Abstract
This section covers the basic principles of power production from two- and four-
stoke internal combustion engines. It discusses mechanical components and arrange-
ments, and natural aspiration as well as supercharging and turbocharging of
engines. It also reviews criteria for selecting an engine, including general recom-
mendations. Several other design factors are also covered, including support
systems and emissions control. There is also a brief discussion of rerating and
predictive maintenance (engine analysis).
Contents Page
Fig. 300-1 Reciprocating Piston Mechanism (Courtesy of the Howell Training Group)
In the four-stroke spark-ignition engine, the piston makes four “strokes,” or cycle-
events to complete a cycle. These events are shown in Figure 300-2, and consist of:
• An intake stroke to draw a combustible mixture into the cylinder(s)
• A compression stroke which compresses the mixture and raises its temperature
• An expansion or power stroke in which the mixture is ignited by a spark,
burns, and expands to force the piston downward
• An exhaust stroke to push the products of combustion out of the cylinder
Figure 300-3 shows a cylinder pressure versus time diagram for the same cycle. In
operation, the crankshaft makes two complete revolutions during each complete
cycle.
Fig. 300-2 Four-Stroke Cycle Gasoline Engine (From Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution by Edward F.
Obert 1968, 1974 by Intext. Used by permission from HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.)
C+D
r c = --------------
C
(Eq. 300-1)
where:
rc = volumetric compression ratio
D = displacement (swept volume of cylinder), in.3
C = clearance volume (volume of com- pressed gas in the combustion
chamber, in.3
A typical volumetric compression ratio for an Otto engine is 8 to 1, limited by the
auto-ignition temperature of the fuel.
1
η t = 1 – -----------
-
rck – 1
(Eq. 300-2)
where:
ηt = thermal efficiency
1
η t = 1 – -------------
- = 0.56
( 8 ) 0.4
k
Tc
-----
T b
- –1
1
η t = 1 – ------------- -----------------------
rc – 1 Tc
k
k ------ – 1
T b
(Eq. 300-3)
where:
Tc = temperature corresponding to point 'c' in Figure 300-5, Rankine
Tb = temperature corresponding to point 'b' in Figure 300-5, Rankine
Note The ideal thermal efficiencies for the Diesel and Otto cycles (Equations
300-2 and 300-3, respectively) differ only by the term in brackets. Since this term is
always greater than one, you expect the Diesel cycle thermal efficiency to be lower
than that for the Otto cycle. However, since the volumetric compression ratio of the
Diesel cycle is typically higher, this is usually not the case.
For air, a volumetric compression ratio of 18 to 1, and Tc/Tb = 3 (typical),
Equation 300-3 would be modified as follows:
1 ( 3 ) 1.4 – 1
η t = 1 – ----------------
- -----------------------
- = 0.59
( 18 ) 0.4 1.4 ( 3 – 1 )
Fig. 300-6 Two-Stroke Cycle Gasoline Engines (From Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution by Edward F.
Obert 1968, 1974 by Intext. Used by permission from HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.)
In most large size practical engines, compression of the scavenging air is done
outside the engine by a shaft-driven blower or by a turbocharger. These devices are
discussed in Sub-section 323.
316 Combustion
The active components in the combustion process are carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. Complete combustion of carbon and hydrogen would take the simplified
form:
C + O2 →CO2
H2 + 1/2 O2 →H2O
In most practical engines, combustion of the fuel occurs with air, not with pure
oxygen. Air is composed of 21% (by mole or volume) oxygen and 79% inert gases
(mostly nitrogen). The inert gases only dilute the oxygen concentration, and usually
appear in the products unchanged in form.
The mole ratio of inert gases to oxygen in air is 79/21 = 3.76. Therefore, air is
roughly composed of O2 + 3.76 N2, and complete combustion of carbon with air
would take the form:
C + O2 + 3.76 N2 →CO2 + 3.76 N2
A complete combustion reaction for methane (the principal component in natural
gas) is:
CH4 + 2O2 + 2(3.76)N2 →CO2 + 2H2O + 7.52 N2
In this reaction the stoichiometric amount of air (exact, with no excess air) is used
to completely oxidize the methane into products.
Air-Fuel Ratio
The air-fuel ratio for a combustion reaction can be calculated from the equation:
Wa
AF = --------
Wf
(Eq. 300-4)
where:
AF = air-fuel ratio
Wa = weight of air, pounds
Wf = weight of fuel, pounds
For the combustion reaction shown (of methane with air) the air-fuel ratio can be
calculated by multiplying the number of moles in the chemical equation (300-4) by
the molecular weights of the components:
This value is the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for combustion of methane and air.
If combustion occurred with more air than that required for complete combustion,
the air-fuel ratio would be higher than the stoichiometric ratio, and the mixture
would be called a lean mixture. Likewise, if there were excess fuel, complete
combustion would not occur, and the mixture would be called a rich mixture (AF
less than stoichiometric).
Heating Values
The heating value of a fuel is the amount of heat liberated when the fuel is
completely burned into products and cooled to the initial temperature. It is
expressed in BTU per pound, BTU per mole, BTU per SCF or BTU per gallon.
Whenever a fuel contains hydrogen, one of the combustion products will be water
which may exist in the vapor state, liquid state, or as a two-phase mixture. If the
water formed by combustion can be completely condensed, more heat can be liber-
ated from the reaction than if the water remained in the vapor form.
As a result, there are two heating values defined for hydrocarbon fuels: (1) the
higher heating value (HHV) for combustion in which the water is entirely
condensed, and (2) the lower heating value (LHV) for combustion in which the
water remains completely in the vapor state. In most reciprocating engines the prod-
ucts of combustion are exhausted at elevated temperatures, and the water is not
condensed. Therefore, the lower heating value is usually used in calculations
relating to reciprocating engines, and will be used in this section, unless otherwise
specified.
There is no convention for using the higher or lower heating values among
engine users or manufacturers. For this reason, quoted fuel consumption rates
or thermal efficiencies may be based on either value for the fuel in question.
When comparisons are made, be sure to determine the basis of values if they
are not clearly stated. The differences are significant.
Auto-ignition
Auto-ignition is a phenomenon that is harmful in a spark-ignition engine, but is
desirable and necessary in a compression-ignition engine. Auto-ignition occurs
when a combustible mixture is at a temperature and density where spontaneous igni-
tion occurs without the presence of a spark or flame.
Auto-ignition of a mixture is controlled by the following factors:
• Temperature
• Density
• Time
• Composition—Air-fuel ratio and presence of any substance that affects the
chemical reaction
• Turbulence—Level of mixing or homogeneity of the mixture
A Diesel-cycle (compression-ignition) engine would not function if it were not for
the phenomenon of auto-ignition.
πD 2 PSN s
IHP = ------------------------
1,584,000
(Eq. 300-5)
where:
IHP = indicated horsepower
D = cylinder bore diameter, inches
P = mean cylinder indicated pressure, psi
S = piston stroke, inches
Ns = number of strokes per minute
Not all of the power developed at the pistons of an engine is delivered to the
flywheel as useful power. A portion of it, called friction horsepower (FHP), is lost
due to friction in the cylinder, bearings, and other mechanical parts. The portion
delivered at the flywheel of the engine, or the useful power, is called the brake
horsepower (BHP).
The relationship between indicated and brake horsepower is shown in the following
equation:
Mechanical Efficiency
The mechanical efficiency of an engine is the ratio of the power delivered at the
flywheel (BHP) to the total power developed at the pistons (IHP). The following
equation relates mechanical efficiency to the horsepowers previously discussed:
BHP FHP
η m = ------------ ( 100 ) = 1 – ----------- ( 100 )
IHP IHP
(Eq. 300-7)
where:
ηm = mechanical efficiency, percent
Torque
The work performed by an engine is measured as torque. The torque transmitted
through the crankshaft to the driven equipment is related to the transmitted power
by:
33,000 BHP
T = ------------------------------
2πN
(Eq. 300-8)
where:
T = Torque, ft-lbs
N = Crankshaft rotating speed, RPM
w
BSFC = ------------
BHP
(Eq. 300-10)
where:
BSFC = brake specific fuel consumption, lb/BHP-hr
w = weight flow rate of fuel, lb/hr
The fuel flow rate of liquid fuels is usually expressed as a weight flow in pounds
per hour as shown in Equation 300-10. However, the fuel flow rate of gas fuels is
usually expressed as a heat flow in BTU per hour, and the fuel consumption as a
heat rate in BTU per brake horsepower hour. To convert BTU per hour to weight
flow in pounds per hour, multiply by the lower heating value of the fuel.
Heat Rate
In gas fueled engines, fuel consumption is more conveniently expressed as a heat
rate. The heat rate of an engine is the heat flow as a function of horsepower,
expressed in BTU per brake horsepower-hour (BTU/BHP-hr). Engine heat rates
may be based on the lower or the higher heating value of the fuel. The lower
heating value basis is more appropriate (see Heating Values, Sub-section 316).
Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of reciprocating engines is important when evaluating
combined cycle performance, or when making comparisons with other driver types
such as steam or gas turbines. A typical thermal efficiency for producing field
compressor engines (spark-ignited gas engines) is 35%. The thermal efficiency of
moderately sized Diesel engines is about 40%.
The thermal efficiency of an engine can be calculated from:
2545 BHP
η t = -------------------------
w LHV
(Eq. 300-11)
where:
LHV = fuel lower heating value, BTU/lb
w = weight flow rate of fuel, lb/hr
The efficiency in Equation 300-11 should be called the brake thermal efficiency
because it is calculated from brake horsepower; an indicated thermal efficiency
could also be calculated from the indicated horsepower. Also, note that the thermal
efficiency in Equation 300-11 is based on the lower heating value of the fuel. There
is no convention for this, and one might argue that it should be calculated using the
higher heating value. For these reasons, manufacturers usually quote fuel consump-
tion rates instead of thermal efficiencies, to eliminate confusion.
Specific Weight
The specific weight of an engine is its weight as a function of horsepower (pounds
per brake horsepower). Specific weight is usually not an important characteristic in
petrochemical applications. However, for some offshore or portable applications,
engines with lower specific weights might be more favorable than heavier engines.
Performance Curves
Performance curves are useful for determination of power and fuel consumption at
less than rated power or speeds. Performance curves can be drawn for engines
based on dynamometer tests. These curves are based either on constant throttle
(wide-open) operation at variable speed, or on constant speed operation.
Figure 300-7 is an example of a constant throttle curve.
Fig. 300-7 Engine Performance (From Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution by
Edward F. Obert 1968, 1974 by Intext. Used by permission from HarperCollins
Publishers, Inc.)
321 Arrangements
Reciprocating engines are built in several arrangements as shown in Figure 300-8.
Of these, only the in-line, vee (or V), and the opposed piston arrangements are
commonly used in the petrochemical industry.
Figure 300-9 shows a typical eight cylinder in-line engine that might be used to
drive a packaged high-speed compressor in a producing field application. This
engine is a four-stroke spark-ignited gas engine. Figure 300-10 shows a similar
engine, this time larger and in the vee arrangement.
Figure 300-11 shows an opposed piston engine. The opposed piston arrangement
is available as a compression or spark-ignition engine. It has two pistons in every
cylinder connected to separate crankshafts. The crankshafts are geared together to
transmit torque from the overhead crankshaft to the lower crankshaft which drives
Fig. 300-8 Engine Cylinder Arrangement (From Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollu-
tion by Edward F. Obert 1968, 1974 by Intext. Used by permission from Harper-
Collins Publishers, Inc.)
the driven equipment. The engine shown in the figure is the Diesel version of the
arrangement.
Figure 300-12 shows an integral compressor-engine. This is a machine that
combines compressor cylinders and engine (or power) cylinders on a common
crankshaft primarily for space savings. The engine- portion of the machine in the
figure is a two-stroke spark-ignited gas engine, in the vee arrangement.
323 Supercharging
If the pressure of the mixture (or air) during the intake stroke (in a four-stroke
engine) could be elevated above atmospheric pressure, its density would be
increased, and the weight of mixture per cycle would be increased. This would
increase engine power without increasing the engine’s physical size. Super-
charging an engine provides a means of elevating the pressure of the intake
mixture above atmospheric pressure.
Driver Manual
Driver Manual 300 Internal Combustion Engines
Fig. 300-10 Vee Engine Arrangement (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
Fig. 300-11 Opposed Piston Engine (Courtesy of Fair- Fig. 300-12 Integral Compressor Engine (Courtesy of
banks Morse Engine Division) the Howell Training Group)
Superchargers
A supercharger is one device used for supercharging an engine. A supercharger is
a shaft-driven blower, usually a “Roots” type blower (straight-lobe rotary blower)
capable of elevating the intake pressure to 2-10 psig. An engine with a supercharger
in the intake is shown in Figure 300-13.
Superchargers are driven from the engine’s crankshaft by gears, belts, or chains. As
such, they consume a portion of the power that results from their use.
Turbochargers
A more efficient means of supercharging is through the use of a turbocharger.
Turbochargers use the energy from the engine’s exhaust instead of shaft horsepower
to drive the blower. They cause a small power loss due to a slight increase in back-
pressure (exhaust pressure loss) on the engine, but the overall effect is a more effi-
cient power increase than provided by superchargers. Most industrial engines
purchased today are supplied with turbochargers. Their benefits are as follows:
• Increased power output
• Higher mechanical efficiency
• Lower specific fuel consumption
• Higher horsepower to weight (and space) ratio
Adding a turbocharger to an engine increases complexity; therefore, users should
expect a slight reduction in reliability and increased maintenance costs over natu-
rally aspirated engines of the same model series. These factors should be consid-
ered during the selection process of projects involving engine drivers. In extreme
cases, turbochargers can be the most frequently repaired component of an engine.
There are two types of turbocharging: pulse and constant-pressure, which are both
used on stationary engines.
Pulse turbocharging uses kinetic energy in the exhaust gases as they leave the
exhaust ports or valves, to drive the turbine wheel. A pulse turbocharger needs to be
located as close to the exhaust ports as possible. Pulse turbochargers are always
engine mounted and integrated into the exhaust manifolding. This type of turbo-
charging provides a relatively fast response to load changes.
Constant-pressure turbocharging provides a slower response to load changes
than the pulse system. The exhaust manifold serves as a pressure receiver. At any
load condition, the turbocharger receives a fairly constant pressure. Thus, it is not
always necessary (by design) to mount the turbocharger on the engine. In larger
engine sizes, the turbochargers are sometimes mounted in a console away from the
engine.
Turbo Aftercooling
The intake mixture (or air) temperature is increased by turbocharging due to the
heat of compression. Aftercooling (sometimes called intercooling) is used to cool
the intake gas after passing through the compressor side of the turbocharger.
Cooling the gas increases its density and provides a further power increase.
Fig. 300-14 Open Port-Type Loop Scavenging Exhaust Fig. 300-15 Open Port-Type Loop Scavenging Exhaust
and Scavenging Ports on Opposite Sides and Scavenging Ports on Same Side
Fig. 300-17 Uniflow-Type Scavenging Opposed Piston Engine (Courtesy of Diesel Engine
Manufacturers Association)
Fig. 300-18 Diesel Engine Components (Courtesy of the Cooper Camerson Corporation)
Fig. 300-19 Spark-Ignited Engine Components (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
• Connecting rods
• Pistons
• Cylinder liners
• Cylinder heads
• Camshaft
• Pushrods
• Rocker arms
• Intake and exhaust valves
• Intake manifold
• Exhaust manifold
Crankshafts
Crankshafts are usually one-piece forgings, although provisions are sometimes
made for removable counterweights. Occasionally, crankshafts are cast, and in a
few large engines the crankshafts are two-piece due to extreme length.
Reciprocating machines have two kinds of motion: rotational and reciprocating
(translational). In rotational motion, a rotating force is caused when there is an
unbalanced weight at some distance from the center of rotation. The imbalance
involved in the rotational motion of one crankthrow consists of the weights of the
crankpin, crankshaft webs, and a portion (usually about two-thirds) of the
connecting rod. Counterweights are sometimes used to compensate for the eccen-
tric weights of these components.
The components involved in translational motion are the piston, piston rod, cross-
head, and the remaining portion (usually about one-third) of the connecting rod. A
fluctuating force results when these parts are accelerated and decelerated as the
piston travels back and forth.
The forces caused by both kinds of motion can be resolved into two sets of forces,
primary and secondary, acting both horizontally and vertically.
Primary forces result from the rotational motion, and their frequency is that of
running speed. Secondary forces result from translational motion, and their
frequency is two times running speed due to the acceleration and deceleration
during each stroke of the piston. Secondary forces act only along the axis of the
cylinder.
In a two throw machine with crank-throws 180 degrees apart, a force couple can be
generated by the unbalanced forces of each cylinder acting in opposite directions
and separated by the distance between throws. Figure 300-20 shows a primary
couple for a two-throw machine with equal reciprocating weights. It also shows
how counterweights can be added to reduce the primary couple.
With more than two throws, the design becomes more complex because the throws
need not be oriented 180 degrees apart (called a “flat” crankshaft). The engine
designer selects the optimum orientation of throws and amount of counterweight to
balance the primary and secondary forces and couples.
Running Gear
The reciprocating parts in an engine can be called the running gear. The running
gear of a single cylinder is shown in Figure 300-21 and includes:
• Crankpin bearing
• Connecting rod
Fig. 300-22 Crosshead Running Gear (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
dry liner imposes a resistance to heat transfer. The disadvantage is increased main-
tenance because the wet liner must seal the cooling water jacket.
Camshafts provide the proper timing and duration of valve openings and closings
through the orientation and shape of the cams (or lobes). Camshafts are crankshaft
driven, by timing gears or timing belts. They are usually machined and ground steel
forgings, and the cams are usually surface hardened.
Turbochargers
As discussed earlier, turbocharging is now the most common means of providing
combustion air for two-stroke engines and for increasing air density for four-stroke
engines. Figure 300-24 shows a typical turbocharger for an industrial engine.
Turbochargers are really two machines mounted on a single shaft. Mounted on one
end of the shaft is a single-stage centrifugal (radial) air blower. The other end is an
exhaust-gas expansion turbine. As a stand-alone machine, turbochargers are fairly
sophisticated. They operate at high rotating speeds, have exotic wheel materials and
coatings for elevated temperatures and high tip-speeds, and are very compact.
The secondary purpose of the carburetor is to control the rate of fuel/air mixture
supplied to the engine, ultimately controlling engine power. This is accomplished
by a speed-control governor (discussed in Sub-section 364), which senses engine
speed and operates the throttle valve at the base of the carburetor. Carburetors are
common on small to moderate sized four-cycle gas engines.
Most two-stroke engines and some four-stroke engines utilize injected gas fuel
systems. Injected fuel systems are used in most two-stroke engines because the
timing of fuel intake can be controlled more accurately, avoiding fuel loss during
the scavenging portion of the cycle.
Figure 300-26 shows an injected fuel system. This system differs from carbureted
systems in that the fuel and air are not mixed outside the engine; fuel only is
injected directly into each cylinder through injection valves. The fuel and air mix in
the cylinder as a result of turbulence of the incoming air during the intake portion
of the cycle. The speed control governor operates a gas regulating valve instead of
the throttle valve in the carbureted system.
Fig. 300-26 Injected Gas-Fuel System (Courtesy of the Cooper Camerson Corporation)
The safety shut-off and vent valve is an important part of all gas engine fuel
systems. These valves close on signal failure and shut-off supply of fuel to the
engine immediately upon engine shutdown for any reason. As a minimum, this
valve will close upon loss of ignition, low fuel header pressure, and during any
engine shutdown sequence.
supplies fuel to an injector at each cylinder which atomizes the fuel for combustion
in the cylinder.
Upstream of the injection pump(s) lies a system which is much more complex than
for gas systems due to storage and cleaning requirements. Figure 300-27 shows a
typical heavy-oil fuel system for a large stationary engine. The following elements
may be needed in liquid fuel systems dependent on the fuel characteristics and
storage requirements:
• Storage tank(s)
• Transfer pumps
• Header(s)
• Day tank
• Light-oil day tank
• Centrifuge
• Primary filter
• Secondary filter
• Flow meter
• Supply pumps
A good reference for fuel system requirements and fuel characteristics is the Diesel
Engine Manufacturers Association Handbook of standard practices for stationary
engines.
Ignition System
The purpose of the ignition system is to supply a high voltage pulse of electricity to
cause a spark to jump across the gap of a spark plug in each cylinder, at the correct
timing to support combustion. Spark-ignited engines need an ignition system to
supply the spark which initiates combustion in the cylinders.
There are two types of ignition systems which are used to produce the voltage
required at the spark plugs. These are the magneto ignition and the coil and distrib-
utor ignition systems. The coil and distributor ignition system is more commonly
used in stationary engines.
A simple coil and distributor system for an automotive engine is shown in
Figure 300-28. The main components consist of:
• Power supply (battery)
• Coil
• Breaker and condenser
• Distributor
• Spark plugs
There are two circuits in this system: the primary and secondary circuits. The low
voltage primary circuit includes the power supply, low voltage side of the coil and
breaker and condenser. The breaker is operated by a shaft-driven cam which causes
the points to open and close once for each cylinder per cycle. Thus, the primary
Fig. 300-28 Ignition System (From Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution by Edward
F. Obert 1968, 1974 by Intext. Used by permission from HarperCollins
Publishers, Inc.)
circuit induces a current surge in the high voltage side of the coil once for each
cylinder every cycle.
The secondary circuit includes the high voltage side of the coil, the distributor and
the spark plugs. The distributor distributes the current pulses to the spark plugs in
the proper sequence (called the firing order).
The ignition system described above is classified as a high-tension ignition system
because the distribution of current pulses occurs in the high voltage secondary
circuit. In a low-tension ignition system, the distributor is in the low voltage
primary circuit, and each cylinder has its own ignition coil. Thus, there is a
secondary circuit for each cylinder. Low-tension ignition systems are usually speci-
fied for stationary engines because they provide increased reliability, and they
conform more readily to hazardous area classifications.
In principle, the ignition systems on stationary engines work the same as automo-
tive systems. However, the hardware is slightly different. Ignition systems are low-
tension, the primary circuit is solid state (eliminates the mechanical distributor and
breaker) and the power supply is an alternator/regulator or a magneto. An example
of such a system is the Altronic II ignition system for low speed engines shown in
Figure 300-29. Altronic manufactures a similar system for moderate and high-
speed engines called the Altronic III.
A number of gas engines in gas compression services are installed in Class I, Group
D, Division 2 electrical area classification. A requirement of this classification is
shielded ignition systems including shielded secondary circuits. However, engines
are usually installed with unshielded ignition systems because shielded secondaries
are unreliable. Shielded secondary leads can reduce available voltage at the spark
plug to less than 60% of the coil output. This reduces firing reliability and increases
plug fouling, therefore reducing plug life. Installing unshielded ignition systems is
backed by a great deal of field experience, and the Company’s Fire Protection
Manual allows this exception to the area classification.
Lube-oil System
The lubricating oil in a reciprocating engine not only lubricates the moving parts,
but provides an important cooling function. The flow rate of oil through the engine
is governed by the amount of heat to be removed. A typical engine lube-oil system
is shown in Figure 300-30. This system is very similar to systems supplied with
reciprocating compressors.
Engines are usually supplied with standard general-purpose lube systems. These
systems may or may not provide the level of reliability or availability sought after
in petrochemical application. The following additional items may be added to the
simple system shown in Figure 300-30:
• Emergency (spare) lube pump
• Duplex filter with transfer valve
• Duplex cooler with transfer valve
• Stand-by heater
Cooling System
Engine cooling water systems remove heat from the engine jacket, lube-oil, and
from air intercoolers (if used). Engine cooling water systems are usually closed-
loop systems, separate for each engine. A typical cooling water system is shown in
Figure 300-31. In this system, a 50-50 glycol/water solution is circulated in a
closed loop and heat is rejected through a heat exchanger to a cooling tower. An
alternative to the heat exchanger and tower is an air-cooled heat exchanger. Fin-fans
are used on large engines, whereas a simple radiator with an engine driven (by belt-
drive) fan can be used on smaller engines.
Starting System
Starting systems for stationary engines can be electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic.
Electric starters are usually limited to smaller engines due to size and starting
torque capability.
The most popular starter is the air motor. High-pressure air expanded across an air
motor causes it to rotate and provide enough torque to drive the engine flywheel.
The flywheel has a ring-gear around its circumference. Today, air motors can be
utilized to start even the largest engines by using multiple motors to provide the
torque required.
When available, it is preferable to use air from a plant utility air system. In some
installations, plant air pressure is not high enough or is not available. In such cases,
the installation will include a separate starting air system with compressor(s) and
receiver vessel(s). Air pressure in the range of 90-125 psi is usually required for air
start. In some remote gas producing locations, gas is used instead of air for pneu-
matic starting.
In some older engines, starting air is applied directly to the engine cylinders to
initiate crankshaft rotation before firing. These systems require starting air mani-
folding and controls which are designed and supplied by the engine manufacturer.
These systems were generally supplied before large high-torque air start motors
became commercially available.
Altitude Factor
The power an engine can deliver is reduced as atmospheric pressure decreases
because the air density is lower, and therefore the quantity of oxygen for combus-
tion is reduced. For naturally aspirated engines, the curve in Figure 300-32 provides
derating factors for installations above 1500 feet elevation.
Fig. 300-32 Load Rating Reduction for High Elevations—Naturally Aspirated Engines
Temperature Factor
Elevated temperature also causes a reduction in engine power due to decreased air
density. The curve in Figure 300-33 provides derating factors to be applied to the
DEMA rating, for inlet air temperatures exceeding 90°F. The factors can be applied
to naturally aspirated engines.
Fig. 300-33 Load Rating Reduction for Elevated Inlet Temperature—Naturally Aspirated
Engines
Accessory Loads
The manufacturer’s standard and DEMA ratings usually include the standard
engine accessory loads for the quoted engine model. Accessory loads may include
the main oil pump, jacket water pump, ignition alternator or magneto, and radiator
fan. The engineer should determine the horsepower required for each accessory
device, and compare the total required with the standard accessory load included in
the rating. If the total accessory load exceeds the standard accessory load, the
balance should be used to reduce the DEMA rating.
Fuels
The fuel heating value assumed for the DEMA rating corresponds to standard distil-
late and commercial grade natural gas. If the specified engine will burn fuels signifi-
cantly different, a fuel derating factor may need to be applied to the DEMA rating.
The manufacturer should be consulted for an appropriate factor.
Comparison
Once the DEMA rating has been derated by all factors (including the Company
derating factor), the resultant rating can be compared to the manufacturer’s quoted
site rating. If the resultant rating is lower than the quoted site rating, the manufac-
turer has misrepresented the capability of the engine, and a requote may be in order.
NS
N p = --------
2
(Eq. 300-12)
where:
Np = average piston speed, feet per minute
N = running speed, revolutions per minute
S = piston stroke, feet
Specifying running speed limits alone, without piston speed limits, is recommended
for reciprocating engines. In theory, specifying a piston speed limit instead of a
running speed limit allows a less biased comparison of alternative engines because
piston speed encompasses both stroke and running speed in the equation. Engines
with higher running speeds would have shorter strokes and vice-versa. However,
engines are designed with standard running speeds and strokes, making running
speed comparisons sufficient for evaluations. Also, maximum allowable piston
speeds do not place limits on critical engine components outside the cylinder such
as the crankshaft and valve mechanism. The reliability of these components is unre-
lated to stroke, and only a function of running speed.
Lateral Analysis
Reciprocating engines are mass-produced well-proven designs, which operate in a
fixed speed-range and are usually flexibly-coupled to the driven equipment. As
such, it is usually not necessary to require vendors to supply a job-specific lateral
critical speed analysis; the manufacturer should be able to cite the lateral critical
speeds upon request, and his experience should be sufficient to convince the user
that the equipment can run free of harmful or excessive lateral vibrations. Excep-
tions to this are new engine designs without field experience and equipment trains
where the driven equipment is engine-mounted (rigidly-coupled to the engine).
Engine-mounted equipment trains act as a single shaft, and are usually unique
designs with respect to lateral effects. In these two cases the user should require the
vendor to provide a lateral analysis.
Torsional Analysis
Unlike lateral vibration, torsional vibration is an insidious phenomenon that can
occur with little or no visible evidence. It takes very special instrumentation to
detect torsional vibration. Torsional vibration problems are usually not discovered
until a major component failure occurs. The same logic does not apply to engines
with respect to torsional analysis. Reciprocating engines by their nature produce
strong exciting forces, and have several orders of torsional critical speeds some of
which often occur in or near the operating-speed range. Thus, there is ample poten-
tial for torsional vibration problems, and requiring the vendor to supply a torsional
analysis is usually justified. Unlike the lateral analysis, a torsional analysis is not
extremely complicated and produces results that are generally quite reliable.
In reciprocating engines, harmful torsional vibrations can usually be avoided by
tuning the stiffness of the coupling(s) in the train or by changing the mass moment
of inertia of components (usually the engine flywheel) in the system. In some cases
a resilient damping-type coupling or a torsional damper can be applied in the
design to avoid harmful vibrations. Torsional analysis is a tool used to evaluate the
need for these devices in the design phase.
There are two types of engine-driven trains that deserve special attention with
respect to torsional vibration: those with gearboxes, or those with synchronous
generators. Gearboxes can stimulate torsional vibration due to manufacturing imper-
fections, and are often the victim of torsional vibration if the torque variation is
sufficient to cause tooth separation in the gear mesh. In synchronous generators, the
torque oscillations can cause harmful current pulsations in the electrical system.
than can be received from rotating machines. Engines also require routine mainte-
nance which requires downtime. Routine maintenance includes oil changes, spark
plug changes, and cylinder internal inspections, etc.
Sub-section 341). The fuel composition is important in design because it limits the
compression ratio due to auto-ignition characteristics of the fuel and because it can
limit the life of cylinder components due to corrosion.
See Figure 300-34 for the limits of constituents in natural gas fuels, based on
engine design. These limits are prescribed by the DEMA. Gaseous fuels with
components exceeding these limits can sometimes be used with satisfactory results
when given special consideration by the engine manufacturer. When the content of
hydrogen sulfide exceeds the limit shown in Figure 300-34, the user should expect
lower life from cylinder components due to accelerated corrosion rates.
Fig. 300-34 Natural Gas Fuel Constituents For Gas Engines as Prescribed by the DEMA
Component Chemical Formula Percentage by Volume
Nitrogen N2 10% Max
Oxygen O2 1% Max
Carbon Dioxide CO2 5% Max
Hydrogen H2 3% Max
Methane CH4 70% Max
Ethane C2H6 10% Max
Propane C3H8 3% Max
Butane C4H10 0.8% Max
Pentanes and Higher C5H12+ 2.5% Max
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S 20 Grains Per 100 Cu. Ft. Max
Filters
The air filter removes airborne solid particles that can cause engine wear and
increased maintenance.
Therefore, it is the most important component to select. Also, choose a filter that
will not cause an excessive pressure drop in the fouled condition, as well as one that
is appropriate for the ambient conditions (level of dust, moisture, etc.)
There are three types of filters generally applied on reciprocating engines:
• Dry media
• Viscous impingment
• Oil bath
The dry media and viscous impingment types are most common because of their
lower cost. They contain replaceable or cleanable elements, and maintenance is
required when the pressure drop increases to an unacceptable level. They are best
applied in low-dust applications. Both types of filters are available as complete
units with inlet screen and louvres for indoor installation, or as components for wall
openings or site constructed filter houses.
For dusty applications, an oil-bath filter may be more appropriate. Although more
expensive, they are generally more efficient in dust removal and require less
frequent maintenance. Oil-bath filters are usually supplied complete for indoor or
outdoor installation and include weather shield, inlet screens, and outlet plenum.
Silencers
Intake silencers may be required for noise attenuation. Their selection is dependent
on the allowable noise limit at the site and the pressure drop permitted. The type of
air filter may have an effect on silencer selection (oil bath filters provide consider-
able noise attenuation). Silencers should be located as close as possible to the
engine for best attenuation. The intake silencer and exhaust silencer should be
provided by the same vendor where strict enforcement of noise limits is involved
because it is difficult to discriminate between intake and exhaust noise in the field.
Using the same vendor for both may avoid warranty problems should the noise
limits be exceeded.
Intake Cooling
Occasionally, engines in high ambient temperature applications are supplied with
evaporative coolers in the inlet system to cool the air by humidification. This works
best in hot dry climates. Evaporative coolers require a supply of soft water to mini-
mize solid deposition on the cooling pads. Cooler size is established by its ability to
cool air from the peak expected temperature and dew point to the desired tempera-
ture and to avoid carry-over of water droplets in the air stream.
Intake Piping
Intake piping should be of sufficient size so as not to exceed the maximum allow-
able pressure drop for the air flow rate at 110% engine load. Air intake piping is
normally mounted separately, either free standing or mounted to structural elements
of the engine house or building. The piping will include a flexible connector(s) near
the engine (or at the turbocharger) to relieve the engine (or turbocharger) of any
undue stresses and to help prevent transmission of vibration from the engine to the
intake piping support structure.
Silencers
Exhaust silencers are usually required to keep the noise of escaping exhaust gas
below the maximum acceptable limit at the site. These silencers normally incorpo-
rate a baffle or cyclone chamber to quench sparks and remove solids. Locate the
exhaust silencer so it prevents recirculation of gases back to the air system intake
and prevents heat transfer by radiation to the intake system components.
In some rare applications, it may be necessary to consider installing a flame arrestor
in an engine’s exhaust system to prevent flame propagation into the exhaust system
during upsets. Examples of engine systems that may need this protection are those
that have particularly long exhaust lines, large exhaust systems common to several
engines, and heat recovery systems with large volume.
Flexible Connectors
Corrugated stainless steel expansion joints are installed at the engine exhaust mani-
fold outlet flange or the turbocharger outlet. Their purpose is to compensate for the
considerable thermal expansion in the exhaust piping, and also to limit transmission
of vibration to piping supports and structural elements of the building.
engine with the driven machine. Epoxy grout is recommended for all reciprocating
machinery foundations because of its superior strength, oil resistance, and low
shrinkage. See the General Machinery Manual for machinery foundation grouting
procedures.
Skid mounting is practical for small and moderately sized units. Skids are normally
designed of sufficient strength and rigidity to withstand the torque between the
engine and driven machine and to maintain alignment. There are several advantages
to skid mounting:
• Field installation labor and time are reduced
• Space requirements are reduced
• Single point responsibility of the package is maintained
• Factory tests of the entire unit can be performed
• Auxiliaries are integrated and factory assembled
• Costs are usually reduced
• Foundations are somewhat simplified
The primary disadvantage of equipment skids is they seldom meet Company stan-
dards for safety and operability.
Sensor Functions
• Class A—functions monitored continuously from startup
• Class B—functions disarmed at startup for a pre-determined selectable length
of time
• Class C—functions disarmed at startup until the sensor first normalizes
speed by adjusting the fuel throttle valve or rack to match the engine to the load
requirement. For example, an increase in load (which would tend to decrease
speed) is sensed by the governor, which opens the throttle to compensate for the
load change and maintains constant speed.
For variable speed applications (such as compressor drives), isochronous control is
still usually appropriate. In these applications, the governor accepts a pneumatic or
electronic signal that is proportional to some process variable (e.g., pressure) and
changes the governor set point.
Two types of governors normally are used on engines: mechanical-hydraulic and
electronic. Mechanical-hydraulic governors sense speed with a mechanically driven
centrifugal mechanism which controls a hydraulic shaft-positioning system. Elec-
tronic governors use a magnetic pick-up on a rotating shaft to sense speed and send
a control signal to a separate engine-mounted actuator.
Several factors must be considered prior to selecting an appropriate governor:
• Availability of electricity at the engine site
• Other engine functions to be performed requiring special features
• Speed control precision required
• Economic considerations
• Reliability and local preferences
• Type of application—mechanical drive or generator drive
Figure 300-36 provides guidance on selection of Woodward Governor Company
governors for engine applications. Another governor manufacturer the Company
has limited experience with is Tri-Sen Systems, Inc.
Emissions levels in engine exhaust systems are often measured in parts per million
(by volume), and source emissions limits for specific projects involving engines are
sometimes stated in units of tons/year. Unit conversion factors for emissions rates
are provided in Appendix G.
Fig. 300-37 Relative Emissions vs. Air/Fuel Ratio for Fig. 300-38 Reduction of CO and NOx at Different
Typical Natural Gas Engines Air/Fuel Ratios
rized by their air/fuel ratios as shown in Figure 300-41. This categorization is neces-
sary because the application of certain strategies is limited to only one category,
and because local air boards often require different BACTs and emissions limits for
each category.
The following NOx reduction strategies and their applicability will be discussed:
• Derating
• Adjusting operating parameters
• Engine alterations
• Pre-combustion chambers (PCC)
• Pre-stratified charge (PSC)
• Non-selective catalytic reduction (NSCR)
• Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
• Motorization
• Emerging technologies
Figure 300-42 compares the relative effectiveness and the relative costs of these
strategies. Figure 300-43 summarizes the techniques and lists some of the risks and
limitations.
Driver Manual
Driver Manual 300 Internal Combustion Engines
Derating
The reduction in NOx caused by derating occurs because peak flame temperatures
decrease as engine load decreases. Derating is usually not the most favorable NOx
reduction strategy because much greater NOx reductions are achievable with other
strategies, and the loss in power is often not acceptable. Derating may not be consid-
ered a BACT by the local permitting authority, and may not be acceptable.
However, derating is a viable NOx reduction strategy on any engine that can be run
significantly below its rated power. Derating provides about a 2% brake specific
reduction in NOx per 1% reduction in horsepower down to about 70% of rated load,
at virtually no capital cost. Derating also causes an increase in brake specific fuel
consumption.
Fig. 300-44 Four-Stroke Naturally Aspirated Engine Adjustments to Reduce NOx Production
Methods Limitations
Retard spard High fuel consumption
(Reduce residence time and peak flame High exhause temperature
temperature) Combustion instability
A/F ratio rich High fuel consumption
(Move left of peak NOx) High CO emission engine stall
A/F ratio lean Carburetor capacity
(Move right of peak NOx) Load limitation
Misfire
Engine Alterations
Several alterations can be used to reduce brake specific NOx by 40 to 60%. These
include:
• Altered valve timing (cam modification)
• Exhaust gas recirculation
• Air injection
• Water injection
• High energy ignition
Exhaust gas recirculation is the most commonly used engine alteration for
decreased NOx production.
Altering the timing of valve events can reduce NOx by modifying both the combus-
tion temperature and the reaction time. This requires modifying the cam-shaft
and/or altering cam timing, both of which are internal engine modifications. A
change in the piston crown design may also be required to prevent valve and piston
interference. Altering valve timing has the potential of being hazardous because it
is possible for gas to leak through the engine to the exhaust during shutdown
periods if the engine stops in a position where the valves for a cylinder overlap (in
the open position). This could cause an explosion on startup. It may be necessary to
add controls to the fuel system to prevent this situation.
Air injection and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) both reduce NOx by modifying
the AF ratio (leaner). EGR does this by injecting inert exhaust gas into the combus-
tion chamber.
Water injection reduces NOx by reducing the peak cycle temperature. Water injec-
tion also provides a slight power enhancement. Water injection can cause fouling
and increased corrosion in the cylinders.
Replacing an engine ignition system with a high energy system can reduce NOx by
reducing the reaction time. High energy ignition systems may not meet require-
ments of the hazardous area classification.
Note that PCCs have a slight penalty in increased CO production. PCC’s allow
combustion at very lean air/fuel ratios of 20-30, where NO x is very low (to the right
of the hump in the NOx curve in Figure 300-37). The PCC solves the misfiring
problem that would occur in a standard engine operating with such lean mixtures.
Figure 300-46 shows a PCC and main combustion chamber. A rich but small charge
is ignited by a spark in the pre-chamber which forms a torch that expands into the
main chamber. The main chamber is charged with a very lean mixture which is
ignited by the well-established flame from the pre-chamber. Overall combustion is
lean, but very stable.
Company experience with these engines is good. The engines achieve the adver-
tised emissions, and have very stable combustion. Combustion stability is even
improved somewhat over the unmodified version of the engine. Fuel consumption
is slightly lower, and the engines are very free of detonations when all cylinders are
firing. The Company has experience with the PCC engine manufacturers and
models shown in Figure 300-47.
Spark plug life in PCC engines can be short because the plug is exposed to higher
temperatures. Life as short as 2 to 4 weeks is not uncommon. Users, engine manu-
facturers, and spark plug manufacturers have been working on this problem and
have extended plug life 8 to 10 weeks on some engines.
Fig. 300-47 Company Experience with Pre-combustion Chamber and Pre-stratified Charge
Manufacturer Trade Name Location Model Series
Cooper Industries, Inc. East Painter, WY W330
Cooper Jet Cells Platform Hope, CA GMVA, GMVH
Cooper Jet Cells Wicket, TX
Fig. 300-48 Pre-stratified Charge Equipment (Courtesy of Diesel and Gas Engineering Company)
way catalyst” and does not require ammonia injection as a reducing agent.
Figure 300-49 shows the reactions that occur in NSCR.
NSCR requires the engine to operate within a very narrow band of air/fuel ratios.
Figure 300-50 shows this band called the “catalyst window” for a gas engine. On
the rich side of the window, the performance decreases due to fouling of the cata-
lyst with hydrocarbons. On the lean side of the window, oxidation occurs too
rapidly and the catalyst may be damaged by excessive temperature.
Company experience with NSCR is poor because it is difficult to constantly operate
engines within the catalyst window. This is especially true for compressor drive
applications which see continual load changes. Microprocessor based AF ratio
controllers sensing exhaust O2 or CO have been used with limited success. A
problem with AF ratio control has been unreliability of the sensing devices, and
feedback in the controllers has sometimes been too slow for engine load changes.
Figure 300-51 is a diagram of an NSCR system with an AF ratio controller.
There are several other negative aspects in NSCR which include:
• A fuel consumption penalty of 5-15%
• Catalyst bed changeout can be frequent
• CO emissions usually increase
• Some manufacturers require only approved engine lubricants be used
(containing no phosphorous)
Fig. 300-49 NSCR Exhaust Gas Reactions Fig. 300-50 Air/Fuel Ratio Catalyst Window for NSCR
SCR is not normally applied to reciprocating engines because of its high capital and
operating costs. It would only be cost effective at a very large engine station where
one system could support several large engines.
Motorization
Motorization eliminates NOx from integral compressor-engines by removing the
power (engine) cylinders and throws and driving the crank by a motor through a
belt drive. Such projects are rarely cost effective because of high capital costs, and
incremental fuel/power costs which usually favor the fuel over electric power.
Emerging Technologies
There are some emerging NOx reduction strategies that may become practical in
the future. The following strategies are still in development and not yet commer-
cially available:
• Cyanuric acid injection
• Electrochemical NOx control
Cyanuric acid or urea can be injected into flue or exhaust gases from any combus-
tion process to reduce NOx. In principle, this is 100% effective. Cyanuric acid is a
non-toxic, commercially available compound that decomposes to isocyanic acid
(HNCO) above 630°F. Several reactions occur when HNCO is mixed with NO in
flue gas that produce CO, CO2, water and nitrogen. It is unlikely that this tech-
nology will be utilized on reciprocating engines because exhaust temperatures are
considered too low to be practical, and because the annual cost of the chemical will
likely exceed the cost of combustion modifications such as pre-combustion cham-
bers. Also, there is some concern that hydrogen cyanide, a highly toxic substance,
may be formed as a by-product of the reactions.
With electrochemical NOx reduction, the exhaust gas flows through a solid-state
electrochemical reactor which converts NOx to nitrogen and oxygen in the presence
of an electrolyte. The electrolyte is a solid, porous ceramic oxide-ion conductor
such as stabilized zirconia. Ideally, there are no moving parts, no by products, and
the only fluid is the exhaust gas. The main operating cost is for the electric power to
drive the reaction. Preliminary indications are that the operating costs for electro-
chemical NOx reduction will be significantly less than for SCR.
Combustion Traces
Figure 300-52 shows a normal combustion trace (pressure versus time) for a two-
cycle spark-ignition engine. The combustion events are indicated. Figure 300-53 is
a normal combustion trace for a four-cycle spark-ignition engine. Note that the
curves are similar except the four-cycle curve occurs over two crank revolutions
and the two-cycle curve is completed in one revolution.
Several engine fault traces are shown in Figure 300-54 and compared to a normal
trace. The fault traces are described as follows:
Vibration Traces
Vibration traces (vibration amplitude versus crankangle) and ultrasonic traces (ultra-
sonic amplitude versus crankangle) are used to detect several possible mechanical
faults. Diagnosing the various faults is accomplished by having knowledge of the
normal shape, amplitude, and crankangle of each event in the traces. The cost
savings occurs when the analyzer technician correctly diagnoses a fault and mainte-
nance is scheduled prior to a component failure.
Figure 300-55 shows a normal vibration trace for a four-cycle spark-ignited
cylinder. The events are described as follows:
Point A—Exhaust valve closes
Point B—Injection valve opens
Point C—Intake valve closes
Point D—Injection valve closes
Point E—Exhaust blowdown. This vibration is caused by the rapid expansion of
the exhaust gas as it leaves the cylinder
Point F—Intake valve opens
Figure 300-56, shows the shape of vibration traces for several valve closings. The
traces are described as follows:
• Trace A—Normal valve closure. The front side (left) is flat. The amplitude
indicates how hard the valve hits the seat. A normal valve closure trace will fan
into the baseline as shown. The width of the trace indicates the width of the
valve and seat mating surfaces. Valve closure traces can indicate valve and seat
condition and valve timing.
Fig. 300-56 Vibration Traces of Valve Closing (From the Signature Directory. Courtesy of American Gas Association.)
• Trace B—The high amplitude of this trace indicates the valve is hitting the
seat harder than normal.
• Trace C—The high width of this trace indicates wide mating surfaces between
the seat and valve.
• Trace D—This trace shows two valve closings. The valve bounces off the seat
and closes a second time because the valve spring stiffness is not great enough.
• Trace E—The noise that balloons out after the valve closing indicates gas
leakage through the valve.
• Trace F—The small trace before the valve closing indicates valve guide wear.
This is caused by abnormal movement of the stem in the guide.
• Trace G—A low amplitude valve closing indicates the valve is not closing
properly or the valve lash is too great.
Ignition Traces
Ignition traces (ignition voltage versus crankangle) can be used to diagnose
malfunctions in the ignition system. Figures 300-57 and 300-58 show normal igni-
tion traces for an ignition primary and inductive secondary. Normally the inductive
secondary trace is used for diagnosing malfunctions.
Referring to Figure 300-58, several malfunctions can be described:
Point A—If there is any abnormal voltage at this point or if the point shifts horizon-
tally, there is a problem with the points or electronic switching mechanism.
Point B—If this point shifts horizontally or varies with each cycle, the drive is
worn or the points stick or arc.
Fig. 300-57 Details of Combustion Pattern (Primary) (From the Signature Directory. Courtesy of American Gas
Association.)
Point C—As the voltage at Point C increases (goes more negative) the duration
(III) will increase. High voltage at Point C indicates:
• Wide plug gap or bad plug [arc voltage (II) will also be high]
• High resistance in the secondary lead (arcing, broken strands or corroded
connectors)
Low voltage at Point C indicates:
• Narrow plug gap
• Shorted plug (little or no voltage rise)
• Shorted secondary [arc voltage (II) will also be low]
• Transformer problem [arc duration (III) will be low]
The A.G.A. Engine Analyzer Signature Directory provides further examples of igni-
tion malfunctions, vibration and ultrasonic traces.
Indicator Cards
Normal indicator cards for spark-ignited four-cycle and two-cycle engines are
shown in Figures 300-59 and 300-60. The cycle events are labeled.
The area inside the curve of an indicator card is the work performed by the engine
cylinder. A performance analyzer calculates the mean indicated pressure (MIP)
from the area of the indicator card. The MIP is the constant pressure acting
throughout the stroke which would produce the same work as the variable pressure
shown on the indicator card. Knowing the MIP, the cylinder indicated horsepower
(IHP) can be calculated using Equation 300-5 (see Sub-section 317). Some perfor-
mance analyzers perform this calculation automatically and provide a digital
display of indicated horsepower.
Determination of indicated horsepower for each cylinder of multiple-cylinder
engines provides the best means of balancing the load between cylinders. By
comparing the cards for each cylinder it is possible to predict the change needed to
bring a weak cylinder in balance. Figure 300-61 presents comparison cards for two-
cycle engines showing the various malfunctions that lead to weak cylinder load
capability.
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