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(Previous) Mathematics
Paper –V
Differential Equations
BLOCK- I
UNIT –I : Homogeneous linear differential equations with variable
coefficients, Simultaneous differential equations and Total
differential equations.
1
BLOCK-INTRODUCTION
Unit I: This unit deals the concept, different methods to solve the Homogeneous linear
differential equations with variable coefficients, Simultaneous differential
equations and Total differential equations with several solved examples followed by
exercise to check the progress of reader.
Unit II: This unit deals the concept of numerical problems and their solutions especially in
reference to Picard’s method of integration, Successive approximation, Existence
and uniqueness theorem with several solved examples followed by exercise to
evaluate reader by himself.
At the end a list of reference books are given for the convenience to the reader.
2
UNIT –I : Homogeneous linear differential equations with variable
coefficients, Simultaneous differential equations and Total
differential equations.
Unit Structure :
1.0 Object
1.1 Introduction
1.7 Algorithm to solve Simultaneous differential equations by different methods with solved
examples
1.9 Algorithm to solve Total differential equations by different methods with solved
examples
3
1.1 Object:
At the end of this unit students are in a position to find the solutions of Homogeneous
Linear differential equations with variable coefficients, Simultaneous differential
equations and Total differential equations in easy manner.
1.1 Introduction:
Present chapter is deal with the study of Homogeneous Linear differential equations
with variable coefficients, Simultaneous differential equations and Total differential
equations. For the sack of convenience to students a brief summary related to the topic
viz. linear differential equations, its kind and method to find the solutions in a simple
manner is given.
+ =X ………………. (1)
+ ………………(2)
Things to remember:
4
(ii) If all are constant in (1) then equation (1) is called linear
differential equations with constant coefficients or otherwise it is known as linear
differential equations with variable coefficients.
Step I: find auxiliary equation (A.E.) f(m)=0 by writing D=m in f(D) of equation (2).
Step II: find the roots of the A.E. i.e. values of m. Let the roots are m1, m2 ,…… , mn .
Step III: required C.F. is obtained as per the roots stated below:
Solved examples:
- 3m - 4 = 0
(m- 4)(m+1) = 0
Hence roots are 4 and -1, real and different. Therefore C.F. is y = + ,itself
general solution.
5
Example (2): Solve .
=0
Hence roots are 2,2 and -2, two are equal and one is different. Therefore C.F. is
=0
(m- 2)(m2 + 2m + 4) = 0 m = -1
Hence roots are 2, and -1 , one is real and other is a pair of imaginary. Therefore
C.F. is
P.I. = .
In previous classes we studied the method to find P.I. either by resolving the f(D) into linear
factors and partials fractions and then each factor of the form solve by
∫ ………… (3)
6
factor is solve by formula (3) and rest is
solve by shortcut method given here.
X = sin ax (or cos ax) then put D2= -a2 in sin ax (or cos ax), provided
f(D) i.e.
or otherwise use following
formula: sin ax = - or
cos ax =
above.
Solved examples:
+4m +3 = 0
(m+3)(m+1) = 0
Hence roots are -3 and -1, real and different. Therefore C.F. is y = +
P.I. y = =- =-
i.e. y= + - .
7
Example (1): Solve .
-4 = 0
(m+2)(m-2) = 0
Hence roots are 2 and -2, real and different. Therefore C.F. is y = +
Therefore P.I. =
y = [ ]
y =
y =
y =
y = =
i.e. y= + .
Therefore P.I. = = =( )
= =
8
= [since (1-D)-1 = 1+D+D2+…….]
=( ) +
= .
Q.1 . [Ans. y = + + ]
Q.2 . [Ans. y = + ]
Q.3 . [Ans. y = + + + ]
Q.4
[Ans. y = + + + ]
Q.5 [Ans. y = ].
+ =X
+ …………. (1)
9
Note: (i) Equation (1) above is called homogeneous because in each term the power of x is
same as the order of the derivative in that term.
(ii) Since the coefficient in each term is variable, therefore it is known as Homogeneous
Linear differential equations with variable coefficients.
(iv) By the substitution of x = or z = log x, the above equation (1) is transferred into
the linear differential equation with constant coefficient changing the independent
variable x to z as below:
..………. (4)
Now ( )= ( )= ( )= ( )
Hence ( ) = ,
Algorithm:
10
Step I: Write the given equation in D-notation form.
= , = and so on.
Step III: Obtain equations is linear differential equation with constant coefficients, find
C.F. and P.I. as per the method given in article 1.2 treating z as independent variable.
Step IV: Lastly put back z = log x to get the required result.
Solved examples :
Example 1: Solve - .
[ ] = 2z (as log )
Now P.I. = [
= [1+2 +……….] =
i.e. y=
11
Example 2: Solve - .
[ ]y=2 (as )
Now P.I. =
P.I. = = (here ∬ )
= =
i.e. y=
or y= . (putting z = log x)
or y= . Ans.
Example 3: Solve + .
12
On putting x = and = , =
we have
[ ]y= .
Here A.E. is =0
or
Hence, C.F. = .
Now P.I. =
= =2 =2 ∫
=2 ……….. (ii)
13
i.e. y =
or y= .
(putting z = log x)
y= ( ) Ans
Q.1 + . [Ans. y = + + ]
Q.2 [Ans. y = - ]
Q.3 [Ans. y = + + ]
Q.4 + [Ans. y = + + ]
Q.5 [Ans. y = + + ].
+ =X
+
…………. (1)
14
then we get b= and so we have
=b , ( ) ( ) …………etc.
Solved Examples:
Example 1:
]y= , where .
A.E. is ,
Hence, C.F. =
Now P.I. =
= , (on writing )
= =
i.e. y =
15
Example 2:
[ ]y= , where .
A.E. is ,
Hence, C.F. =
Now P.I. =
i.e. y = +2z
y= +2
Q.1
[Ans. y = [ ]
Q.2
[Ans. y = }.
16
1.6 Simultaneous differential equations
1.7 Algorithm to solve Simultaneous differential equations by different methods with solved
examples
1.7.1 Type I: Simultaneous differential equations of first order and of the first degree with
constant coefficients i.e.
…… (1)
and …… (2)
Now to solve the above equations we apply elimination method. We first eliminate x
(or y) with suitable operation and obtain linear differential equation with constant
coefficients in y and t (or in x and t) which can be solved by the method, discussed in
article (1.2). Then we find the value of other variable by substituting value of first
variable in (1) or (2).
Important note: The number of arbitrary constants in general solution is equal to the
Solved Examples:
Example 1: Solve .
17
(D- 7) x + y = 0 …. (i)
x = e6t(c1cos t +c2sin t)
=7e6t (c1cos t +c2sin t)- 6e6t (c1cos t +c2sin t)- e6t(-c1 sin t +c2 cost)
Example 2: Solve .
(D+5) x + y = …. (i)
-x + (D+3) y = …. (ii)
18
(D2+8D+15) y = 2
(D2+8D+15) y =
P.I. y= ( )
=( ) ( )
= ( )
{as per method given in art.1.2}
= -2c2 e-5t +
1.7.2 Type II: Simultaneous differential equations of first order and of the first degree in
the derivatives. Here we are giving the technique to solve the equations containing three
variables. The general form of Simultaneous differential equations of first order and of
the first degree containing three variables is
19
P1 dx + Q1 dy + R1 dz = 0, P2 dx + Q2 dy + R2 dz = 0 ……… (1)
or ……… (2)
Thus simultaneous equations (1) can always be put in the form (2).
Methods to solve
Suppose that any two fractions, directly integrated then after integration we find an
integral. Same procedure we apply for other two fractions. The two integrals so
obtained form the complete solution. Sometimes first integral may be used to simplify
the other two fractions.
Solved Examples:
Example1: Solve .
=y , on integration, we get + c or =c
Example 2: Solve .
20
Similarly, taking second and third fractions,
( )
cy = ,
on integration, we get c c’ or c’ ii
Note: It will be noted that this technique to solve the equations applied to Simultaneous
differential equations containing any number of variables.
Note: Sometimes one integral we find by using method first and second integral using
second method.
Solved Examples:
Example1: Solve .
or
, gives c‘ ii
21
(i) and (ii) form the complete solution.
Example 2: Solve .
or
On taking fractions
, on integration, gives
0r ii
Example3: Solve .
or ... (i)
or …(ii)
and
or … (iii)
22
Taking first two fractions of (iv), we get
on integration gives
i.e. =c ….(v)
Q.1 [Ans. √ ].
Q.2 [Ans. ].
Q. 3 [Ans. ].
Q.4 [Ans. ].
Q.5 [Ans. ].
23
Sometimes equation (1) can be directly integrable, if there exists a function S(x, y, z) whose
total differential dS is equal to L.H.S. (1), otherwise we find the condition for which
equation (1) be integrable.
Let S(x, y, z) = c be a solution of equation (1). Then total differential dS must be equal
= , say
so that …. (3)
=P and =Q
Since , we have P =Q
Multiplying (4), (5) and (6) by R, P and Q respectively and adding, we get
)+ )+ ) = 0. ….. (7)
24
Note: (I) If an equation satisfies condition (7), has an integral. In this case given equation is
directly integrable.
1.9 Algorithm to solve Total differential equations by different methods with solved
examples
)+ )+ ) = 0. .….. (2)
Case I: If the given equation is exact then the coefficients of P, Q and R in (2) are zero. In
this case given equation is directly integrable after regrouping the terms of the equation.
)+ )+ )=0
)–x )+ )=0
satisfied here.
Therefore equation is exact, so on regrouping the terms of the given equation ,we have
x dx –( y dx + x dy) + z dz = 0,
Example 2: Solve (y + z) dx + dy + dz = 0
25
Here , = 0, ,
)+ )+ )=0
Therefore equation is exact, so on rearranging the terms of the given equation, we have
Or , is the solution.
Example 1: Solve (x - y) dx – x dy + z dz = 0
) – uz )+ =0
Or +{ u- )} =0
Or , integration gives, — )+ 2
—
26
, we get and the equation
becomes
( +v )( )+( + - ) dz = 0
( +v ( )+ + - ) dz = 0
Or ,
Or - , integration gives,
complete solution is
or (x + z) y = c (y + z).
Case III: Check first, which two terms can be readily solved then take remaining third
term variable constant viz for our convenience let two terms P readily
integrable, then we take the third variable z = constant , so we get . Put in
the given equation and then integrate the remaining and take (z) as integration constant.
Differentiate obtained relation with respect to x, y, z and then compare with the given
equation to find (z), which on integration gives the value of (z) to complete the solution.
Example 1: Solve (x - y) dx – x dy + z dz = 0
27
now, if we put z=constant, then we have dz = 0 and the equation becomes
or [ Ans.
Example 2: Solve ( ) dx + dy + 2 dz = 0
dy + 2 dz or dy + 2 dz ….. (2)
= = [ by (1)]
I.F. = ,
. ∫ = ∫( ) ∫
= ∫ ∫ =
28
Note: If none of the above three cases are applicable, then we apply the following case.
Case IV: Compare (1) and (2) to obtain auxiliary equation (A.E.) in the form of
simultaneous equations as below:
Solve the above equations by the methods discussed in (1.7.3) and (1.7.4) earlier. If two
integrals are say, then by comparing with (1), we get
the values of A and B and then the complete solution.
Thus A.E. is
or or ….. (1)
Or or = v (say ).
Then A du + B dv =0 …. (2)
gives A )+B + ) =0
i.e. [
( + yz ) i.e. ( +z) =u
29
And ( xz + i.e.
Or =
Or Ans.
Q.1 - -4 = 0. [Ans. ]
Q.3 . [ ]
Q.4 . [ ]
Q.5 . [Ans. ].
30
UNIT –II: Picard’s method of integration, successive approximation,
Existence theorem Uniqueness theorem, Existence and
uniqueness theorem (All proof by Picard’s method)
Unit Structure:
2.0 Object
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Algorithm to solve initial value problem by Picard’s method with solved examples
2.0 Object:
This unit is presented in such an easy manner with solved examples that after going
through the whole unit students is easily solved the problems related to I.V.P.
31
2.1 Introduction:
……... (1)
= ……... (2)
∫ ∫ , [using (2)]
Or ∫ , ……... (3)
Now the integral on the right hand side can only evaluated if we known the value of y in
terms of x. This is not known. As an initial approximation, we replace y by in R.H.S. of
(3) and call the value of y on L.H.S. as first approximation of y, so that
∫ ,
In the same manner if we substitute y by in R.H.S. of (3) and call the value of y on
L.H.S. as second approximation of y, we get
∫ ,
32
Continuing in this way, we get better approximation in each step than the preceding one.
At the nth step we get
∫ ,
2.3 Algorithm to solve initial value problem by Picard’s method with solved examples:
Step I: Find and by comparing given problem to equation (1) and (2).
Step II: Find by putting n=1, 2, 3….. in
∫ and corresponding values given of and
Solved Examples:
∫ or ∫ [since ]
A.T.Q. ∫ or
∫ ∫ or
33
Example 2: Apply Picard’s method up to third approximation to solve
∫ or ∫ ∫
[since ]
Or
∫ ∫ , -
∫ ∫ , -
Or ∫
+ + . Ans.
34
So, first approximation is obtained by putting n=1 in (A), therefore we have
∫ or ∫ ∫
[Since ]
Or
∫ ∫
∫ ∫ +
Or ∫ +
+ + . Ans.
∫ and ∫ … (A)
35
So, first approximation is obtained by putting n=1 in (A),
therefore we have
∫ or ∫ ∫
[Since ]
Or and …. (i)
∫ or ∫
…. (ii)
∫ ∫
∫ ∫
Or and …. (iii)
∫ or ∫
Or ∫ ( )
or .... (iv)
On putting x= 0.1in (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we get particular solution
Ans.
36
Q.1 . [Ans. ].
Q.2 . [Ans. ].
Q.3 .
[Ans. ].
Q.4 .
[Ans. ].
Q.5 .
[Ans.
].
has at least one solution y(x), provided the function f(x, y) is continuous and bounded for all
values of x in a domain D and there exist positive constants M and K such that
| | ………. (2)
| | | | ……….. (3)
37
The initial value problem has a solution if necessarily the sequence {yn(x)} converges to y(x)
is either a solution of (1) or of an equivalent integral solution
∫ , ……….. (5)
………… (6)
∑ …………. (7)
From (4) ∫ ,
∫ ,
= ∫ [ ………. (8)
∫ ……… (9)
Or | | | | ……….. (10)
| | ∫ | || | ∫ | || |, from (3)
| |
∫ | || | = from (10) ………(11)
38
| | | |
Similarly | | =
| |
On continuing, we have | | ……… (12)
By Mathematical induction we easily establish that (12) holds true for (k+1) i.e.
| |
| | ....…… (13)
From (13) it is quite clear that the value of each term of the series (7) is getting smaller
term by term and we get
| | | |
| |
| |
Or [ ], which converges for all values ( ) and so,
∫ ,
∫ = ∫
Thus the iterative sequence (4) converges to a solution, hence the theorem.
provided the function f(x, y) is continuous and bounded for all values of x in a domain D
and there exist positive constants M and K such that
| | ………. (1)
39
| | | | ……….. (2)
Proof: Let if possible the I.V.P. , = have two solutions y(x) and v(x).
Then ∫ and ∫
∫ [
| | ∫ | ( )| | ( )| | |
| | ∫ | || | ……..(4)
| |
| | ∫ | || |= …… (5)
| |
| |=
| |
| |= , n= 1, 2, 3,…… …..... (6)
40
Existence and Uniqueness theorem: Let function f(x, y) is continuous and bounded for all
values of x in a domain D and there exist positive constant M such that
| | . ………. (1)
| | | | ……….. (2)
| | | | ……… (3)
y(x).
… … … … … … … …….. (4)
∫ or | | ∫ | || | ∫ | |, from (1)
Or | | | | Mh by (3).
This proves the desired result for n= 1.By Mathematical induction we assume that
lies in R. Then from (4), we have
| | ∫ | || | ∫ | |, from (1)
41
Or | | | | Mh by (3).
| |
Secondly we claim that | | ……. (5)
Since, we have | | | |
| | ∫ | || | ∫ | || |, from (2)
| |
∫ | || | =
| | | |
Similarly | | =
| |
On continuing, we have | | , conclude that (5) is true for
n= 1, 2, 3, ….. .
……. (7)
Mh+ + +…………+ + ….
convergent. Thus .
∫ ,
42
∫ = ∫ …… (8)
The integrand on right hand side of (8) being a continuous function, we come to conclusion
that the integral has a derivative and thus y(x) satisfies the I.V.P. Hence the solution of
given I.V.P. is exist. Uniqueness of solution already proved in (2.5), shall left to the reader.
Solved Examples:
f (x, y)= , satisfy the Lipchitz condition. Find the Lipchitz constant.
Solution: Here f (x, y)= and . Clearly f and are both continuous for all
| | | | | || |
= (2+2b) | |
Clearly implies that Lipchitz condition is satisfied in R. Now let M= max. | | and
43
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
44
45
M.Sc. (Previous) Mathematics
Paper –V
Differential Equations
BLOCK- II
UNIT –III : Dependence on initial conditions and parameters;
Preliminaries, Continuity, Differentiability, Higher order
Differentiability. Poincare-Bendixson theory –Autonomous
systems, Index of a stationary point, Poincare-Bendixson
theorem, Stability of periodic solutions, rotation point, foci,
nodes and saddle points.
UNIT -V: Partial differential equations of first and second order, linear
partial differential equation with constant coefficient.
46
BLOCK-INTRODUCTION
Unit III: This unit deals the concept of Dependence on initial conditions and parameters,
Continuity, Differentiability, Higher order Differentiability. Poincare-Bendixson theorem,
Index of a stationary point, Poincare-Bendixson theorem, Stability of periodic solutions,
rotation point, foci, nodes and saddle points with several solved examples followed by
exercise to check the progress of reader.
Unit IV: This unit deals the concept of linear second order equations-Preliminaries, Basic
facts, Theorems of Sturm, Sturm-Liouville Boundary value problems, Numbers of
zeros, Nonoscillatory equations and principal solutions, Nonoscillation theorems
with several solved examples followed by exercise to evaluate reader by himself.
Unit V: This unit deals the solutions of Partial differential equations of first and second
order, linear partial differential equation with constant coefficient by usual and
shortcut methods followed by several solved examples and exercise to check the
progress of reader.
At the end a list of reference books are given for the convenience to the reader.
47
UNIT –III: Dependence on initial conditions and parameters; Preliminaries,
Continuity, Differentiability, Higher order Differentiability.
Poincare-Bendixson theory –Autonomous systems, Index of a
stationary point, Poincare-Bendixson theorem, Stability of
periodic solutions, rotation point, foci, nodes and saddle points.
Unit Structure :
3.0 Object
3.4 Stability of periodic solutions, rotation point, foci, nodes and saddle points
3.0 Object:
The main object of the present unit is to provide all the important contents in easy manner
with several solved examples.
….. (1)
48
defined on maximal interval of existence where depends on initial
conditions .
…. (2)
Where for each fixed z, then I.V.P. (2) has a unique solution
Now condition (1) can be reduced to the system (2) by change of variables say
…. (3)
( ) ( ) as ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) as ( ) ( )
3.2.1 Continuity theorem: Let function be continuous on an open set E with the
property that for every ( ) E then I.V.P.
…..(1)
, then
49
or is a lower(upper) semi continuous
function of and is continuous on the set ,( ) E
, ,
Without loss of generality assume that function does not depend on z. Thus is
defined on an open interval with the property that Then
I.V.P. (2) has a unique solution
( )
And ( ) where as
.
Since the solution of (2) is unique, we can apply the theorem if and
be a sequence of continuous function defined on open set E such that
as
( )
50
, then there exist a solution and a sequence of
positive integers with the property that
then
In particular
| |
If | | , then | |
51
3.2.2 Differentiability Theorem: Let f(x, y, z) be a continuous on an open (x, y, z) set E and
possess continuous first order partial derivatives with respect to the components y
and z. Then
y at J(x)= J …. (2)
Where and {
Proof of this theorem is beyond our scope. Reader may find the proof of the above theorem
in various reference books given at the end of this block.
3.3.1Basic concepts -
…. (1)
52
is said to be autonomous, when the independent variable t does not appear explicitly.
…. (2)
…. (1)
…. (1)
Is called trajectories or the orbit if it is exists in the phase plane for some open interval
and any point ( ) of region R and satisfies the initial condition
…. (1)
53
is a point ( ) obtained by solving and and such that
( ) ( )
On the other hand if ( ) is a critical point of the system, then the constant valued
function satisfying system (1) and are called equilibrium solution
of the system (1). A point which is not critical is called regular point.
…. (1)
This is an integer which represents the net rotation of the direction field along a simple
closed curve.
(VI) Centers: A center (or vertex) is a critical point which is surrounded by a family of
closed paths. It is not approached by any path as .
(VII) Spirals : A spiral (or sometimes called a focus) is a critical point which is approached
in a spiral like manner by a family of paths that wind around it an infinite number of times
as
(VIII) Almost Linear System: The non linear system is of the form
….(1)
( ) ( )( ) ( ) …. (2)
54
…. (3)
If we assume that
| | , for system (2) then clearly (0,0) is the critical point to related
and
√ √
Then (0, 0) is said to be simple critical point of the system (2) and the system is called
almost linear.
3.4 Stability of periodic solutions, rotation point, foci, nodes and saddle points:
A critical point ( ) of the almost linear system (2) is said to be stable provided
that if the initial point ( ) is sufficiently close to ( ) then the point
remains close to ( ) t 0. In other words for given if
| | |( ) |
Then critical point ( ) is called stable. Further a point which is not stable is called
unstable.
The critical point ( ) is called asymptotically stable if it is stable and every trajectory
that begins sufficiently close to ( ) also approaches to ( ) as
55
| | .
…. (1)
If we assume that
| | , then clearly (0,0) is the critical point to related linear system (1).
( ) ( )( )
Then the eigen values of the coefficient matrix ( ) are the roots of the eigen
equation | |
Or .
Let the roots (eigen values) of the above eigen equation are . Then the nature of
the critical point (0,0) is depend on the values of and describes as below:
56
Nature of roots Linear system Almost linear system
Type Stability Type Stability
Node Unstable Node Unstable
Solved Exampes based on Nature and Stability of the critical point (0,0) :
Verify that (0,0) is a critical point . Show that the system is almost linear and discuss the
type and stability of the critical point (0,0).
57
Where and .
and
Also
= =0
√ √
and = =0
√ √
Therefore the system is almost linear. Again the related linear system for the given system
is ,
( ) ( )( )
Now the eigen values are the roots of the eigen equation
| | or | |
or
Therefore {Here }
So from the table (3.4.2) it is clear that the critical point is a spiral and asymptotically
stable.
58
Example 2: For the system of the equations
Verify that (0,0) is a critical point . Discuss the type and stability of the critical point (0,0).
and
= =0
√ √
and = =0
√ √
and the system is almost linear. Again the related linear system for the given system is
( ) ( )( )
Now the eigen values are the roots of the eigen equation
| | or | |
or
59
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
(i) Show that (0,0) and(1,1) a critical point for the given system.
(ii) Show that (0,0) is a saddle point and (1,1) is the centre of above system.
Q.2 Determine the nature and stability of the critical point (0,0) for each of the following
systems of the equations
(i) ,
(ii) ,
(iii) ,
(iv) , (v) , .
Let
…. (1)
60
Then the number T with the above property is called periodic solution with period T.
3.4.4 Closed Paths: A non linear system of equation has a closed path if it has a periodic
solution. On the other hand a linear system has closed path if the roots of its auxiliary
equation are purely imaginary. We can easily understand the concept of closed path
with the following example:
…. (2)
or .... (4)
The system (2) has a single critical point at To find the path consider
Separate the variables and integration we get
and …..(6)
√
and … . (7)
√ √
61
as and
If c 0 then . Also if c 0 then r 1 and again .
The above observations clearly shows that there is only a single closed circular path
for .
Proof: Let C be a simple closed curve and assume that C does not pass through any critical
point of the given system. If P= (x, y ) is a point on C then
V(x, y) =
is a non zero vector and have a definite direction given by If P moves once around C
then change by 2 , n is an integer and it is called the index of C.
If C shrinks continuously to a smaller simple closed curve without passing over any
critical point, then index change continuously but index is an integer which cannot change.
Theorem 2: Let R be a bounded region of the phase plane together with its boundary, and
assume that R does not contain any critical points of the system
If C = [ x(t), y(t)] is a path of (1) that lies in R for some T and remains in R for all t ,
then C is either itself a closed path or it spirals toward a closed path as . Thus in
either case system has a closed path in R.
The proof of this theorem can be easily illustrated by an example we discuss in 3.5.4.
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UNIT –IV: Linear second order equations-Preliminaries, Basic facts.
Theorems of Sturm, Sturm-Liouville Boundary value problems.
Numbers of zeros, Nonoscillatory equations and principal
solutions, Nonoscillation theorems.
Unit Structure :
4.0 Object
4.2 Algorithm to solve linear second order differential equations with solved examples
4.4 Algorithm to solve Sturm-Liouville Boundary value problems and solved examples
4.1 Object:
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Where P, Q, X are functions of x alone, is called the linear equation of second order. If
the coefficients P and Q are constants, the equation can be solved by the methods which we
have discussed in unit II, block I, otherwise there is no general method to solve such
equations. We are giving a procedure in which integral belongs to the complementary
function can be found.
4.1.2 Complete solution of linear equation of second order, when one integral belonging to
the C.F. is known:
, ….. (2)
( ) ( ) ,
( ) ( ) ,
Or = ….. (3)
, - = ….. (4)
∫{ } ∫
Which is linear in t, therefore I.F. =
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t (I.F.) = ∫ or t( ∫ )=∫ ∫
u=( ∫ ) [∫ ∫ ]
4.1.3 Special integral part of C.F. to : The integral part given below
1+P+Q=0
1-P+Q=0
+ mP + Q = 0
P + Qx = 0 X
2+2Px + Q +=0
m(m-1) + mPx + Q +=0
4.2 Algorithm to solve linear second order differential equations with solved examples:
Step II: Test for integral part of C.F. as per table given in 4.1.3 above.
Solved Examples:
Example 1: Solve
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Solution: Given differential equation can be written as
Now we assume that the Complete solution is y =u , then the given equation reduces to
= 0, Putting , we get x = or =
Example 2: Solve
Assume that the Complete solution is y =u then the given equation reduces to
= x, Putting , we get x =
or ( ) = , ….. (I)
∫( )
a linear equation in t whose I.F. =
Solution of (I) is ∫
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( ) ( )
. / ∫ . /
( )
=- [Putting ]
. / . /
This gives or [ ]
. /
Or ( )
. /
. /
Q.3 Solve
[Ans. + ].
When we fail to obtain a part of C.F. we cannot apply method 4.2.1. In such cases the
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Let y =u gives = and
( ) ( ) ,
( ) ( ) ,
∫
Or .. (2)
Or ( ) = ….. (3)
∫
Again from (2) we have , differentiating both sides gives
And = =
( – )=
∫
∫
Or ( – ) .
∫
Or , where ( – ) = . or ….. (4)
Equation (4) is the required normal form of equation (1), can be easily integrated.
4.2.3 Algorithm to solve linear second order differential equations by reducing to its
Normal form:
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∫ ∫
Step II: Find P, Q, X, , ( – ) = . .
Step IV: Obtained equation is linear differential equation with constant coefficient and
solve by finding C.F. and P.I. as given in Unit I, Block I.
Solved Examples:
Example 1: Solve
∫
= , =
And ( – ) ( – )= 2
Equation reduces to .
And P.I. = = ( )
, therefore ,
Example 2: Solve
Solution: Here P = Q=
To reduce in normal form we choose the complete solution of the given equation as
∫
, where = = , =
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And ( – ) ( – )= 6
Equation reduces to .
And P.I. = = ( ) ( )
,
Therefore ,
variable:
….. (1)
and ( ) ( ) ,
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Substituting these values in (1), we get
[ ( ) ,
Or ( ) [ ] + ,
Or …. (2)
Where , and .
( ) ( ) ( )
After obtaining equation (2) we like to choose z in such a way that (2) can be easily
integrated.
Case I: .
or or
( )
which can be easily solved provided comes out to be a constant or a constant multiplied
by .
Case II:
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The above value of z reduces (2) to
Things To Remember:
To apply these methods student are advised to remember equation (2) and the values of
.Since we have assumed that z is f(x),so to get the required the required
result replace z with its corresponding value in terms of x.
Solved Examples:
Example 1: Solve .
…. (i)
Here P = ,Q= , X=
….. (ii)
Where, , and .
( ) ( ) ( )
Then and =
( ) ( )
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Hence equation (ii) transferred to
Or Or By (iii)
Or ….. (iv)
P.I. = = ,
y= + +
Or y = + + [ As z = sin x ] Ans.
Example 2: Solve
…. (i)
Here P = ,Q= , X=
….. (ii)
Where, , and .
( ) ( ) ( )
A.T.Q. ( )
, putting then ( )
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+ or ( )
Since gives ( )
Separating the variables and integrating, z =
= = 4 and ,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
its solution is y = +
or y= + [As z = ] Ans.
A differential equation along with some conditions on the unknown function and its
derivatives given for one specific value of the independent variable is called initial value
74
problem (I.V.P.). If conditions on the unknown function and its derivatives given for more
than one value of the independent variable is called boundary value problem (B.V.P.).
The boundary value problem given by the second order differential equation of the form
[ [ ….. (1)
Note (1): Two real functions f(x) and (x) are called orthogonal function on the interval
[a , b] , if ∫
4.3.3 Theorem: Eigen values of the Sturm Liouville Problem are all real.
75
and
[ ] [ ] ….(iv)
.… (v)
and …. (vi)
The above equations shows that is eigen function corresponding to the eigen value
) = [ ] [
= [ ] [
)∫ =*[ ] [ +-
*[ ] [ +
4.4 Algorithm to solve Sturm-Liouville Boundary value problems and solved examples:
76
Step III: Use boundary condition to find the values of constants taken in C.F.
Conclusion: Non zero value of constant gives eigen value and corresponding eigen vectors.
Solved Examples:
Example 1: Findthe eigen values and eigen functions of the Sturm Liouville problem
or
, we have
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Therefore the eigen function are taking B = 1 and the eigen values are
……. Ans.
Example 2: Find the eigen values and eigen functions of the Sturm Liouville problem
and
and
or
, gives
78
Therefore the eigen function are taking B = 1 and the eigen values
are ……. Ans.
Q.1 For the eigen values and eigen functions of the Sturm Liouville problem
Q.2 Find the eigen values and eigen functions of the Sturm Liouville problem
Q.3 Find the eigen values and eigen functions of the Sturm Liouville problem
We shall now discuss the problem of determining the number of zeros of non trivial
Where the functions and q(t) are continuous on some interval Before
moving to the main result, we first understand the Prufer’s transformation.
79
….. (iii)
Proof: The proof of the above cor. is quite usual and it can be obtained by differentiating
(iii) with respect to t and using relation y = and .
Proof: Since t = . are the zeros of y(t), it follows from the second relation of (ii),
that at t = .Thus from(iii), we have
From the continuity of this implies that is increasing in the nbd of the points
….. (A)
having first derivative u (t) on Also suppose that u(t) has an infinite number of
zeroes on then for all t on
80
where through any sequence of points on [ Let through the sequence
of zeroes 〈 〉. Then
u (l) = ,
4.5.4. Sturm Separation Theorem: Let u and v be real linearly independent solutions of
….. (A)
on t [ . Then between any two consecutive zeroes of u, there is precisely one zero of v.
Also u/v is zero at the end points of this interval, then by Rolle’s theorem point
v has precisely one zero in we assume that v has more than one zero in
be two consecutive zeroes of v. Then by interchanging the role of
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u and v and proceeding as above, we can easily claim that u must have at least one zero in
This concludes the theorem.
(1)
are oscillatory. On the other hand, if some non trivial solution of equation (1) are non
oscillatory and then some non trivial solutions of must be non oscillatory.
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Proof: Let and are the non trivial solution
Or [ ……..(2)
Let and be two consecutive zeros of and let and that y(t)
∫ [ ….(3)
∫ [ ….. (4)
Now we claim that has a zero in the interval [ ]. On the contrary we assume that
has no zero in [ ].Then does not change its sign. Since and
and and are non negative in the interval [ ] leads a
contradiction. Thus has a zero in [ ] and changes its sign in the interval
[ ]. This concludes that between any two consecutive zeros of there is a
Second part follows with the similar argument as we used in first part.
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UNIT -V: Partial differential equations of first and second order, linear
partial differential equation with constant coefficient.
Unit Structure :
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Partial differential equations of order one and two with examples
5.4 Algorithm to solve linear partial differential equations with constant coefficient and
solved examples.
5.0 Introduction:
5.1 Partial differential equations of order one and two with examples:
(2) ,
84
are partial differential equations. Clearly order of partial differential equation (1) is one
and order of (2) is two. We already studied the formation of partial differential equations
by eliminating arbitrary functions and arbitrary constants in earlier classes. Thus in the
present chapter we restricted ourselves to discuss the solution of linear partial differential
equations with constant coefficients.
5.2.1 A partial differential equation involving partial derivatives p and q and no higher
derivatives is called of order one . In addition, the degree (or power) of p and q is unity
(one), then it is a linear partial differential equation of order one. For example,
2xp+ 5yq= z and p are both linear partial differential equation of order
one. On the other hand + 3q = z and x +y are both partial differential
equation of order one but non linear.
The solutions of linear partial differential equation of order one we already been
studied in the previous classes using Lagrange’s and Charpit’s method. So we left this
to the reader as practice exercise.
5.3.1 A partial differential equation is called linear partial differential equation with
constant coefficient if it consist higher partial derivatives of z with respect to x and y
but the power of each derivatives that occurs and variable z is one and the coefficient of
various terms are constant quantities. The general form of such equation is denoted as
{[ ]
+[ ]
In (1) the notations and taken for the operators respectively and the
85
{[ ]+[ ]
+ …+[ ] + N}.
5.3.2 Homogeneous linear partial differential equation: Equation (1) in 5.3.1 is called
homogeneous linear partial differential equation if in (1) is in the form
{[ ]}
The general solution of homogeneous linear partial differential equation consist two parts
namely complementary function (C.F.) and particular integral (P.I.).ion Thus the general
solution of above equation is
z = C.F. + P.I.
Here C.F. is the general solution of while P.I. is the any particular solution
of .
( - ) or or p -
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Particular solution (P.I.): We know that P.I. is the solution of free
from arbitrary constants. P.I. of any equation is taken as . Here the symbolic
Note: In solving the problem treat and as partial operator w.r.t. x and y while
as integration w.r.t. x and y respectively. In the next section we will discuss the
5.4 Algorithm to solve linear partial differential equations with constant coefficient and
solved examples:
Step II: Find the roots of the equation i.e. values of m. Let the values of m are
. Then
.
SOLVED EXAMPLES:
87
Or gives
Or Ans.
Example 2: Solve ( )z = 0.
Or gives ,
Ans.
Example 3: Solve
( ) ( ) Ans.
Example 4: Solve (
Solution: A.E. is (
Or ) )= 0
Or or
Or [repeated roots] ,
therefore required C.F. is Ans.
88
5.4.2 Shortcut Methods To Obtain Particular Integral (P.I.):Let the given equation is
, then
Algorithm:
Step III: Required P.I. = [nth integral of obtained in step I], where .
SOLVED EXAMPLES:
Or gives
Hence C.F. is
Now P.I. =
We get P.I. = = .
89
Example 2: Solve ( )z=
Or gives
Hence C.F. is
Now, P.I. = =( [
( ) )
= ( ) ( )
P.I1. = ( )
…(A)
The same procedure we apply for second part i.e. for , we get
and putting m for and for in
We get P.I2. = ( )
.
P.I1.+ P.I2.
( ) ( )
Ans.
90
Step I: Differentiate with respect to D partially and multiply the expression by x,
so that
Or gives
Hence C.F. is
Or
Now P.I. = 4 ,
P.I. = 4 ,
P.I. = 4 ,
91
P.I. = cos = ,
[
.
Q.1 [Ans. ].
A.E. is
Taking
On integration we have
z =∫ or z =∫ , from (1)
Thus z =∫ ,
92
Solved Examples:
Example 1: .
( )z=
Giving
Hence C.F. is
P.I. =
Or =
Or = ∫ ,
Or = [ ,
Or = [ , replacing
Or = [ ,
Or = ∫[
Therefore P.I. = [
Or =[
93
Or =[ ,
Q.1 [Ans. ].
Q.2 ( )z= .
[Ans. ].
5.4.5 Non homogeneous linear equations: A linear partial differential which is not
homogeneous is called non homogeneous linear equation. We consider the differential
Case I: is reducible:
Where all the factors are distinct, then corresponding C.F. is given by
94
( ) ( )
( )
[
( )
[
’ in .e.
Required P.I. = ,
in terms of .
Required P.I. = .
SOLVED EXAMPLE:
Example 1: Solve ( )( ) .
Solution: According to 5.4.5 case I (I) of complementary functions, here are two distinct
linear factors ( ) and ( ). After comparing to we have
and . Therefore
= ,
= + .. Ans.
Example 2: Solve ( ) .
96
According to 5.4.5 case I (I) of complementary functions,
Now P.I. = ( )
( )
, writing for , (-1).2 for
= ,
= , writing .
= [
= [ …Ans.
Example 3: Solve ( ) .
Now P.I. = [
= [
97
= [
= [
= [
= [ .
[Taking D and means partial differentiation w.r.t. x and respectively]
= [ . …Ans.
Q.1 Solve
Ans. [ [ ].
Q.2 Solve ( )z =
Ans. [ ].
Solved Examples:
Example 1: Solve ( )z = 0.
98
Solution: Let the solution of the above equation be = ….. (1)
( ) =0 ( ) =0
( )
= … Ans.
( ) =0 ( ) =0
( )
Now P.I.= ( )
( )
, writing for
= ,
99
( )
=
( )
= , writing for
= ( )
= ( )
= ( ) … Ans.
100
LIST OF REFERENCES:
8. Zafar Ahsan, Differential Equations and Their Applications, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi 1999.
101