Engineering Geology, 34 (1993) 27-44 27

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Humid tropical expansive soils of Trinidad: Their geotechnical

properties and areal distribution

K.V. R a m a n a
Fulbright Fellow, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Lehigh University, Beth&hem, PA 18015, USA
(Received March 17, 1992; revised version accepted November 25, 1992)

ABSTRACT

Expansive soils occur in abundance in the central and southern regions of Trinidad and contribute to extensive landsliding,
and building and pavement damage. Since there is little documentation available in this country on these soils, this study is
undertaken to develop the necessary data to cope up with the deleterious nature of these soils. Disturbed and undisturbed
soil samples are obtained from a large number of sites covering both regions, and tested for grain size, classification, suction
and potential swell measurements. Based on the results of these tests a modified plasticity chart and a multi-parameter criteria
are presented to identify the expansive soils according to the degree of their expansivity. The results have shown that these
soils exist in an overconsolidated state and their in situ water contents are high and are generally at plastic limit. As a result
their potential swelling capability is apparently somewhat restrained. Further, a hazard map is presented showing areas of
potential danger from expansive soils to light engineering structures.

Introduction Expansive soils are found in abundance in

Plastic clays exhibiting volume changes when
subjected to moisture variations due to seasonal
climatic conditions or artificial causes are termed
expansive soils or more correctly, active soils.
These soils, which lie above the water table,
undergo shrinkage on drying and swelling on
wetting. When swelling is restrained due to the
presence of a specific structure, these soils exert
swelling pressure, which is deleterious to the sta-
bility and efficient performance of that structure.
Structures that are usually affected by this phenom-
enon are the lighter structures, such as single-story
buildings, pavements and buried water pipes.
Because the soil's activity is not a sudden dramatic
phenomenon like other natural hazards, the only
direct impact it causes, is on those who suffer from
it directly. By the year 2000, the estimated damage
attributed to expansive soil in the United States
alone will be 4.5 billion dollars annually (Chen,
1988), so on a world-wide basis the cost of the
total damage will be enormous. This explains why
the expansive soil phenomenon is known as a
silent natural hazard.
central and southern Trinidad, where several struc-
tures have been severely damaged. In addition, on
slopes these soils have contributed to extensive
landsliding, especially in central Trinidad. As such,
these soils have become a serious problem. The
geographical location of Trinidad is shown in the
inset of Fig. 1.
The causes of failures of structures on expansive
soils are partly due to the inability to recognize
the existence of such soils by design engineers and
partly due to the lack of suitable knowledge
required to cope with them. Despite the importance
of the problem, there has been little research into
expansive soils in Trinidad. This is critical because
the government has plans to embark on low-cost
housing and school building projects, and most of
these projects are likely to be located in areas of
expansive soils.
Although there is an abundance of information
on expansive soils in the literature, data cannot be
universally applied because of the complexity of
the behavior of these soils. The complexity comes
especially from the drastic changes that can occur

0013-7952/93/$06.00 © 1993 - - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

 28 K.V. RAMANA

4 ~ '"."., 6~W

•, ' . :

'.i.!
......................... i~-ii,~ ............. ~...-~ ..........
C A R 1 8 8 E A N S E A : "..'..

LOCATION o F TR|NIIDAD

~ ~ N O R TRANHGEE R N
- - , . . . : . - .... . - ,,, ,

'I~ MountainRanges CAI~:)N I ) ~ . . .."" 'Z

SWAMP

2~ Terraces

3[ ]Alluvium C~¢rRAL S~MP

4~ Sw~

Spot elevati,
(metres ]

s~ ~nmg Lands NaparimaPeneplain

Fig. 1. Geomorphological map of Trinidad.

GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES, AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF HUMID TROPICAL EXPANSIVE SOILS, TRINIDAD
in the soil-moisture condition. Thus, for an effec-
tive solution to the problem of building and pave-
ment design on expansive soils, an understanding
of the local conditions and the basic properties of
the local soils is essential. It is, therefore, the aim
of this study to develop the necessary information
on Trinidad soils, which is presently lacking.
Climate
The climate is of the hot humid, tropical marine
type, a distinguishing feature is that the annual
temperature range is small - - from 25°C in January
and February to 33°C in the hotter months. Rarely
does the temperature rise above 33°C. The dry
season is between January and April, the wet
season is from May to December, with a brief dry
period in September and October. In the rainy
season the humidity level rises to as high as 90%.
Annual rainfall ranges from 1250 to 2750 mm.
Formation of expansive soils
The complex geology of the island has resulted
in a diversity of soils and abrupt variations within
short distances. Soils owe their nature largely to
parent material under the combined influence of
geomorphology and climate. Since geology and
geomorphology had their influence on soil develop-
ment in the island, the soils are both residual and
transported. The residual soils abundantly occur
in the central and southern ranges and in the
dissected peneplains on either side of the central
range (Fig. 1). The transported soils occupy areas
of terraces and alluvial plains. The residual soils
inherit the expansive nature from their parent
materials which are predominantly clay shales,
marls, clay stones (argillaceous sediments or rocks)
and conditioned by the weathering process.
Figure 2 shows the geological features of the
island. Depending on the amount and type of the
clay minerals present, different categories of soils
exhibit different degrees of expansion. Young argil-
laceous material (younger than Mesozoic) is found
to contain greater quantities of montmorillonite
and hence is highly expansive (Snethen, 1975).
However, older argillaceous materials could have
been subjected to metamorphism, and other pro-
29
cesses of great pressure (either due to tectonic
activity or greater overburden pressures), consoli-
dation, cementation, etc. Due to the effect of
diagenesis, the montmorillonite clay minerals
would have been reduced to more stable clay
minerals like kaolinite. Hence, those materials
exhibit little or no expansive nature.
Generally, the severity of the problem of expan-
sive soils depends on the following factors: (a) soil
type; (b) climatic conditions; and (c) drainage.
Soil type
Lithologically the island can be divided into two
zones: (a) a metamorphic zone (northern range),
and (b) a sedimentary zone (central and southern
ranges). Dissected peneplains, namely, the north-
ern peneplain and the Naparima peneplain, situ-
ated on either side of the central range, form the
most important landform unit concerning the
problem of expansive soils. The residual soils
occurring in these dissected peneplains are heavy
clays and silty clays. These soils are derivatives of
young sedimentary parent materials of clay shales,
marls, clay stones etc., and contain significant
amount of montmorillonite, up to about 40%
(Taylor, 1987). Hence, they are prone to be expan-
sive soils. These soils have been subjected to fre-
quent uplift and burial due to tectonic activity
resulting in overconsolidation. A generalized soil
map of Trinidad is shown in Fig. 3.
Climate
The amount of montmorillonite present in the
soil is dependent on the parent material and diage-
netic factors. The diagenetic factors that contribute
to the formation of the montmorillonite clay mate-
rial are:
(a) High overburden pressure (because the
parent material is situated at considerable depths)
and temperature increase with depth.
(b) Chemical changes produced by pore
solutions.
(c) The time period over which the above
factors act.
The strange fact is that these diagenetic factors
which contribute to the formation of this mineral
30 K\' RAMANA

Depth
1 _ I (~et*~s)

r ~ ",~ ,.. ' - ', ~ ~--"----~;~,-T-IU

"" " 7 "
. ,. ,
.ooo

I "~ \ ~'/,/Z_../ ~ v / 9 . _ i - - _ _ , e ,.,.1 ~ I

E3 ~ TEI~FIAIFf ~-~ SECONU~Y

2 sal~Is & clays 7 saI~s & clays

(pliocene) (cretaceous )
3 sands silts & 8 lJn~stc~le
clays (mi~cel|e ) (cretaceous )
1 alluvium
4 limestone 9 limestone
{r~e.t) (miocene) {jurassic)
5 sedimentary 10 basement granite
deposits
(ollgocene ) .............
faults
6 sedimentary
deposits
(eocene)
~EOLO~ICAI. CRO.S5~ECTION ALONG A - A

Q)

• tq

4~

t~

~D
0%

2
(3

c~

tD
7
4n

==
E

£9

i.
 C~
m

~C
Z

>
~.) DETRITA~
,~.T,~.~j TERRACES
" low level high level
e 1 low level upper level "H

SWAMPS ~." 2 imperfect free/imperfect

sandy clays sands&loams
* l lowlying, subject to flooding & 0
silty clays Z
drying cZayey siits ©
2 impeded 4 low little/nil n-
3 mixture of s o f t clays,peat,silts C
& organic accumulations
U
4 varies from low to high --t

..-" y
ALLUVIAL PLAINS j,, .....i...[;.';iii........ >
dry we_.._~.t L <" m
* 1 high flood int. flood level X
2 imperfect imperfect/impeded Z
r~
3 sandy loams silty clays,clay DISSECTED PENEPLAINS
siltyclay alluvium T-r
loams , 1 moderate/flat lands
4 low/med, med./high 2 impeded
3 clays& silty clays
4 high/very high Z
>

* 1 ...slopes/levels 2...internal drainage

~...soil types 4...plasticity characteristics

Fig. 3. Generalized soil map of Trinidad.

L~
32
with passage of adequate geological time ultimately
lead to the destruction of the mineral. That is why
rocks older than Paleozoic are found to contain
considerably less montmorillonite than rocks of
Mesozoic or Cenozoic ages.
The physical and chemical weathering of the
argillaceous (i.e., containing clay matter) sediments
and rocks produce changes in the expansive char-
acter of soils. The depth of weathering of a soil
largely depends upon climate and topography. The
important aspect of the physical weathering is
cyclic wetting and drying of the soil. During the
wet periods the clay mineral surfaces absorb water
and lose it by evaporation during the dry periods.
This results in the development of cracks disrupting
the double-layer water. This process quite often
may result in a reduction in the potential of the
soil to volume change. Chemical weathering may
lead to the destruction of mineral constituents and
the formation of new minerals. These new minerals
are more stable in the weathering environment.
They have specific gravity lower than the original
material and are hydrated resulting in an increase
in soil volume (Snethen, 1975). The formation of
montmorillonite occurs due to extreme disinteg-
ration of the parent minerals, strong hydration
and restricted leaching. Restricted leaching allows
certain cations (e.g., magnesium, calcium, sodium
and iron) to accumulate which is necessary for this
process (Chen, 1988). This is only possible in
climates where there is enough water in the soil
for hydration, without extensive rainfall that may
remove these accumulated cations by leaching.
Therefore, the interplay of the diagenetic factors
and the weathering action determines the mineral
content and the consequent expansivity of soils.
However, the actual magnitude of the volume
changes the soil finally undergoes is further moder-
ated by two climate factors, namely: (a) rainfall,
and (b) evapo-transpiration.
In areas where evapo-transpiration is greater
than the rainfall, the result is a moisture deficiency
in the soil. In the rainy season the soil which is
moisture-starved absorbs large quantities of water
and swells substantially. Therefore, the initial
water content of a soil is a prime factor controlling
the magnitude of the volume change. This water
content in the soil is controlled by climate and
ground water regime. The effect of these climatic
K.V. R A M A N A
factors is best explained by the Thornthwaite
Moisture Index (TMI) (Thornthwaite, 1948).
Figure 4 shows the soil-humidity map with mois-
ture index values and possible heave conditions
under covered areas.
High relative humidity levels in Trinidad indeed
keep the moisture levels high and hence the swelling
capacity of the soils is somewhat restrained. But
there are areas having strong dry periods as well,
which deplete the soil of its moisture. Therefore,
the swelling phenomenon is very explicit and the
numerous failures of buildings are a witness to this.
Drainage
Drainage is also an important factor in the
behavior of expansive soils. Drainage has two
components, external drainage and internal drain-
age. The external drainage is determined by the
run-off and the internal drainage is determined by
the rate at which the water infiltrates into the
ground (seepage). In case of the former, the slope
of the terrain is the controlling factor. This, in
turn, depends on the landform or the topography.
The island of Trinidad has five physiographic
divisions and each has different topographic fea-
tures. Poor surface drainage results in the accumu-
lation of water or ponding effect which can provide
a source of moisture for expansive soils to absorb
and swell. Poor surface drainage is a frequent
problem for building foundations, pavements, etc.
on expansive soils.
Internal drainage is classified as: (a) free drain-
age; (b) imperfect drainage; and (c) impeded drain-
age, depending on the ease with which the water
seeps into the ground. This again depends largely
on the soil type. Expansive soils occur mostly in
flat areas but they are also found on moderate
slopes. In central Trinidad the predominant soil
types are heavy clays and silty clays and almost
all of them are characterized by imperfect or
impeded drainage.
These soils are generally saturated in the wet
season and desiccated during the dry season. The
mottled subsoil provides an indication of the depth
of desiccation. The depth of desiccation is the
depth to which evaporation influences the soil-
moisture profile. It is an indication of the depth
to which expansive soils are active.
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES, AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF HUMID TROPICAL EXPANSIVE SOILS, TRINIDAD 33

Legend i Climate Moisture EguilibrJ.um Active Moisture regime

ISoil humidity Index Suction Depth Heave condition
(pF) (m)

Humid l:mostly unaffected

Continuously 2.significant
moist 40 2 1-2 3 edge lift
(no dry months dominant

Humid l.small
Weak dry season 20-40 2-2.5 1-2 2.present
(I month) 3.edge lift

Moist subhumid
l.small
Marked dry 10-20 2.5-3 0 2-3 2.present
season
(2-3 months) 3.edge lift

Moist subhumid
Intense l.central moisture
season dry 0-10 3.0-3.5 3-4 accumulation
(4-6 m o n t h s ) 2.small
3.centre lift
if water table
is deep.

i, soil moisture variation between the edge aDd centre of covered areas
2, effect of cyclic moisture change around the edge
3 possible heave pattern
NOTE: Moisture index values a r e approximate and can vary 10-20 units
from year to year
Dry period : Monthly rainfall 50-100mm or less. Evaporation exceeds
rainfall.
Wet period : Monthly rainfall 100mm or more. Rainfall exceeds evaporation.

Fig. 4. Soil humidity map.

34 KV RAMANA

Major expansive soil groups
The expansive soils may be classified into calcar-
eous and non-calcareous types (Fig. 5). The Talp-
aro series is the most prevalent of the non-
calcareous type, occurring in both the central and
southern regions, whereas the Tarouba series is the
most widely occurring soil of the calcareous type.
Clay shales possess a high percentage of montmo-
rillonite content and hence, are bound to be highly
expansive types.
piing was done using Shelby tubes and the samples
were properly sealed and stored in a temperature-
controlled room. Though it was recognized that
the sampling should be done during the dry season,
when the soil would have the lowest moisture and
give maximum swell, it was not possible to do this
in all cases, because soils were too hard for undis-
turbed sampling. Disturbed and undisturbed soil
samples are collected from open pits excavated for
this purpose at several sites covering both the
central and southern regions (Fig. 6).

Soil sampling and testing

Sampling
The expansive soil types of Trinidad consist of
shales, marls, clays and clay alluvium. To cover
most of these soils encountered in the central and
southern regions, several locations were selected
for soil sampling and laboratory testing. Disturbed
and undisturbed soil samples were obtained from
open pits at a depth of 1 m at which the founda-
tions of light structures are commonly laid. Sam-
Soil tests
It should be noted here that the evaluation of
swell behavior of a soil using undisturbed soil
samples and specialized swell tests is a difficult and
expensive process for practicing engineers and
small builders. Therefore, there is need for simple
routine tests to be performed on remoulded
samples to achieve the same purpose. But then the
question arises as to how the behavior of the
natural soil fabric can be related to the destructed

I FAMILY H CALCAREOUS
J=
NONCAVCAREOUS
J~ J=
i

Tarouba tB =eTerr~ 8raaao

clay clay

NATERZAL Narl Claylhall Volcanic 5tltstone i Clay hale

JI MudI
__. .
SOIL TYPE H
i
Heavy
Clay
Clay
II Heavy
Clay i Heavy
Clay i StLtyclay
~ cl,y I
HeavyJ,Oallel
''
l'°°l: y I [ cl., i
ZNTERNAL ~ Im*e fact Impeded mperfe¢ Imperfect I=peded
I ORAINAGE
: i " ]];' i ' Jl " I
LANOFORN ............ All lolls are from Dissected Peneplalns(Int. Upland) . . . . . . . . . . i
l H I '
I Nixed i Nixed i
llonlte

l High i

Fig. 5. Major expansivesoil groups.

GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES, AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF HUMID TROPICAL EXPANSIVE SOILS, TRINIDAD 35

Caribbean Sea

ST. DAVID

...,
"A% j
sT. O F_ORG F..
'~. S A ~ A GRANDE
" . . . .... . , . ' - , ." e
.............. . q;,. A,,o RE~,
Cf4AGUANAg i l CAlaUALO

N
^ a oe . '"::_.i e=o,~ I
r )o~},~6""". ............. Atlantic
Gulf of Paria - .__J,,. ® .°- Ocean
I ......... "' "" • 14 A R I V A

i~ pLEASANTVlLtE ""'~ tel RiOCLARO ./..:"/

V I C T 0 R I AI jt~yAROIB
-. ~ BIIRRACI(POI~£ ;
FOIN T FOR TIN "'---,.,,,.r~. ]H A y A R O
i ~) BASSE GUAYAGUAyAR
T, P ®A T R C K ! T~RRE
~ BUFNOS A yRES

Columbus Channel

Fig. 6. Sites investigated.

soil fabric. It is well established in the literature it is still in a developing stage and hence not widely
that the Atterberg limits, like liquid limit, can be used to be treated as a routine test.
used to reflect the swell behavior of a soil (Holtz The types of tests performed for the present
and Gibbs, 1956). Since both of them depend on analysis include grain-size distribution, Atterberg
the amount of water adsorbed they are presumed limits, in s i t u water content and density, compac-
as related to each other. Therefore, an attempt is tion characteristics, suction tests and consolidome-
made to correlate the swell potential of various ter swell tests. There are different procedures for
soils investigated with their index properties. swell tests in vogue. The procedure adopted in the
In the recent past a considerable progress has present study is described.
been made in an attempt to characterize the effect Table 1 gives the description of the soils tested
of moisture on soil volume changes using soil and their locations, while Table 2 gives their engi-
suction (Aitchinson and Woodburn, 1969; Snethen neering properties determined according to British
and Johnson, 1977; McKeen and Nielson, 1978). Standard test procedures.
Soil suction is that property of soil that indicates
the intensity with which an unsaturated soil Potential swell test
attracts water. Thus, it represents the potential for
water uptake of unsaturated soils. Filter paper The potential swell may be defined as the percent
technique is developed for measuring soil suction vertical increase in height of a soil sample laterally
using undisturbed soil samples. This method is confined, when saturated with water from the
found to be the most convenient and economical initial condition of moisture, density and overbur-
procedure. den pressure. The potential swell of a natural
However, the soil suction method is excluded ground is termed the potential heave.
from the discussion for the present study, because The potential swell of an undisturbed or a
36 K.V RAMANA

TABLE 1

Soil types studied

No. Location Symbol Soil series Parent material Classification Clay

4

Textural Unified

1 Barrackpore BKP 239 Clay alluvium Clay CH 82

2 Brasso-Venado BRS 674/L Calcareous silt stone Silty clay CH 52
3 Caparo CPR 335 Clay alluvium Silty clay loam CI 40
4 Caigual CGL 39 Clay alluvium Silty clay loam CI 35
5 Chaguanas CHG 33 Clay alluvium Silty clay loam MI 35
6 Couva CVA 231 Clay alluvium Clay loam CI 36
7 Gran Couva GCV 575/68/L Mixed shale Clay CH 69
8 Guayaguayare GUY 75 Clay shale Silty clay loam CL 39
9 Mayaro MYR 77 Clay shale Clay CH 70
10 Moruga MGA 78/L Volcanic mud Silty clay loam CL 35
11 Pleasantville PVL 278/L Clay shale Clay CH 50
12 Poole POO 35/77 Clay alluvium Clay CH 57
13 Princess Town PRT 474/L Clay shale Clay CH 72
14 Rio Claro RIO 474/L Marl Silty loam CI 22
15 Sangre Grande SNG 233 Clay alluvium Clay CH 49
16 Tabaquite TBQ 177 Clay shale Clay CH 62
17 Talparo TPR 177 Clay shale Clay CH 60

NOTE: All soils contain Montmorillonite, Illite and Kaolinite clay minerals in varying percentages

TABLE 2

Soil properties

No. Location LL PI SI Activity In situ density Natural Optimum

(%) (%) (%) (kg/m 3) moisture moisture
content content
(%) (%)

I Barrackpore 84 56 22 0.69 1741 39 27

2 Brasso-Venado 79 46 18 0.88 1816 34 23
3 Caparo 55 32 21 0.79 1975 25 20
4 Caigual 56 33 13 0.94 1921 23 18
5 Chaguanas 51 23 13 0.67 1997 14 16
6 Couva 60 33 19 0.91 1887 25 18
7 Gran Couva 93 65 21 0.94 1818 33 30
8 Guayaguayare 47 23 19 0.59 1766 16 20
9 Mayaro 74 48 12 0.69 1796 36 23
I0 Moruga 43 26 25 0.73 1995 15 15
I1 Pleasantville 94 71 16 1.43 1647 31 28
12 Poole 81 48 19 0.83 1749 37 23
13 Princess Town 83 58 14 0.79 1927 37 25
14 Rio Claro 70 44 24 1.99 1726 39 26
15 Sangre Grande 76 44 13 0.89 1766 38 15
16 Tabaquite 106 67 19 1.08 1711 43 31
17 Talparo 73 48 16 0.80 1889 32 25

LL = Liquid Limit.
PI = Plasticity Index.
SL = Shrinkage Limit.
GEOTECHN1CAL PROPERTIES, AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF HUMID TROPICAL EXPANSIVE SOILS, TRINIDAD 37

remoulded soil sample is usually measured in a tion:

consolidometer after subjecting the sample to
appropriate overburden pressure and inundating
it with water, noting the increase in height of the
sample. Since there are many versions of this test,
the procedure used in this investigation is
described below.
As little is known before hand about the swell
behavior and the ground-water condition, the
swell-test procedure recommended by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers (1968) is adopted. It is
reported, however, that this test is carried out on
undisturbed soil samples using a fixed ring oedo-
meter. The soil sample is first loaded to its in situ
overburden pressure. When compression of the
sample is completed then the specimen is unloaded
to zero load and then saturated by inundating it
with distilled water and the expansion is measured
using dial gauges reading to 0.0001" until the dial
reading showed a constant value (primary swell).
On an average, these readings took a minimum of
48 hours. The test procedure is illustrated in Fig. 7.
The potential swell is calculated using the rela-
S % = A H / H = [AH/(H o - Hi) ] x 100
The test procedure just described, more or less
simulates a typical sequence of construction opera-
tions in Trinidad. The measured swell values are
plotted against ( L L - W ) values and the resulting
curve is shown in Fig. 8. The curve is represented
by the equation:
SO/o = 0.20expO.O6(CC - w)
where: L L = liquid limit percent; W= in situ mois-
ture content.
The frequency diagram rating the potential swell
in terms of low, medium, high and very high is
also shown in the same figure.
Analysis of soil test results
The results of soil tests are analyzed with a view
to correlate the soil properties with the potential
swell.

D~ ~ , ~ l o a d i n g
D~ "~ve
X::
~H C:
.,-4
o
o~

H
--~erbu~:~l pressure ~
4~
Ho=original Log. of applied pressure
sample height
~H,= compression under
m overburden pressure
~H== specimen expansion
after saturation
Fig. 7. Swell test p r o c e d u r e .
38 Kv. RAMANA

20 40-

30-

15 2o
olo

U~
v
i0- /

i0 0 L M H VH i , /
Degree of swelling /
4J
/
-o&'cv
S= 0.2 e°'06(LL-w)/~ V.HIGH
_._.~___. OPVL . . . .
. . . . . . . OM~R'

2 _ _ _ . . . . .

i(
0 ~A ~L : J J j LOW
2 35 45 55 65 75
swell index (LL-w)%
Fig. 8. Measured potential swell.

Correlation of properties the clays plot in the CH zone. Sometimes non-

Plasticity
The index properties of the soils tested are
presented in Fig. 9. The plot shows the general
relationship between the clay content and the
Atterberg limits.
It is obvious from the figure that the higher the
clay content, the higher are the liquid limit, plastic-
ity index and shrinkage index. This is in conformity
with the expected trend. Expansive soils are high-
plasticity soils and as such exhibit high values of
liquid limit and plasticity index, and low values of
shrinkage limit. Clearly there is a boundary line
separating the clay loams and the silty clays.
Obviously clay loams are relatively less plastic
than silty clays, and hence are expected to have
lower swelling capacity. This fact is clearly seen in
the plasticity chart in Fig. 10. All soils plotting
above the A-line indicate high-plasticity behavior.
The clay loams plot in the CL and CI zones, and
expanding clays such as clays with a high organic
content may also indicate high values of liquid
limit but they can be differentiated from expanding
clays by the low values of plasticity index.
Index properties
The percent swell of all soils so measured are
correlated with the index properties in Fig. 1 1.
Despite some scatter in the results, the correla-
tion exhibits a broadly nonlinear trend with LL,
PI and SI. The potential swell is found to increase
with increasing values of these indices. This shows
that the potential swell can be predicted using
these indices and the relation shown.
Initial water content
The potential swell is found to increase with
increasing values of LL and decrease with increas-
ing initial water content. It must be noted that all
GEOTECHNICALPROPERTIES,AREALDISTRIBUTIONOF HUMIDTROPICALEXPANSIVESOILS,TRINIDAD 39

does not produce any more shrinkage, these limits

are identified and marked in the diagram.
Now it becomes obvious that between the two
limits the shrinkage is greater than swelling and
i0( beyond these limits swelling controls the soil beha-
vior. When an expansive ground is covered by a
structure, the moisture under the structure grad-
ually increases until it reaches equilibrium mois-
0 0 y 0 0
8O ture. This means that under the structure the soil
tends to gradually swell as a long-term phenome-
non. However, around the building the ground is
exposed to the climatic effects, and shrinkage of
60 the ground in the dry season increases the
• / " plastic limit
.id differential movement of the ground.
g + shrinkage limit Since the shrinkage of soil is aided by the weight
of the structure its effect on the structure becomes
§ 4o
more severe than swelling which has to act against
it. Therefore, in the arid and semi-arid regions it
may be expected that shrinkage rather than swell-
20 ing produces the worst effect on the stability of
the structure because the water content will usually
lie between the shrinkage limit and the plastic
limit. In the case of humid and semi-humid regions,
0 1 1~__.__,1~ because the water contents are generally around
20 40 60 80
the plastic limit swelling controls the soil behavior.
Since further swelling is going to be small the
clay content %
damage to the structure will be less severe.
Fig. 9. Clay content and Atterberg limits.

A multi-parameter assessment

A single parameter for identification of expan-

silty clays tested exist at natural water contents
slightly above the plastic limit and hence show
small magnitudes of swell when wetted. The clay
loams on the other hand have moisture contents
well below the plastic limit but their potential for
swell is quite limited by low clay contents and low
values of Atterberg'limits.
The initial moisture content plays an important
role in the swell-shrink behavior of an expansive
soil. Between the dry state and the state of satura-
tion of an expansive soil, Popescu (1980) observed
that the swell-shrink magnitudes vary as depicted
in Fig. 12. For water contents less than the shrink-
age limit, the rate of shrinkage becomes zero.
Assuming that at plastic limit the soil is sufficiently
wet to cause not much further swelling and at
shrinkage limit further reduction in water content
sive soils may not prove adequate. Therefore, it is
more desirable to apply at least three parameters
at the same time which are well-correlated with
the swell. Table 3 presents the prominent indicators
for the local soils.
Hazard map of Trinidad
In spite of the severity of the problem of expan-
sive soils, there is little documentation in the
country on this phenomena. Therefore, this report
is an attempt to compile one such map based on
the soil investigations carried out and the data
collected from various soil testing organizations.
A hazard map provides the basic information
about the distribution of expansive soils covering
40 K.V. RAMANA

SWELLING
non-swelling low med. high V. high

n~- PLASTICITY
plastic slight lOw reed. high v. high
I I I
ol~I-I///
CL CI CH
60_
/
(PI):O.81(LL)-I3 ~P'~ /

u 40 - /

A-LINE
/ /

20-
/

0
, , I
0 20 40 60 80 i00
liquid limit %
Fig. 10. Modified plasticity chart.

TABLE 3

Potential swell classification

Potential swell

Parameter Low Medium High Very high

Liquid limit (%) < 50 50-70 70-90 > 90

Shrinkage Index (%) < 30 30-50 50-70 > 70
Optimum moisture content (%) < 16 16-22 22-28 > 28
Matric suctin (pF) <3 3-3.5 3.5-4 >4
Potential swell (%) <1 1-2 2-5 >5

NOTE: Shrinkage Index = Liquid limit- Shrinkage limit.

different regions. It also delineates areas o f c o m p r e h e n s i v e picture o f the site c o n d i t i o n s this

different degrees o f severity o f expansiveness. It m a p s h o u l d be used in c o n j u n c t i o n with local soil
w o u l d f o r m a useful guide for p r e l i m i n a r y assess- investigation r e p o r t s a n d soil b o r i n g data.
m e n t o f the expansive soil site. To f o r m a m o r e It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t the m a p p r o v i d e s only
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES, AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF HUMID TROPICAL EXPANSIVE SOILS, TRINIDAD 41

I i i i i I

10 LL = 57.54 (S) 0.288 PI = 34.289(S) 0"415 SI = 34.712(S)0"5~..

30
correlation correlation correlation / -~
coefft. = 0.926 opt&, coefft. = 0.923 70 coefft. = ~ 0
90
np

~8o ~-

"~ 7 0

.,.-i
,--4
"°/S. "

mYR

o S~
.,.4 6O

,. 5C
(n

o~
60 4G w a ~ '° 4( '

Kv
50 3¢ 3(

P
)mGA
40 I I 2( "/ I i
0 2 4 0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
potential swell %
Fig. 11. Correlationof potential swell with index properties.

a general and rough estimation of the severity of
the problem. However, the existence of pockets of
highly expansive soils within areas of low expansive
descriptions, and vice versa cannot be overruled.
Soil testing alone can detect these variations.
Besides, even the low rated areas may exhibit
differential heave if they are subjected to extreme
variations in the soil-moisture condition due to
unforseen climatic conditions, man-made or
caused by the presence of the structure. These
limitations in the use of the map should be
appreciated.
Basis for the map
For the preparation of the hazard map, the basis
applied for delineating expansive soil areas and
their qualitative categorization consists of: (a)
geological and soil maps; (b) geological age and
lithology; (c) soil types responsible for the actual
failures of buildings and pavements; (d) topogra-
phy, soil humidity and drainage; (e) data collected
from soil investigation reports; and (f) field sam-
piing and laboratory testing.
The description of local expansive soils, their
areal distribution, etc. have been discussed in the
earlier sections of this report. Sites surveyed for
soil sampling, soil tests performed and the pro-
cedures of identification and classification are also
discussed. Based on the above studies, in conjunc-
tion with the gathered data, the expansive soils
prevalent in the central and southern regions are
divided into four categories of potential swell as
follows: (a) low; (b) medium; (c) high; and (d)
very high.
The areal distribution of these categories of
expansive soils are marked in the map presented
in Fig. 13.
42 K.V. RAMAN-%

I 1 I I I I

12

curve
shrinkage ( ~ 1
10 limit - - ~ I 2rig ~rve

swelling ~I shrinkage swelling

I
CONTROLLING FACIDRS

g6

I/I
~4 plastic li.tit

.fi

~2

I I I i I I
010 12 14 16 18 20 22
Initial moisture content %
Fig. 12. Initial water content and swell-shrink behavior (modified after Popescu, 1980). Absolute values of swelling and shrinkage
are super imposed for comparison of their relative magnitudes.

Conclusions
This paper is an attempt to compile the basic
information that is necessary for identifying expan-
sive soils, the degree of severity of their expansive-
ness, and their areal distribution. Based on the
results of this investigation the following conclu-
sions are drawn:
(1) The expansive soils of this country are iden-
tified and classified into calcareous and non-
calcareous types.
(2) These soils are found to exist in an overcon-
solidated state. The in situ moisture contents are
high and are close to the plastic limit on account
of high relative humidity levels. This indicates that
the soil's swelling capability is under restraint.
(3) A modified plasticity chart and a multi-
parameter criteria are presented for assessing the
swell behavior according to the degree of expansiv-
ity, i.e., low, medium, high, and very high expan-
sive types.
(4) Structures such as small buildings, pave-
ments, buried pipelines, etc. crack due to soil
heave. The severity of the damage depends on the
degree of expansivity of the soil. A hazard map
showing the areal distribution of high and very
high expansive soils is presented. It is hoped that
this map will be a useful tool for planners and
engineers in their efforts to achieve better land use
planning.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express his appreciation
and thanks to the National Institute of Higher
Education Research Science and Technology
(NIHERST) of Trinidad and Tobago and the
University of the West Indies, St. Augustine
 G E O T E C H N I C A L PROPERTIES, A R E A L D I S T R I B U T I O N O F H U M I D T R O P I C A L EXPANSIVE SOILS, T R I N I D A D 43

11 12 I 13 14 I5
NORTHERN #
i REGION

!
+
N
25
i 2, J
CENTRAL
$CA LE I : I~,O~O REGION
.35 36

C A T E G O R I E S OF
EXPANSIVE SOILS

VERY HIGH 16
,,,,,,,,,

HIGH

53 ~6

SOUTHERN
REGION
65

71 75 76

Fig. 13. Areal distribution and intensity of expansive soils in the island of Trinidad.

Campus, Trinidad for the support
this s t u d y .
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