Running head: IMPACT OF ACCULTURATION 1

Impact of Acculturation

Julie Y. Bunnak

Psy7540

Multicultural Perspectives in Human Behavior

e-mail: jbunnak@capellauniversity.edu

Instructor: Dr. Amy Donovan

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Impact of Acculturation

The process of assimilation and integration into the host culture, acculturation can be

problematic for many newly transplanted members to the United States. Extremely stressful and

difficult for many, language barriers, culture identity issues, social alienation, and racism can

create difficult barriers. Finding these challenges difficult to overcome, life stressors can create a

variety of stress-related problems, like anxiety, depression, and even the physiological

manifestations of stress-related illnesses (Gupta, Leong, Valentine, & Canada, 2013). Many who

suffer from the acculturation process often fail to pursue appropriate treatment or social support

systems, since the seeking of psychological counsel can carry a negative stigma emanating from

the culture of origin. Acculturation and acculturative stress will be examined and defined. Social

issues, impact of cultural conflicts, negative stereotypes and stigmas associated with immigrant

life, and possible treatment options for acculturation stress will also be discussed.

Acculturation and Acculturation Stress

Acculturation is the process of adapting into a different culture other than one’s own. The

implication of acculturation is that two cultures reside and intermingle throughout the adapting

process. The process also creates cultural and psychological change for the individual. A cultural

advantage for acculturation is the learning of new strategies and practices that one can adopt and

integrate into personality and self-identity. However, disadvantages of acculturation can include

acculturation stress, conflict, bias, segregation, and self-isolation (Xia, Do, Xie, 2013).

Acculturation stress occurs when difficulties arise after immigration and adaptation

process. While many immigrants are faced with stressors during this phase, some may lack the

social support and coping strategies to handle them appropriately. Separation from family,
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friends and familiarity of country is a large stressor for the new immigrant. Unfamiliar customs

and cultures may leave the individual feeling bewildered and uncertain with how to appropriately

respond to the host culture. For some, families must be broken apart because of a lack in funds to

bring each member to the new land. One parent or both parents may initially immigrate to the

new land and leave children behind to be taken care by other family members. They must then

find work and save enough money to bring the rest of the family to the new land. In these

instances, the individual or individuals may feel lonely, frustrated, isolated, and incomplete

without the partner or children that are left behind. Latin-Americans are more likely than their

peers to develop psychological issues because of these issues (Leong, Park, Kalibatseva, 2013).

Factors Surrounding Acculturation

Fluctuations in income and unemployment may also create acculturative stress. Families

may be forced into lengthy bouts of unemployment and are then unsure how to provide for their

families. Those who have moved from the country of origin to seek out a better life may feel

disconcerted and disparaged upon the realization that they are making much less than they had

been prior to moving (Xia, Do, & Xie, 2013).

The language barrier is also another facet to acculturative stress. Such issues may be

detrimental when seeking employment, finding medical help, or even searching for appropriate

resources to help get through the process. Parents and children that suffer from the language

barrier may come across delays in the enrollment of school for children, as there may be issues in

communicating with teachers and peers. Parents may not understand what is expected of them by

school administrators; the transference of past educational records may end up being delayed in

the process (Xia, Do, & Xie, 2013). F. Leong, Y.S. Park, and Z. Kalibatseva (2013) states that a

large academic achievement gap exists between Latino children and white students; scoring
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much lower in the areas of reading and math. This can be due to parental time-constraints in

helping children with homework because of work or unemployment issues and the language

barrier; not understanding what is expected of them by teachers and school administrators.

Discrimination and PTSD

Discrimination is also occurs during the acculturation process. Different physically,

verbally, and behaviorally, some immigrants are chastised, berated, and alienated from society

for being different from the social norm. Lambasted for stealing jobs and contributing to

overpopulation levels, immigrants have been treated horribly by many in western society. In

actuality, increases in immigration has had positive impact on the economic growth of the

country. The ACLU (2018) reports from a study done in 1994, immigrants increase the output

and appeal for labor. Along with high productivity, immigrants also pay billions in annual taxes,

stimulating investment and the inception of jobs, and reinvigorate collapsed communities.

Post-Traumatic Stress can also be linked to immigration or a psychological issue that is

carried over from the homeland. Individuals who leave the home country because of civil unrest

or refugee situation can experience many difficulties in assimilating to the host culture. M.L

Santa Maria and T. Cornille (2007) found that immigrants who are separated from family are

particularly prone to PTSD; specifically, those individuals who had to leave spouses and children

back in the homeland. They also found that Latino-Americans had the highest reports of PTSD

among other immigrants.

Self-Concept and Communication Style

All cultures have an established value system. To become multiculturally aware, it is

imperative that these values are clear. For individuals going through acculturation, understanding
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the value systems during the process can create a more harmonious transition period. It is also

imperative to note that value systems can be different amongst the various cultural groups. It

does not make one culture better or more advanced than the other but understanding the cultural

similarities and differences can help to illuminate cultural perspectives.

Individualism Versus Collectivism

Individualism is the value that the individual takes precedence over the group. Whereas,

collectivism is where the group ideology takes precedence over the individual. The United

States, Australia, and U.K. scoring high on the individualism scale and all apprize autonomy,

honesty, privacy, freedom, and personal goals. This prevailing social attitude of independence

saturates the mind of each member to propel themselves to achieve success, as long as it does not

infringe upon the rights of others. Collectivistic cultures; like China and Singapore, devote

themselves to what is best for the group, family, or community. Decisions are made in the

consideration of group welfare. These societies value training, teamwork, the improvement of

skills, physical fitness, and intrinsic rewards that accompanies proficiency in those skills. Most

families are hierarchical in design and value harmony more than honesty (Triandis, 2001).

In a collectivistic and hierarchical society where men are the breadwinners or providers

for the family group, being forced into lengthy unemployment or reversal of roles with their

spouses may feel emasculating and shameful. The individualistic value system that prizes

independence and success may also create tumultuous feelings in a person who was originally

believed in collectivistic viewpoints. For example, a husband was proud in his past culture for

able to provide well for his family. Seeing the family content made him happy and fulfilled.

However, after moving to a country with an individualistic value system, he is no longer able to

work well with his co-workers in his new job because they do not value the same type of
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teamwork he is used to. He can no longer provide for his family the way he used to, due to

language barrier issues. His wife experiences discrimination issues which makes her unhappy

and his children are struggling in school. This culture clash can create psychological stress which

may be difficult to overcome. C. Kim and H.E. Sung (2016) discuss high issues of intimate

partner violence that occurs in the Chinese community because of the inability to find

appropriate de-stressors for life problems.

The inability to find appropriate means to alleviate psychological and acculturation stress

amongst the immigrant community may also lead to a variety of psychological distress issues.

Acculturation and acculturation stress are both very high predictors of alcoholism (Park, Anastas,

Shibusawa, & Nguyen, 2014). In the Asian-American sub-groups, Filipino immigrants consume

more alcohol than either Chinese or Vietnamese immigrants. The study also supports that the

process of acculturation may shape drinking patterns, as individuals begin to adapt to the

relevant norms of the dominant and host culture.

Models of Acculturation

A large variety of theoretical models explain the process of acculturation and issues that

arise. The first model is adapted from John Berry’s Theory of Acculturation. Berry postulates

that two specific key factors are involved in the acculturation process; cultural maintenance and

contact/participation. Through cultural maintenance, the individual seeks to preserve the pre-

existing cultural identity that they have valued. Contact and participation propels the individual

to become involved with the dominant or host culture. Based on the interaction of the two key

factors, four acculturation strategies begin to emerge. In the very first strategy, assimilation, the

individual no longer retains cultural identity, but seek direct interaction with other cultures.

Individuals who have chosen to assimilate may change preference for language that is used,
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adoption of dominant behavior, attitudes, and core values, and seek memberships within the

social group they wish to assimilate into. In the second strategy separation, which occurs when

the individual places values in the original culture and withhold interaction with individuals from

the dominant or host culture. Individuals maintain the core values of their original culture in the

third strategy; integration and interact with those from the dominant and host culture. In the last

strategy marginalization, individuals no longer hold their core values important and also choose

to not interact with those from the dominant or host culture. For immigrants going through the

acculturation process, biculturalism is the last phase people try to achieve. Biculturalism occurs

when individuals have successfully integrated two or more facets of their original cultural

identity with the dominant culture. Values and perspectives may be from the original or host

culture (Berry, Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006).

The Schumann Acculturation Model is linked directly to the acquisition of new language.

According to Schumann, language is acquired through social distance. If one fails to learn the

new language, then there is perceptually, a psychological distance between the two cultures

within the mind of the person. The larger this psychological distance is, the harder it will be for

the individual to learn. There are eight factors involved that can influence the psychological

distance. The first is social dominance; where one group is deemed more powerful than the other

and integration; where the two or more groups are deemed as equal. Enclosure occurs when self-

sufficiency of the individual increases the distance between cultures, cohesiveness is created

when close groups or friendships increases the distance. Size also impacts distance, as larger

groups tend to be further in distance, and cultural congruence pertains to the extremes in cultural

difference in its influence to distance. The seventh factor considers the attitudes of cultural
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group, in that negative attitudes to the individual’s own culture will increase distance, and length

of time stayed in the specific culture will influence distance (Schumann, 1978).

Another concept within the acculturation spectrum is the term melting pot. Melting pot

refers to a society where various types of people conglomerate and blend together. While some

societies consist of individuals of the same race, culture, and religion, many members of this

society and culture are very different (Steinberg, 2014).

Diffusionism

Originally an anthropological term, Diffusionism is used to account for the spread of culture, art,

language, music, myths, religion, social organization, and even technological ideas from one

culture to another. Essentially, diffusionism refers to the transmission of ideology through

culture. Classical evolutionists explained this concept as psychic unity of humankind, feeling that

all societies and cultures are intertwined and have passed from one into another. Upon greater

inspection of the various cultures, one would see similar commonalities through this type of

psychic medium. The originality of the similarities may have been created in one culture, but

through trade and communication, these ideological concepts were introduced from main culture

to host culture (Dearing, 2009).

Theorists believe the reason that diffusionism occurs is because there is some sort of value in the

concept; whether economic, intrinsic, functional, or even political value. The other argument is

that various cultures may have originated the concepts at similar time, after which it was diffused

to other cultures. Another common question that classical evolutionists ponder is why do only

some cultures obtain the concept and not others? Some answer that perhaps there were obstacles

surrounding the concept at a given point in the historical timeline. Geographical, transportation,
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monetary, communication obstacles are all feasible explanations as to why certain cultures

obtain the concept and others do not. It is also possible that original concepts have been modified

to meet the needs of the differing culture, thusly losing its original format (Dearing, 2009).

From an anthropological perspective, developed societies also are normally the creators

of original concepts and the under-developed countries are the receivers. The culture with higher

complexity are seemingly always the providers of new cultural trait for the lower advanced

societies. Diffusionism almost never works the other way around; from the lower complexity

society to the higher. Historically, diffusionism also takes time to pass on the cultural trait.

Language, Religion, Education, and Economy

There are various long-term factors in the process of acculturation. Language is a primary

factor that can keep one from assimilating into host culture. Difficulties in communicating with

the host culture can prevent from job attainment, which secures income for the family. Language

can also affect grade levels for children, as many who do not speak the language can be left

behind gradewise. P. Tummala-Narra, A. Deshpande, and J. Kaur (2016) discuss how coping

mechanisms, self-perception, and family support can influence the handling of acculturation

challenges, stressors, environment assimilation, and resiliency for immigrant children. Immigrant

families often attempt to seek out social support with the cultural community within the host

country. Children who felt connected to families and the ethnic community were more resilient

and better at coping with life stressors than children who felt less connected. Children can find

strength from feeling connected and understood when others of a similar background share

similar life circumstances.

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Coping skills and social support are extremely important during the acculturation phase.

Individuals who do not cope well may find themselves with economic issues. Poverty may also

be the result of a lack in coping skills, as the attainment of job and job security may become

difficult because language barrier. Jobs acquired may also not pay well to fully support the

family unit. Individuals with better paying jobs in the mother-country may find themselves

jobless or in lower paying positions during the acculturation process. Unfortunately,

acculturation stress can result in lower socio-economic status. This often means receiving lower

paying jobs, living in poorer neighborhoods, fewer educational opportunities for children,

compounded stress factors for parents, and a necessity for multiple jobs to provide enough

income for the family (Meghani & Harvey, 2015).

In the context of religion and multi-cultural acceptance, the United States as a society has

been very open and accepting of religious differences. Various temples, synagogues, and

churches reside in every state and can become the foundation for immigrants to finally find

peace and strength through the acculturation process. For many ethnic groups, religion and

spirituality are fundamentally the cornerstone of the culture. Religious leaders and community

can also become extended members of the family; leading to possible support systems that lonely

and isolated people desperately need to feel less alone. Essentially, people who struggle through

issues also tend to do well with others who share similar backgrounds. A bond formed through

similarity of cultural, religious, and community beliefs can be what people who go through the

acculturation process need in order to retrieve their lost self-identity (Young-An & Trusty,

2017).

Social Norms and Social Media

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Social norms refer to the common behaviors that are acceptable in a given society.

Normative standards of behavior are not consistent throughout the various cultures, however, as

what one culture deems as normal, may not be considered abnormal behavior in another. For

example, in an individualistic culture, holding hands or kissing is a vulnerable behavior that must

be only shared with an intimate partner. Two women or two men holding hands would garner

stares or disapproval in some cultures; or whispers denoting the individuals must be LGBT.

However, in many collectivistic ethnic societies, the act of kissing is considered a standard way

to greet another. Hand-holding is also a common behavior for two female and male friends in

other cultures, as well. Again, individualistic and collectivistic perspectives intermingle with

culture and perception. People who adhere to individualistic perspectives will normally behave

in ways that shows resiliency and independence within the society. Vulnerability is pushed aside

for self-control and positive self-image is akin to putting forth an air of confidence and

assurance. In collectivistic societies that apprize connectivity and group acceptance, the act of

holding hands or expressing affection is not castigated. Singling oneself out would normally be

frowned upon and seen as boastful behavior (Triandis, 2001). For the individual traversing

through the acculturation process, exhibiting behaviors that are culturally acceptable in the old

culture without fear of prejudice or bigotry may offer peace of mind and allow one to feel

comforted in the dominant culture.

Social media has also provided and outlet for individuals who lack the social support

system of family and friends. Staying in touch with loved ones through video conferencing or

facebook, individuals feel less alone and isolated (Leong, Park, Kalibatseva, 2013). Social media

or online access can also help people discover like-minded support resources and groups to

communicate and obtain social connections. Social interactions, relationships, and

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interconnectedness is not only crucial to alleviating acculturation stress but helps to establish

both mental and overall health. Lack of social interactions increases stress, weakens the immune

system, causes depression, and creates are variety of psychological and physiological issues for

the immigrant (Gupta, Leong, Valentine, & Canada, 2013).

Gender Roles

Culture often shapes gender roles. In various societies, there are distinct lines between

masculinity and femininity and the roles that individuals play in order to be acceptable gender

specific people within that society or culture. Culturally appropriate female roles within various

societies is to be the home-maker; they must stay home and do the cooking, cleaning, and

caretaker to the children. Men are taught at an early age that they must be the bread-winners for

the family unit and engage in masculine activities when at home; like mowing the lawn or fixing

items in the house. However, roles are slowly beginning to change in this new era. Women are

now active members of the workforce and men equally care for the children and household

chores. For many cultures, the transformation is slow, however individualistic and complex

societies embrace the change. Roles are starting to reverse in collectivistic cultures, but in many

instances, change takes time and not everyone embraces the role reversal (Neculaesei, 2015).

For the acculturation immigrant struggling to understand these changes in gender roles,

being forced to change this value belief may be difficult. For a patriarchal member of the

household who is suddenly forced into the position of making less than the spouse and taking

care of the children, sudden changes may force the individual to feel confused, emasculated, and

frustrated. Likewise, for the matriarch of the house who is suddenly propelled into a male
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dominated position. Entering the workforce in the late stage of life can feel bewildering,

confusing, and lonely.

Treatment

For treatment, looking at problem solving from independent versus collectivistic value

systems is ideal. As a mental health professional, one would do best to find ways to motivate

individuals from both value systems. Those with an individualistic viewpoint would be

motivated through an individual incentive, whereas those with a collectivistic perspective would

be motivated by having their “team” succeed. Collectivistic clients would do well in family

therapy; where working with the family group would be ideal. For those suffering through

PTSD, the presence of parents or spouse may be necessary for treatment and recovery.

Essentially, treatment that includes the family unit may produce more favorable results (Santa-

Maria & Cornille, 2007).

Verbal and Non-verbal Communication

Verbal and Non-verbal communication is key for the therapist helping a multicultural

individual. Speech must be clear and concise, without disrespectful tones that can be construed

negatively or in a condescending manner. Verbal communication is important, but non-verbal

communication is very important to help the client feel at ease, making the client feel

acknowledged, and supported throughout the session. Behaviors like eye-contact, forward

leaning, and slow but natural hand movements that are complimentary to what the client is

stating can not only provide support but can make the therapist appear more likeable.

As a therapist to multicultural clients, it is imperative that one understands the cultural

implications to the appropriateness of non-verbal gestures and forms of communication. For

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example, while the “thumbs up” action is culturally appropriate in western society, the gesture in

in various Asian cultures means that one is angry or hateful towards the other. Some cultures

also refrain from direct eye-contact, deeming the gesture demeaning or aggressive, whereas lack

of eye-contact can appear disrespectful, cold, and disconnected for others. Utilizing empathy;

quite specifically ethnocentric empathy, in this way can help the therapist establish quick rapport

with the ethnic client (Wei, Li, Wang, & Ko, 2016).

Self-Assessment for Psychologists

According to the American Psychological Association’s (2017) Multicultural Guidelines,

ten distinct guidelines are available to help the psychological professional understand the level of

competency one has when counseling a multicultural client. Guideline 1 states that psychologists

know that identity and self-definition are both fluid and complex. Essentially, change it shaped

by environment and social interactions, thus clients should be not held to specific ideologies. Be

respectful of perspectives, but also ready to support the client when change does occur.

Guideline 2 encourages the psychologist to understand the interplay of culture, attitudes, and

belief systems comprises the client’s self-identity. Seeking understanding or further training or

research into how culture plays a part in the client’s life would be ideal. Likewise, it is not wise

to hold onto assumptions, biases, and speculations about any individual or community.

Competent psychologists also understand the importance of language and how it shapes the

individual, families, and community. Psychologists should also learn how life stages and

transitions affects the client; especially the level of acculturation stage the client is in which will

help lead them to bicultural understanding and acceptance. From a socio-cultural context,

psychologists also seek to understand how families, communities, and organizations impact the
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life of the client. Including specific individuals in the healing process may be feasible to foster

healing and support.

Specific Therapies

For the clients with acculturative stress, solution-focused brief therapy is a supportive

process that can work very well. In this therapy, clients are the facilitators of sessions. They lead

the sessions by knowing what areas that is needing improvement. Counselors are not the experts

in this form of therapy, but instead respects the thoughts and perceptions that the client has.

Client brings forth what they wish to change or improve and can even reframe the goal to find

the correct or most appealing solution (Cheung & Jahn, 2017). This theory does not focus on the

past or what causes the symptoms, but instead emphasizes the goal of the client and helping the

client achieve change. The present and future is the focus of therapy. Cognitive-Behavior

therapy that focuses primarily on altering perceptions has also been seen as effective when

treating ethnic and multicultural clients suffering through acculturation issues (Pan, Ng, Young,

& Caroline, 2017). For assessment, the Riverside Acculturation Stress Inventory (RASI) has

been shown to effectively measure the level of acculturative stress amongst Asian-American

students. Utilizing this inventory and scale can help the therapist determine the level of issues

attributed to acculturation stress as opposed to other facilitators of psychological issues (Miller,

Kim, & Martinez, 2011).

Conclusion

Everyone seeks to find a acceptance and belonging with others. Similarities in

viewpoints, values, and belief systems can help the individual feel complete and worthwhile.

When one is uprooted from all they know and propelled into a life where language barriers, lack
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of familiar faces or social support system, and even struggling with a financial burden, life can

be difficult and crippling. For the individual suffering through acculturation stress, difficulties in

life compounded by discrimination and racist attitudes can be unbearable. However, by

understanding that acculturation is not a lifestyle, but only stages of a process that must be

experienced, one eventually becomes a wiser and more empathetic individual who eventually

will embody the belief and values of two cultures. The individual will then have the best of both

worlds.
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