Chandra 1

Sentence

The sentence is the basic unit of the language, comprising at least one independent verb with its subject.

1. Simple sentence has a single independent clause.

2. Compound sentence has two are more independent clause joined by coordinate conjunctions like ‘and’,

‘but’, ‘or’ etc. They combine closely related and equally important ideas.

3. Complex sentence consist of independent clause, with one or more dependent clauses. These dependent

clauses are linked with the independent clause by subordinate conjunctions ‘while’, ‘because’, ‘since’,

although’ etc.

Requisites of a good sentence:

1. Clarity is achieved by observing the grammatical structures, putting correct punctuation marks and putting

related elements in a sentence close to each other.

2. Consistency is achieved by observing the unity of idea and concord among the elements of the sentence.

3. Economy is achieved by putting only the relevant elements in a sentence.

Paragraph

A paragraph is a group of sentences or a single sentence that forms a unit. In other words it is a group of
related sentences which express a single idea.

Central components of a paragraph

1. Topic sentence 2. Coherence

3. Unity 4. Adequate development

Topic sentence: A sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. Beginning a paragraph with a topic
sentence is one of the best ways to achieve clarity and unity in one’s writing. E.g. – Many television cartoons
contain an unhealthy amount of violence. It is known as the key or theme sentence. It tells the reader what to expect
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from the following sentences. Topic sentences can appear at several points in a paragraph: at the beginning, middle,
or at the end according to the methodology used in writing the paragraph.

Coherence: Coherence refers to the clear and logical linking of ideas in a paragraph. Each sentence should
be linked with the sentence that precedes and follow it. Many convincing ideas in the world, expressed in the most
beautiful sentences, will move no one unless those ideas are properly connected.

i. Use if pronoun: pronoun connects the sentences. Without referring properly or without use of pronoun
sentence becomes ambiguous.
ii. Repetition of keywords and Phrases: Usually, one should avoid repletion in any piece of writing, because
it creates bad impression. But sometimes the use of emphatic words according to the need of paragraph
or any piece of writing is necessary. Repetition creates coherence and musical effect in paragraph.
iii. Transitional tags: transitional tags play an important role in providing a smooth flow to paragraph.
Transitions may be in the form of single words, phrases, sentences, and even whole paragraph. In fact
using transitions between ideas is logically a matter of attitude. One must never make any assumption
about our readers’ knowledge. In fact, it is good to assume not only that the readers need all the
information’s we have and need to know how we arrived at it, but also that they are not quite as we
are. We must consider that the reader might need a few stepping stones, and be sure to place them in
readily accessible and visible spots.(see page no. 357 to learn it properly)
iv. Use of emphasis through synonyms and words: We repeat words by using their synonyms for emphasis.
v. Parallelism: Parallel structures are a particularly powerful way to communicate information because they
create structural repetitions that emphasis and connect ideas. Ideas within sentences that are joined by
co-coordinating connections must also be parallel. For example: Both Ram and Shyam are responsible
for this action. Not only Rajeev but also Ramesh is honest student in GNIOT.

Unity: Unity refers to the extent to which all of the ideas contained within a given paragraph ‘hang together’
in a way that is easy for the reader to understand. When the writer changes to a new idea – one which is not
consistent with the topic sentence of the paragraph – the writer should begin a new paragraph. Unity is important
because it aids the reader in going along the writer’s idea.

Adequate development: A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains, and supports the
topic sentence. Generally speaking, a paragraph should contain between three and five sentences, all of which help
clarify and support the main idea. Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and
supported through evidence and details that work together to explain the controlling idea. There are significant
points given below to create unity in paragraph.

 Formulation of controlling idea.

 Explanation of controlling idea.
 Providing examples.
 Explanation of (examples)
 Completion of paragraph’s idea or transition into next paragraph.

### A good rule of thumb to follow is to make sure that a paragraph contains at least four sentences which
explain and elaborate on the topic sentence.
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Methods of Paragraph Development or Pattern of Paragraph

1. Inductive order

(a). In inductive order an author moves from particular statement to the general statement.

(b). The individual supporting ideas appear one by one and in the end they ultimately lead to the general
statement containing the core idea.

(c). A paragraph developed by inductive technique contains the topic sentence at the end.

(d). Here the writer, induces examples specific details, etc, that logically lead to a conclusion in the form
of the topic sentence.

(e). The paragraph that begins with certain information concludes with a topic sentence, often known as
conclusion.

(f). The author uses some arguments, illustrations which lead him to reach to a conclusion. E.g. Ram
dies, Mohan dies, they are human beings. Hence, we can say that man is mortal.

2. Deductive order

(a). In deductive order movement of thought is from the general statement to particular details. In this
order, we have a conclusion reached by reasoning from general laws to a particular case.

(b). This method is just reverse of inductive method.

(c). The topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a paragraph stating some general statements. Here
the core-idea is stated in the first sentence which is the topic sentence of the paragraph.

(d). From this sentence, the author deduces or infers its implications and reasons out through specific
examples, details etc.

(e). Here other sentences follow the topic sentence, elaborate substantiate this main idea, through
examples, description or analogies.

(e). The author finally tries to deduce his conclusion logically.

(f). This gives the paragraph a direct, straight forward style which most report readers prefer.

(g). Therefore it is the most popular order used by the writers. E.g. Man is mortal. Since Ram and Mohan
are men, they are mortal.
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3. Chronological order

(a). This method refers to the narration of events in the order in which they occur in time.

(b). This logical sequence may sometimes become essential for a particular piece of writing or speech
simply because the information involves a simple chain of events in the state of occurrence

4. Spatial order

(a). This method helps the reader to visualize what he sees and therefore, it is better to understand the
physical qualities of the subject matter.

(b). It emphasises the usual description of a particular idea by producing details related to location,
direction etc.

(d). The description need not necessarily follow a time pattern, but it can depict the spatial movement,
namely inside to outside, front to back, left to right, bottom to top of the process, object, etc.

(e). The method further helps the reader to envision the layout of the land the writer describes or the
placement of each component within the machine. E.g.-telescope making.

5. Linear order

(a). In this method of paragraph development one sentence leads to the next one and thus the sentences
proceed towards their goal.

(b). A logical sequence is thus followed by the sentences of a paragraph.

(c). The Linear method also contributes to the unity of a paragraph.

(d).The technical writers often pay attention to this method and try to write on the basis of Linear
method.

(e). The description need not necessarily follows a time pattern but it can depict the spatial movement,
namely inside to outside, front to back, left to right, bottom to top of the process, object, etc.

Kinds of paragraphs:

1. Analysis 2. Description

3. Definition 4. Comparison

5. Contrast 6. Comparison-contrast
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Essays: a piece of composition, which is the result of a conscious effort to produce a unified, balanced, coherent

piece of writing. To write an essay is to put into the words your own ideas and reflection on a given subject or

theme. It requires a mental discipline, training in the art of arranging and expressing one’s thoughts in a regular and

well ordered manner.

Types of essays:

1. Expository essay 2. Persuasive essay

3. Descriptive essay 4. Narrative essay

5. Imaginative essay 6. Reflective essay

Characteristics of Essay:

1. Order 2. Unity

3. Brevity 4. Effective style

5. Personal touch 1. Reflective essay

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION

1. Introduction 2. Naming

3. Definition 4. Description

5. Illustrations 6. Process description

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An Art of Condensation or Précis Writing

• This is art of summarisation. It is an abridged form of the text or a piece of writing.

• Many a times in our academic or professional life, we are required to put the ideas
expressed by others in a condensed form
• This art of condensation is therefore an important part of our writing skills

Four major forms of condensation

• Précis
• Summary
• Abstract
• Synopsis

Abstract Summary

Essence of a report Entire report in nutshell

Contains 2%-5% of the report Contains 5 -10% of the report

More relevant in specialist to Meant for all the readers

specialist conversation

Information is qualitative Information is both qualitative and

quantitative

Does not include illustrations May include certain illustrations

• It is very difficult to be precise

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• A précis is the most commonly required condensed form both by students as well as
professionals. It records the main or central idea of the given passage in minimum words
and is usually 1/3rd of the original text.
• Précis writing involves summarising a document to extent the maximum amount of
information and conveying the information to a reader in the minimum number of the
words.
• Précis writing not only involves paraphrasing (writing in one’s own words) from the
original document.
• Précis must be complete, informative and easy to read.

Requirements of a good précis

1. Concreteness: it must have the essential context of the original passage without mixing
any important fact or idea.
2. Compactness: all the ideas reproduced from the original writing should form complete
sense of the given writing.
3. Conciseness: it is the essence of good précis. It is obtained by the process of shifting
essential from unessential information by avoiding repetition, and by omitting ornamental
phrases. All the original ideas should be presented clearly but in brief. There should be
economy of words but not of ideas.
4. Coherence: the précis should have clarity of the expressions. It is achieved by avoiding
unclear statements. It should be intelligible to even those readers who have not gone
through the original document.
5. Clarity: the words and sentences should convey a sense of unity with each other. All
sentences and ideas should follow a reasonable and natural order of development. It
should not be only a collection of disjoined/unconnected sentences/idea.

Principles of condensation

1. Be brief and precise

2. Be complete
3. Be choosy
4. Be original
5. Be coherent
6. Be clear

Points to be remembered

• Do not introduce your own idea

• Do not change the original source
• Rephrase the sentences while keeping the meaning intact
• Include all the relevant points.
• Write in third person
• Use discretion for statistical information
• Do not include superfluous or illustrative material.
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• Be brief but be clear

Steps in writing a Précis

1. Read and comprehend

2. Prepare a skeleton of the main ideas
3. Assimilate the essentials
4. Think of a title
5. Prepare the first draft
6. Review and compare
7. Edit and revise

Parts of Speech

1. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing or an idea.

Persons: father, mother, brother, teacher, Mohan, Sita

Places: Delhi, India, Bihar, Chandigarh, Amarkantak, America, Britain

Things: book, train, lamp, table, bread, sheet, paper

Ideas: grief, desire, justice, democracy, friendship, comic, pain

For example: Rajesh lives in Delhi. He is my brother and fond of literary books.

There are five kinds of nouns:

(a) Proper Noun: It is the name of a particular person, place or thing.

Examples: Rajeev, Indira, Allahabad, India, Moscow, the Taj, the Ganga, the Ramayan

(b) Common Noun: It is the name given in common to any and every person or thing of the same class or
kind.

Examples: boy, girl, child, uncle, teacher, actor. village, town, street, school, valley, country, river.
book, pen. table, house, train, bird.

(c) Collective Noun: It is the name of a group or collection of things or persons of the same kind, taken
together and described as one whole.

Examples: flock, class, herd, bunch, fleet, army, crowd.

(d) Material Noun: It is the name of the matter (or substance) of which things are made.

Examples: wood, clay, rubber, iron, silver, gold, cloth, milk, honey, water, bread, butter, rice, wheat,
oil, sugar
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(e) Abstract Noun: It is the name of some feeling, quality, action or state. It can only be felt or thought of. It
cannot be seen or touched because an abstract noun has no form, shape, size, weight or colour.

Feeling Quality Action State

Joy, grief, sorrow, Honesty, bravery, Theft laughter, Childhood,
fear, comic, beauty, mercy movement, flight boyhood, youth, poverty

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

(i) Countable nouns are the nouns we can count e.g., boy, girl, table, chair, cup, pen, house etc. Here,
‘Common Noun’ and ‘Collective nouns’ can be included in the large class of countable nouns.

(ii) Uncountable nouns are nouns which we cannot count or usually don’t count e.g., rice, wheat, sugar,
paper, cloth, water, milk etc.

Gender of Nouns

(i) Masculine Gender: Men, boys and male animals are masculine gender.

(ii) Feminine Gender: Women, girls and female animals are feminine gender.

(iii) Common Gender: A noun which has tmhe same form for masculine and feminine is of the common
gender; as, parent, baby, child, cousin, author, painter, artist etc.

(iv) Neuter Gender: A lifeless thing is of the neuter gender; as book, table, knife, pen etc.

The Noun: Number

(a) Singular Number Nouns are those nouns which denote one person or thing. As; boy, book, child, cow,
girl, pen, tree, chair etc

(b) Plural Number Nouns are those nouns which denote more than one person or thing. As; boys, books,
children, cows, girls, pens, trees, chairs etc.

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2. A Pronoun is a word used in the place of noun. It helps to avoid unnecessary repetition of a noun in the
same sentence of paragraph.

Examples: Ashok loves his step-mother, but she does not like him.

(i) Personal Pronouns: these are used for persons and things. As; I, we, you, he, she, they, it and names etc.

Examples:
1. Ravi is Rita’s friend. He has lent his bicycle to her.
2. I have broken my pen. This is our house. Where is your book? This is his shop.
3. Your dog is white; and mine is black. This book is yours.
4. This is a pen. It is mine. That is a cycle. It is your cycle.
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(ii) Reflexive Pronoun: When self is added to my, your, him, her, it and selves to our, your, them, we get
compound Personal Pronouns. These ‘self form of pronouns can be used as Reflexive Pronouns or
Emphatic Pronouns.

Person Singular Plural

First Myself Ourselves
Second Yourself Yourselves
Himself

Third Herself Themselves

Itself

Examples: he hurt himself. I forgot myself. She killed herself.

(iii) Emphatic Pronouns: These are used for the sake of emphasis.
Examples: I will do it myself. We saw the President himself. We ourselves went to the scene of
accident.

(iv) Demonstrative Pronouns: This, that, these, those, such, one, same and so are used as Demonstrative
Pronouns.

Examples: This is watch. These are toys. (This/these indicates what is near to the speaker)
That is Mr. Sharma’s house. Those are chairs. (That/those indicates what is remote from the speaker)
Kings are constituted such by law. If Ram is friend, show him such. (Such = ‘of this kind’ or ‘of that
kind’)
You sang a song last night. Sing the same to me. My trouble is the same as yours.
We should make people our friends and keep them so. I shall give you only one hundred rupees or so.
Your shirt is red; mine is a white one. (a shirt) this is an easy sum, but that is a hard one. (a sum)
There are ten poor boys and fifteen rich ones. (boys)
You have a car, but I have none. Bring me some pencil, I have none. (none= not a one)

(v) Indefinite Pronouns: these pronouns do not refer to any person or thing in particular but in a general way;

Examples: One must do one’s best. None but fools behave like this. All were drowned.
Some are born great. Somebody has stolen my pen. Anybody can do that. Nobody was there.
Few escaped unhurt. Everybody wants to be rich and happy. Everybody was asking about you.

Some Any Every No

Thin Something anything Everything Nothing
g
One Someone Anyone Everyone No one
Body Somebody Anybody Everybody Nobody

(vi) Interrogative Pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, what etc.

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Examples: Who is there? Who spoke? Whom do you want? Whose watch is this?
Which of you has broken this window? Which is your room? What did you say? What is this made
of?
** Exclamatory Pronouns: What! Still here! What a folly! What a foolish boy you are!

(vii) Distributive Pronouns: Each, either, and neither are called distributive pronouns. These refer to pronouns
or things taken one at a time. These are always singular and are followed by singular verbs.
Examples: Each of you gets a prize. Each comes forward in his turn.
Either of you may go to the shop. Either of these roads leads to the bus stand.
Neither of you came in time. Neither of them has the requisite qualifications.

(viii) Reciprocal Pronouns: Each other and one another are called Reciprocal Pronouns because they
express a mutual or reciprocal relationship.
Examples: The two rivals faced each other. We must all help one another. They held each other’s
hand.

(ix) Relative Pronouns: Who what, which, whom, that etc are relative pronouns.
Examples: I met Mohan who told me your address. These are my students whom I love to teach.
Here is the watch that you gave me. I do not know what has happened. I have found the pen which I
had lost.

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3. An Adjective is a word which modifies, or qualifies a noun, that is, which adds to the meaning of a noun or
pronoun or pronoun.

Examples: Sher Singh is a brave boy. Gold is a precious metal. Anita is an intelligent girl.

These are the categories and examples of adjectives.

1. Proper Adjective: are formed by proper nouns. They describe a thing by referring to the proper noun.

2. As: A Shakespearean play. An Indian farmer. The Roman empire. The English language.

3. Descriptive Adjective: shows the quality or condition of persons and things.

As: A brave soldier. An old lion. A big tree. A golden chain.

4. Quantitative Adjective: shows the quality or degree of a thing; much, little, no, none, some, any, all,
whole, enough, sufficient etc.

As: I have some money. He does not have any money. The money in her pocket is not enough.

5. Numeral Adjective: It is adjectives of number. These show how many persons or things are meant and in
what order they stand. These have two divisions.

(a) Definite Numeral Adjective: shows an exact number.

As: One, two, three etc. (called cardinals); First, second, third etc (called ordinals)

There are sixty students in the class. Three people were roaming in our street. Rahul is first man.
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(c) Indefinite Numeral Adjective: do not indicate an exact number; many few, all, some, any, several etc.

As: Many men are poor. Few men are rich. All men are mortal. Some men die young.

6. Demonstrative Adjective: points out which or what persons or thing is meant or pointed out:

This, that, these, those, a, an, the, such, same, some, other etc

As: This house is bigger than that. These mangoes are sweet. Those pictures are beautiful.

She said the same thing to two or three boys. Such questions should not be asked.

7. Distributive Adjective: shows that the persons or things are taken separately or in separate lots:

Each, every, either, neither etc:

As: Each man has to carry his identity card. Every servant was given a uniform. Either side may
win.

Neither charge was proved. Neither means not either. Every nation must work for world peace.

8. Interrogative Adjective: asks questions and thus restrict the nouns before which they are used:

What, which, whose;

As: What sort of man is he? Which road should we take? Whose house is that?

9. Exclamatory Adjective: is used in an exclamatory sense.

As: What fine books Sudha has brought! What a piece of work is man!

10. Possessive Adjective: indicates possession. This adjective is used with noun to qualify it.

As: my pen, your book, our house, her husband, his wife, their leader.

11. Emphasising Adjective: The word own can be used to emphasise possessive adjective.

As: I saw the murder with my own eyes. He killed his own brother. She is her own cook.

Comparison of Adjectives

Examples:

1. Mohan is a clever boy. (Positive Degree)

2. Sohan is cleverer than Mohan. (Comparative Degree)

3. Ravi is the cleverest of them all. (Superlative Degree)

4. Sheeba is a beautiful girl. / Sheeba is more beautiful girl. / Sheeba is the most beautiful girl.
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4. A Verb is a word which says something about a person, place or thing. It expresses action. Every sentence
must contain a verb.

Examples: He is a doctor. Farmers plough the fields. A shopkeeper sells goods.

There are two classes of verbs in English language.

1. Auxiliary Verbs: Be (is/am/are/ was/were), may, can, will, shall, have, must, ought etc.

2. Ordinary Verbs: run, sleep, fly, play, go, etc.

Ordinary Verbs can be further divided into two classes.

(a) Finite Verbs: These verbs change their form according to the number and person of the subject and the
tense; as,

I go, he goes, they go; I went, she went etc.

(b) Non-finite Verbs: These verbs do not change their form according to tense or number and person of the
subject. The infinitive, the gerund and the participle are non-finites.

Finite Verbs are of two kinds.

(i) Transitive Verbs: these verbs denote an action which passes over from the doer or subject to an object.

As: He ran a long distance. Radha sings a song. He flew the kite in the air. He walked the horses.

(ii) Intransitive Verbs: these verbs denote an action which does not pass over to an object, or which expresses
a state or being.

As: The baby sleeps. There is a flaw in the diamond. The tree falls. The kite flew in the air. The horse
walks.

Principle Parts of Verbs

The chief parts of verbs in English are the present tense, the past tense and the past participle. On te
manner in which the verbs form their past tense and past participle, they are classified into two categories:

(a) Weak Verbs:

(i) These verbs are those which form their past tense and past participle by adding -‘ed’, - ‘d’, -‘t’ to the
present tense, with or without change in the main vowel sound; as,

Flee >fled>fled, Spend>spent>spent, Feel>felt>felt, Want>wanted>wanted etc.

(ii) All verbs whose past tense is the same as the present are also called weak verbs; as,

Cut>cut>cut, Hurt> hurt>hurt, Put>put>put, Spread>spread>spread etc.

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(b) Strong Verbs:

(i) Strong Verbs are those which form their past tense and past participle by merely changing the inside vowel,
without adding any ending in ‘d’ or ‘t’; as

Abide>abode>abode, Begin> began> begun, Fight>fought>fought, Sing>sang>sung,

Sit>sat>sat, Find>found>found etc.

(ii) Verbs which form their past tense by changing a vowel and the past participle by the addition of -‘n’, -‘ne’,
or –‘en’; as

Bear>bore>born, Draw>drew>drawn, Shake>shook>shaken, Speak>spoke>spoken etc.

(c) Mixed Verbs: There are some mixed verbs partly weak and partly strong. They have a weak ‘past’ and a
strong ‘past participle’; as,

Beat>beat>beaten, Show>showed>shown etc.

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5. An Adverb is a word which adds to the meaning of an adjective, a verb or another adverb. It usually
modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, another adverb, a preposition, or a conjunction.

Examples;

(a) The tortoise ran slowly but steadily. (a verb)

(b) That is very sweet apple. (an adjective)

(c) He acted quite brilliantly. (an adverb)

(d) He failed in the examination entirely through his fault. (a preposition)

(e) I sold the horse simply because it was lame. (a conjunction)

(f) Possibly, he did not mean all he said. (a sentence)

Formation of Adverbs

(i) By adding ‘ly’ to Adjectives; as, quickly, slowly, wisely, kindly.

(ii) By adding ‘ly’ to Nouns; as, daily, monthly, weekly, yearly.

(iii) By adding ‘ly’ to Participles; as, hurriedly etc.

(iv) A few Adverbs are formed by prefixing ‘a’ are ‘Preposition’ to nouns, adjectives and verbs. As, abroad,
asleep, ahead, aside, beside, today, tomorrow, ashore, afresh, along, anew, herein, whereof, hereby,
thereby, henceforth etc.

(v) Some Adverbs are formed by combining a Noun and an Adjective; as, yesterday, midway, meantime,
sometimes, homewards, afterwards, straightway etc.
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(vi) Adverbs of number are formed as; one, once; two; twice, three; thrice, four; fourfold.

Kinds of Adverbs

According to the use, Adverbs are divided into three classes;

1. Simple Adverbs

Simple Adverbs simply qualify the meanings of the words to which they are added. So, according to
their meaning, Simple Adverbs are further sub-divided into the following classes:

(a) Adverbs of Time: show when the action is done; as,

We leave for Amarkantak tomorrow. He will return soon. I have known him before. Do it now. He takes
exercise daily. Ravi came back yesterday. The Daily Mail arrived late.

Note: here by using when, one can identify Adverbs of time. Recently, lately, already, immediately, ago,
before are also Adverbs of time.

(b) Adverbs of Place: show where the action is done; as

Come here. He lives there. The thief ran away. My father has gone out. Your book is nowhere to be
found.

Note: here by using where, one can identify Adverbs of place. The words in, out, up, down, above and
below are also adverbs of time.

(c) Adverbs of Manner: show how the action is done; as,

He runs fast. She walked slowly. She sings sweetly. He writes neatly. The child slept soundly. The
soldiers fought bravely. Kapil hit the ball hard. You should not do so.

The words often, always, sweetly, neatly, soundly, bravely, hard and so, are Adverbs of Manner. They
answer question ‘how?’.

(d) Adverbs of Numbers or Frequency: show how often an action takes place; as

He often helps the poor. You should always speak truth. He seldom tells a lie. I have told you once.

The words, often, always, seldom, never, sometimes, once, twice etc, are Adverbs of Number or
Frequency. They answer the question ‘how often?’.

(e) Adverbs of Degree or Quantity: show how much or in what degree or to do what extent; as,

These apples are almost ripe. She sings pretty well. His lecture is rather dull. The moon is very beautiful.

The words, almost, pretty, rather, very and altogether are Adverbs of Degree or Quantity. They answer
the question ‘how much?’. The words, so, as, any, too, fully, fairly and enough may also be used as Adverbs of
Degree.
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(f) Adverbs of reason: the words, hence, therefore, as, so, consequently, are used as Adverbs of Reason. As;

His father has died, and he will, therefore, leave the school. He is ill, hence unable to go to office. As he
was late, he was fined.

(g) Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation: the words, surely, certainly, truly, deciedely and yes are Adverbs
of Affirmation. No, not, may not at all etc are Adverbs of Negation. As;

Do you know him? Yes, I do. Has he left? No, he has not left so far. You are certainly mistaken. He will
surely pass in first division. Truly you are great. He is decidedly a superior man. No, I am not at all I willing to
go.

2. Interrogative Adverbs

When adverbs are used in asking questions, they are called Interrogative Adverbs. As; When? Why?
How? How for? How long? How often? etc.

Examples:

When do you get up? Why are you late? How do you do? Where does he live? How often do you pray to
god?

3. Relative Adverbs

Relative Adverbs are the same in form as Interrogative Adverbs but instead of asking questions they join
two sentences together. Conjunctions also join clauses or sentences, but Relative Adverbs modify the words
with which they are used; as,

Example:

This is the house where I was born. Sunday is the day when we take rest. This is the reason why he was
angry.

*** Some Adjectives can be used as Adverbs also. These are : fast, loud, hard, early, enough, much.

Examples:

This is a fast train. (Adjective) = This train runs fast. (Adverb)

This is a hard nut to crack. (Adjective) = I am working hard these days. (Adverb)

There is much water in the tank. (Adjective) = I am much better now. (Adverb)

Position of Adverbs

As a rule, an adverb is generally placed as near as possible to the word which it qualifies. This is very
important because the position of the adverbs sometimes changes the meaning of the whole sentence;

As,
 Chandra 17

James often thought of marrying. (qualifies thought)

James thought of marrying often. (qualifies marrying)

Or

His only son died. (qualifies ‘son’ – he had one son and he died.)

Only his son died. (qualifies ‘his’ – the son of others were safe.)

An Adverb is generally placed:

(a) Before an Adjective or another Adverb it modifies; as,

He is rather handsome. Suresh did not run very fast. You can speak much louder than I.

Exception: Enough is usually placed after the word it modifies; as,

You are wise enough to understand this problem. He is strong enough to lift this box.

(b) After an Intransitive Verb; as,

We laughed heartily. She wept bitterly. He placed well.

(c) After the object of a Transitive Verb; as,

He loves his parents dearly. He drove the car fast.

The servant serves his master his master cheerfully and faithfully.

(d) Between the Auxiliary and the principle verb; as,

You have really missed a golden chance. The flood has suddenly receded.

Note: The Adverbs, always, sometimes, often, seldom, never, frequently, generally and merely etc, are
placed before and not after the verbs they modify; as,

He always acts foolishly. She never talks loosely. Sohan seldom regrets his mistakes.

Mohan often goes to the hospital to see his father. Sohan sometimes calls on me.

But, the Adverbs can be placed after the verb ‘to be’; as,

You are never late for the office. She is often absent from the class.

And these can be placed between the auxiliaries and the principle verb; as,

He has always obeyed his master. They have sometimes annoyed us. He is often talking of old times.
 Chandra 18

(e) An Adverb is placed at the beginning of a sentence:

1. When qualifies the whole sentence; as

Luckily, he escaped this accident. Unfortunately, he fell ill and missed his examination.

2. When it is used for the sake of emphasis; as,

Up he went in a moment. Here comes the bride. There goes the bell.

3. When it is introduces an exclamatory sentence; as,

How nicely she acted! How sweet of you!

Note: ‘only’ is a very important Adverb and its position in a sentence changes its meaning entirely.
It should be carefully placed before or after the word it is intended to qualify. For example;

Only I saw his book. (no one else)

I only saw his book. (did not touch it)

I saw only his book. (and nobody else’s)

I saw his only book. (the only one he possessed)

I saw his book only. (and not pen, pencil etc)

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******

6. A Preposition is a word placed before a Noun or Pronoun to show some relationship with some other
words in the sentence.

Kinds of Prepositions

(a) Simple Prepositions: as,

At, by, of, for, in, on, off, out, till, to, up, with, through, etc.

(b) Compound Prepositions: as,

About, across, against, before, beside, into, until, within, etc.

(c) Double Prepositions: as,

Form among, from beneath, from under, out of, etc.

(d) Participle Prepositions: as,

 Chandra 19

Accepting, considering, during, regarding, notwithstanding, etc.

(e) Phrase Prepositions: as,

Along with, according to, away from, by dint of, by virtue of for the sake of, in addition to, in the
course of , in lieu of, in place of, in spite of, on account of, owing to, with a view to, with regard to, etc.

Position of the Preposition

*A preposition is generally placed before a Noun or a Pronoun; as

He died of cholera. Delhi is famous for the Red Fort. Sudhir went up the hill.

**But there are some exceptions to this general rule:

***A preposition is placed at the end of a sentence;

I. If a preposition governs a Relative Pronoun; as

Here is the book which you were looking for. This is the man who (whom) I spoke to.

II. When the Relative Pronoun is that; as,

Here is the pen that you were looking for. The dog spoiled the paper that I was writing on.

{The relative pronoun ‘that’ cannot take a preposition before it.}

III. When a Relative Pronoun is understood; as,

That is the boy I was speaking about. (‘whom’ understood)

That is the house Mohan lives in. (‘which’ understood)

IV. If a Preposition governs an Interrogative Pronouns or Adverb; as,

What are you looking at? (Interrogative Pronoun)

Where are you going to? (Interrogative Adverb)

Note: Following is the position of a preposition in regard to ‘who’ and ‘whom’; as,

To whom were you speaking? Who were you speaking to?

V. When the Preposition is used with the Infinitive placed at the end; as,

The knife is to cut with. Do you have a chair to sit in? I have no money to support you with.

Some Important Prepositions

 Chandra 20

Particular care should be taken in the use of the following Prepositions which are given below in pairs
for the sake of contrast:

1. After and In:

When we speak of space of time, this distinction is made; as,

Anil came back after a month. (Past; here ‘after’ refers to a space of time in the past)

Ashok will come back in a week. (Future; ‘in’ refers to a space of time in the future)

** Both mean ‘at the close of.

2. In and Within:

‘In’ means at the end of a given period of time; ‘Within’ means before the end of the given period;
as,

I shall return in a month. (at the end of one month)

I shall return within a month. (before the end of one month)

3. In and Into:

‘In’ denotes rest or motion inside anything; ‘Into’ shows motion/movement towards the inside of
anything; as,

The boy was in the garden. (Rest inside)

The boy was walking in the garden. (Act of moving inside)

He walked into the garden. (Movement towards inside)

Note: Be careful to write the two words ‘in’ and ‘to’ separately when the sense is separate:

He took her into the room. (motion towards inside)

He took her in to dinner. (he took her inside the house for dinner)

4. At and In:

(a) At and In are used in speaking of things at rest; as,

The students are sitting at their desks. She is lying in her bed.

(b) In speaking of places, At is used for a smaller place; and In for a bigger place; as,

I live at Fatehpur in Uttar Pradesh. My brother lives at Gazipur. My sister lives in New Delhi.
 Chandra 21

But when we speak of what are known to be big places, we generally use In; as,

In Paris; In London; In New York; In Delhi

(c) In speaking of time, we use At for a point of time and In for a period of time; as,

At five, at dawn, at sunset, at midnight. In the morning, in May, in 1986.

But we say;

The train will arrive at seven O’ clock in the morning.

5. On and Upon:

On shows rest; Upon shows movement; as,

He sat on a bench. The wolf sprang upon the goat.

6. By and With:

When something has been done by a person with the help of an instrument, a tool or weapon, we use
By for the agent – the doer of the action and With for the instrument; as,

The lion was killed by the hunter with a sword. The letter will be written by me with a pen.

The king was stabbed by his enemy with a knife. You can not kill two birds with one stone.

7. Between and Among:

Between refers to two persons or things; while Among refers to more than two; as,

He divided his property between his two sons. The five robbers divided money among themselves.

8. Till and To:

Till is used for time, and To is used for place; as,

Farmers work in their fields till evening. He walked to the end of the road.

9. From and Since:

From and Since denote a point of time. From may be used with any tense while Since is used with
the perfect or perfect continuous tenses only; as,

I have been living in this city since 2000. I have not seen him since he left school.

Prem Chand began to write novels from the age of ten. From tomorrow, the school will open at 7
a.m.
 Chandra 22

10. Beside and Besides:

Beside means by the side of; Besides means in addition to; as,

The child walked beside his mother. Besides being fined, he was suspended by the teacher.

11. On, Over and Above:

On denotes contacts with the surface on which something is lying; as,

The book is lying on the table.

Above denotes a higher position but does not imply contact or covering; as,

This building raises above all the houses in the city.

Over means a higher position as well as contact or directly above; as,

Water flows over plants and bushes. At noon, the sun is over us.

Preposition in Common Use

A. Preposition of Time:

1. At: At is used for a fixed time; as : at 3.30, at sunrise, at noon, at sunset, at dawn.

At is also used for festivals coming at a fixed time every year; as: at Christmas, at Diwali.

2. On: On is used for a day or date; as,

On Sunday, on Monday, on his birthday, on Christmas Day, on 15th March.

On is also used for the part of certain day/date; as, on Sunday morning, on the evening of the
15th.

3. In: In is used for a period of time; as: in the morning, in the evening in April, in summer.

4. During: During is used for a known period of time; as,

during the summer, during my holidays, during 1947, during the war, during his childhood

Food was rationed during the war. We visited Simla during the summer vacation.

5. By: By a certain time denotes at that time or before it, usually before it; or upto that time; as,

We shall finish this work by 4 p.m. today.

6. For: For is used with a period of time; as

for six months, for two years, for ever. It has been raining for four hours.
 Chandra 23

7. Since: Since is used with a point of time; as

It has been raining since morning. She has been here since six O’ clock,

B. Preposition of Travel and Movement:

We travel by bus, by train or by plane but we walk on foot, ride on horseback or cycle.

And; We travel from our starting point to our destination.

C. Preposition of Place:

i. At: We can be at a small village, an address, a certain point (bridge, bus stop, station), at home, or
at work. – He was born at a small village.

ii. In: We can be in a country, a big city, a square, a street, a corner, a room, a forest, a field or any
enclosed space. – He lives in Delhi

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Conjunctions (Sentence connectors)

A Conjunction is a word which joins words, phrases or clauses.

Major Conjunctions

And, but, unless, lest, therefore, otherwise, when, while, however, since, because, through, yet, neither,
nor, either, or, whether, till, as, if.

Kinds of Conjunctions

1. Co-ordinate Conjunctions: are those which join words, phrases or co-ordinate clauses, i.e. clauses having
equal status. As, otherwise, nor, or, for, but, else, and etc. For example:
He is old but he runs fast. Two and two makes four.

(a) Cumulative Conjunctions: add one statement or a fact to another. They are; not only...but also, both...and,
as well as, too, now, also, not less than. For Example:

Suresh as well as his children has come. He is both a singer and dancer.
Not only is he rich but also wise. God made the country and man made the town.

(b) Alternative Conjunctions: express a choice between two alternatives; as, either...or, neither...nor,
otherwise, else etc.

Either Sudha or her brother has done this mischief. I have neither a pen nor a pencil.
Work hard or (otherwise) you will fail. Walk quickly else you will miss the bus.

(c) Adversative Conjunctions: express contrast between two statements; as, however, whereas, while, only,
still, yet, but, nevertheless. For example;

He worked hard still he failed. He is rich man; while (whereas) his father was poor.
Go where you like, only do not stay here. She was angry but she kept quiet.
 Chandra 24

(d) Illative Conjunctions: express implication; that is, those conjunctions which show that one statement or
fact is inferred or proved from another; as, then, for, therefore, so etc. For example;

He is honest, therefore, he is respected. He was innocent, so he was pardoned.

It must have rained last night, for the ground is wet. It is time to go; let us start then.

2. Sub-ordinate conjunctions: are those which join a subordinate or dependent clause and a principle clause.
These are; because, as, since, than, though, it, that etc. As;

The pen rang the bell when he reached the school. She knew that she would win.
I shall not attend the party unless he invites me.

(a) Time: before, after, as, as soon as, while, so long as, as long as, till, until. As;

The patient had died before the doctor arrived. He did not go away until I came in.
Wait here till I come. He returned home after you had left for the school.
As soon as we left home after you had left for school.
No sooner did the bell ring, than we got into the classroom.
You must stay indoors as long as it is raining. So long as he stays here, I will not go.

(b) Cause or Reason: as, since, because. For example:

As Suresh is an honest man, I love him. I didn’t go to school since it was raining.
He was fined because he broke the window pane.

(c) Purpose: that, so that, in order that, lest.

We eat so that we may live. He works hard in order that he may pass.
Soldiers die that the country may live. Walk fast lest you should miss the train.

(d) Result: that. For example;

He is so weak that he cannot walk.

The boys made such a noise that nothing could be heard.

(e) Condition: if, unless, provided, provided that. For example;

If you go to Delhi, please bring a watch for me.

You cannot get through the examination unless you work hard.
You can camp here provided you do not damage the plants.
We shall play the match provided that it does not rain.

(f) Place: where, wherever, whence and whither. For examples;

I do not know where he lives. You may go wherever you like.

The invader went back whence he came. Can you tell me whither she has gone?

(g) Manner or Extent: as, as ...so, as far as, according as, as if. For example;

As you sow, so shall you reap? He is a patriot, as far as I know.

He did not behave as I expected him to do. Do as I tell you.
Now he laughs and then he cries as if he were mad.

(h) Comparison: than, so...as, as...as. For example;

 Chandra 25

An aeroplane runs faster than a car. He is as wise as he is honest.

She is not so ugly as you think.

(i) Concession or Contrast: though, although, yet, however, notwithstanding.

Though he is week, he can walk. Although he is poor, yet he is honest.

He cannot catch the train however fast he may run.
She failed in the examination notwithstanding hard work.

Compound Conjunctions

In order that, provided that, as soon as, as though, even if, on condition that.

I shall continue my studies even if I fail. He went to Delhi in order that he might see Sheeba.

He shall pardon you on condition that you admit your mistake.

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VI. An Interjection is a word that expresses some sudden feeling. It is expressed in the following way;

Joy: Hurrah! We have won the match. Ha! What a beautiful sight!

Sorrow: Alas! I have lost my purse! Surprise: Oh! What a fine score!

Approval: Bravo! It is a good hit! Scolding: Fie! You are afraid of him!

Attention: Hush! Mother is asleep! Hark! Somebody is coming! Lo! He is there again!

***Following phrases are used as Interjections:

Good God! What a terrible age we live in! Thank God!

You are safe and sound! God heavens! What a narrow escape!

ARTICLES: The words “A”, “An” “the” are called ARTICLE

DEFINITE ARTICLE “The”

 Use

When we speak of some particular person or things

 Chandra 26

Ex: This is the boy whom I met yesterday

INDEFINITE ARTICLE : A and An

 Use: When we do not speak of any particular or definite person or things.

Ex: I saw a boy in the market.

As a General rule, a common noun in the singular number must have an article before it.

Correct Use of A and An

A is used before

 Words beginning with the sound of consonants

 Ex: a boy, a cow, a dog, a flower etc.

 Such vowels as have the sound of “yu”

Ex: a useful animal, a European, a union, a uniform, a university, a unit etc.

When it sounded as “wa”

Ex. a one rupee note

Use of article “ An”

 Countable singular nouns beginning with a vowel sound

Ex: an eye, an ox, an ant, an inkpot, an M.A, an honest man, an hour etc.

 Words beginning with “h” and accent is not on the first syllable. “h” remains silent in pronunciation of
such words.

 Ex: an hotel, an historical place

 Chandra 27

Use of Indefinite Article: A/An

 In the sense of one.

 In the sense of certain. Ex: A anil[a certain man named Anil] was suspected by the police.

 In the sense of any [when an individual is meant to represent a class] e.g A horse is a useful animal.

USE OF DEFINITE ARTICLE-THE

 When we refer to some particular person or thing, e.g Call the boy standing outside.

 When a singular noun is used to indicate a whole class.e.g The crow is a cunning bird.

 Before unique nouns. e.g. the earth, the sun, the moon, the sky etc.

 Before superlatives. e.g. the best, the worst, the smallest, the longest etc.

 Before an adjective to make it a noun standing for the whole class. e.g only the brave can face danger

 Used before the names of

a. River: The Ganga, The Brahmaputra, The Kaveri etc.

b. Seas: The Arabian sea, The black sea, The Meridian sea.

c. Oceans: The Indian ocean, The Pacific ocean

 Mountain Ranges(not peak): The Himalaya, The Alps

 Groups of Islands: The Lakshadweep islands

 Canals: The Suez canal

 Desert: The Thar, The Sahara

 A very few names of countries, which includes words like Republic and Kingdom-The United Kingdom,
The Irish Republic

 Before the names of certain well known books-The Ramayana, The Gita, The Bible, The Quran, The Vedas

 Before Ordinals number: The first, the second, The third etc

 Before musical instruments: The flute, The harmonium, The Guitar etc.

 Before the names of newspaper and magazine: The Hindu, The Times of India, The Wizard etc.
 Chandra 28

OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE

 Before names of substances and abstract nouns (i.e uncountable nouns) used in a general sense; as Wisdom
makes one wise.

Gold is an expensive metal

Honesty is the best policy

 Before plural countable nouns used in a general sense.

Children like chocolate

 Before names of meals

I have taken my lunch, I have prepared dinner

 Before languages

We are learning English

I speak Hindi at home.

 Before school, college, university, church, bed, hospital, prison, when these places are visited or used for
their primary purpose

We learn English at school

He is in hospital

 Before names of relations like father, mother aunt, uncle

 In certain phrase consisting of a preposition followed by its objects

at home, by day, by night, at night, at sunset, on demand, in hand, at interest, on earth, by water, by

river, by train, on foot, at dinner, underground, above ground.

 Chandra 29

IDIOMS AND PHRASES

 A black sheep: An evil/bad person

He is a black sheep of our family

 A bed of roses: A very comfortable and pleasant condition

Life is not a bed of roses

 A cock and bull story: A false story

Do not believe in a cock and bull story

 A cold blooded murder: a deliberate and cruel murder

Rajiv Gandhi’s murder was a cold blooded murder

 A gala day: An important day

15th August, 1947 is a gala day in Indian history

 A red letter day: A very important day

26th January is a red letter day in the history of India

 A rainy day: A time of adversity

A real friend will never leave you in a rainy day.

 A wild goose chase: A foolish attempt

An attempt to fly is not a wild goose chase anymore.

 A cat and dog life: a quarrelsome life

Nobody wants to live a cat and dog life.

 Bag and Baggage: With all belongings

 Chandra 30

My neighbor left the house bag and baggage

 Crocodile tears: False tears

Do not believe in crocodile tears

 All in All: Supreme

He is all in all in the family

 Hard and Fast: Definite

There are no hard and fast rules to live a life.

 In the nick of time: At the right time

The police arrived the spot in the nick of the time.

 With flying colors: victorious

They returned with flying colours.

 In a nut shell: In short

Please explain the problem in a nut shell.

 In full swing: In progress

His study for the final examination is going on in full swing

 Once in a blue moon: very rarely

I see him once in a blue moon.

 Lame excuse: False excuse : Do not give me lame excuses for your failure.

 An iron will: strong determination: Sushil kumar has an iron will to win medal in London Olympic

 At the eleventh hour: at the last moment: He came at the eleventh hour.