetic flux per internal conductor: See central conductor.
square centim eter o f area. See tesla. interpretation: The determ ination o f a m agnetic particle
gaussm eter: A m agnetom eter using gauss to register indication’s source and relevancy.
field strength.
keeper: F errom agnetic m aterial placed across the poles
h alf w ave current: A unidirectional rectified single o f a perm anent m agnet to com plete the m agnetic
phase alternating current that produces a pulsating circuit and prevent loss o f m agnetism .
unidirectional field.
Hall effect: A potential difference developed across a lam inated pole pieces: See a rticulated p o le pieces.
conductor at right angles to the direction o f both leakage field: See Ilux leakage field .
the m agnetic field and the electric current.
92 / A SN T Level III Study G uide: M agn etic P article Testing
leeches: Perm anent m agnets or electrom agnets attached m agnetic particles: Finely divided ferrom agnetic
to electrodes carrying m agnetizing current, to m aterial capable o f being individually m agnetized
provide strong electrode contact, and attracted to flux leakage fields,
lifting power: The ability o f a m agnet to lift a piece o f m agnetic perm eability: See perm eability.
ferrite steel by m agnetic attraction alone, m agnetic pole: O ne o f tw o sites on a m agnet that
lines o f force: A conceptual representation o f m agnetic generates m agnetic fields. Flux leakage sites on an
flux based on the line pattern produced w hen iron object.
filings are sprinkled on paper laid over a perm anent m agnetic powder: M agnetic particles in dry o r pow der
magnet. form w ith size and shape suitable for discontinuity
longitudinal m agnetic field: A m agnetic field w herein detection.
the flux lines traverse the com ponent in a direction m agnetic rubber: A specially form ulated testing
that is essentially parallel w ith its longitudinal axis, m edium containing m agnetic particles. U sed to
longitudinal m agnetization: M agnetization in w hich the obtain replica castings o f com ponent surfaces with
flux lines traverse the com ponent in a direction d iscontinuities being reproduced w ithin the replica.
essentially parallel to its longitudinal axis. A suitable m agnetizing technique causes the
m igration o f m agnetic particles w ithin the m edium
m agnetic circuit: T he closed path follow ed by any to the position o f the discontinuity,
group o f m agnetic flux lines, m agnetic saturation: In a specific m aterial, the degree
m agnetic constant, |X(): T he perm eability o f free space, o f m agnetization w here an increase in H produces
m agnetic field: W ithin and surrounding a m agnetized no further increase in m agnetization,
object, the space in w hich the m agnetic force is m agnetic writing: A nonrelevant indication som etim es
exerted. caused w hen the surface o f a m agnetized object
m agnetic field indicator: A device used to locate or com es in contact with another piece o f
determ ine the relative intensity o f a flux leakage ferrom agnetic m aterial or a current-carrying cable,
field em anating from an object, m agnetism : T he ability o f a m agnet to attract or repel
m agnetic field leakage: See flu x leakage field . another m agnet o r to attract a ferrom agnetic
m agnetic field strength: The m easured intensity o f a m aterial. A force field surrounding conductors
m agnetic field at a specific point. E xpressed in carrying electric current,
am peres per m eter o r oersted, m agnetization: T he process by w hich elem entary
m agnetic flow technique: W hen a test object or a m agnetic dom ains o f a m aterial are aligned
portion o f it closes the m agnetic circuit o f an predom inantly in one direction,
electrom agnet. T he resulting field is longitudinal in m agnetizing current: The electric current passed
direction. through or adjacent to an object that gives rise to a
m agnetic flux: The total num ber o f lines o f force designated m agnetic field
existing in a m agnetic circuit, m agnetizing force: T he m agnetizing field strength
m agnetic flux density: T he norm al m agnetic flux per applied to ferrom agnetic m aterial to produce
unit area. Expressed in tesla o r gauss, m agnetism .
m agnetic flux leakage: See flu x leakage field. m agnetom eter: A device for m easuring the strength o f
m agnetic hysteresis: In a m agnetic m aterial, the m agnets or m agnetic fields,
irreversible variation o f the flux density B or m ultidirectional m agnetization: Tw'o or more m agnetic
m agnetization w hich is associated w ith the change fields in different directions im posed on a lest
o f m agnetic field strength and is independent o f the object sequentially and in rapid succession.
rate o f change. See hysteresis.
m agnetic leakage field: See flux leakage field, near surface discontinuity: A discontinuity not open to
m agnetic particle test: A nondestructive test m ethod but located near the surface o f a test object.
utilizing m agnetic leakage fields and suitable Produces broad, fuzzy, lightly held dry particle
indicating m aterials to disclose surface and near indications.
surface discontinuities, nonrelevant indication: A test indication produced by
m agnetic particle test system : E quipm ent providing the an acceptable discontinuity or by spurious effects
electric current and m agnetic flux necessary for such as m agnetic w riting, changes in section, or the
m agnetic particle discontinuity detection. Provides boundary betw een m aterials o f different m agnetic
facilities for holding com ponents o f varying properties.
dim ensions and for adjusting and reading the
m agnetizing current.
A ppendix 4 - G lossary / 93
oersted: T he egs unit o f m agnetic field strength. verifying the accuracy o f discontinuity detection
Replaced by the SI system ’s am pere per meter, processes or equipm ent,
overall m agnetization: M agnetizing a com plete object relevant indication: An indication caused by a condition
with a single energizing cycle. o r a type o f discontinuity that requires evaluation,
rem ancnce, B T he flux density rem aining in a m agnetic
parallel m agnetization: A m agnetic field induced in m aterial when the applied m agnetic field strength
m agnetizable m aterial placed parallel to a is reduced to 0.
conductor carrying an electric current. N ot a rem anent m agnetism : See residual m agnetic field.
recom m ended practice for m agnetic particle residual m agnetic field: T he field rem aining in a
testing. ferrom agnetic m aterial after the m agnetizing force
param agnetic m aterial: A m aterial with m agnetic is reduced to 0.
perm eability slightly greater than one. residual technique: Ferrom agnetic particles are applied
perm anent m agnet: An object possessing the ability to to a test object after the m agnetizing force has been
retain an applied m agnetic field for a long period discontinued,
o f tim e after the active pow er o f the field has been retentivity: The capacity o f a substance to retain
rem oved. m agnetism after the m agnetizing force has been
perm eability: (1) The ease w ith w hich a m aterial can reduced to 0.
becom e m agnetized. (2) The ratio o f flux density to ring standard: See test ring.
m agnetizing force B/H.
perm eability, (i: The ratio o f the m agnetic flux density saturation: The point at w hich a m aterial is unable to be
B in a substance to the external (applied) field m agnetized m ore strongly as all dom ains are
strength H. F or exam ple p = B/H. oriented in the same direction,
perm eability relative, |lr: T he ratio o f the perm eability saturation level: See m agnetic saturation.
o f a substance to (he perm eability o f free space. sensitivity: T he degree o f capability o f a m agnetic
fir = fi/fio- particle test to indicate surface or near surface
perm eability initial, |ijllt: T he perm eability obtained discontinuities in ferrom agnetic materials,
from the ratio o f the flux density B kept at <10 settlin g test: A procedure used to determ ine the
gauss, and the required field strength II. M aterial concentration o f particles in a m agnetic particle
initially in a specified neutralized state, bath.
pole: See m agnetic pole. shot: A short energizing cycle in a m agnetic particle test,
powder: See d ry pow der. skin effect: T he phenom enon that causes the
pow der blower: A com pressed air device used to apply m agnetization produced by alternating current to be
dry m agnetic particles over the surface o f a test contained near the surface o f a ferrom agnetic
object. object.
prod m agnetization: See current flow technique. slurry: A free-flow ing pum pable suspension o f a fine
prods: H andheld electrodes for transm itting m agnetizing solid in a liquid,
current from a generating source to a test object, su bsu rface discontinuity: See near surface
pulse m agnetization: D irect or indirect application o f a discontinuity.
high field intensity, usually by the capacitor suspension: A tw o phase system com prising finely
discharge m ethod. divided m agnetic particles dispersed in a vehicle,
often a liquid petroleum distillate. See vehicle.
quick break: A sudden interruption o f m agnetizing sw in ging field: See m ultidirectional m agnetization.
current. U sed in m agnetic particle tests for
m aterials with high residual longitudinal tesla: T he SI unit o f m easure for m agnetic flux density
m agnetism and lim ited to three phase full w ave (T). O ne tesla is equivalent to 1()4 G.
rectified alternating current. test piece: See reference standard.
test ring: A ring specim en typically m ade o f tool steel,
rectified alternating current: A unidirectional electric containing artificial subsurface discontinuities used
current obtained by rectifying alternating current to evaluate and com pare the perform ance and
w ithout the deliberate addition o f sm oothing to sensitivity o f m agnetic particles,
rem ove the inherent ripples, through-coil m ethod: See coil m ethod.
reference standard: A specim en containing controlled true con tinu ous m ethod: Test technique in w hich
artificial or natural discontinuities. U sed for m agnetizing current is applied before application o f
94 / A SN T Level III Study Guide: M agnetic Particle Testing