16/10/2014

10. Flexural Members

EG1109 Statics and

Mechanics of Materials

• Under Statics, we learnt about

 external forces acting on a structure – equilibrium of particles/rigid bodies
 forces which hold together various members forming a structure – analysis of
trusses, frames, machines
• Under Mechanics, we learnt about internal forces developed within simple
structural members
 axial members
 torsional members

• Now, we shall learn about internal forces developed with flexural members
 axial force (AF), shear force (SF) and bending moment (BM)

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Anatomy of a Building

F F

B B
F F

B B

C C

C
Internal forces are F C
F
axial tensile or
A F F A
compressive forces
C C F
F
A A

F F

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By
Bx
B
By q
Bx • Internal forces developed at C to resist external
B
C loads include
q V
M  an axial force (AF) F
 a shear force (SF) V
P F a bending moment (BM) M
C 

Ax F  Basically, three equations of equilibrium must be

A satisfied for
M
Ay P the structure
VC 

 any member of structure, and

A
Ax
 any part/section of member
Ay

Structural Members
• Structural members usually classified according to types of loads they
support
 Axial members – support forces having their vectors directed along axis
 Torsional members – support torques (or couples) having their
moment vectors directed along the axis
 Flexural members – support lateral loads, that is, forces or moments
having their vectors perpendicular to axis
• Flexural members are also called beams
 Classified as planar structures because loads, structure, deflections all
lie in a single plane (plane of bending)Based Lear

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Types of Beams, Loads and Supports

• Simply supported or simple beam – pin or hinge support at one end and roller
support at other end
 Pin support
• prevents translation but does not prevent rotation
• capable of developing force reaction with both horizontal and vertical components,
but not a moment reaction
 Roller support
• prevents translation in vertical direction but not in horizontal direction and does not
prevent rotation
• capable of developing vertical force reaction only
q P1 P2
HA A B Roller support
Pin or hinge
support
RA RB

Types of Beams, Loads and Supports

• Cantilever beam – fixed (or clamped) at one end and free at other end
 Fixed or clamped support
• prevents translation and rotation
• capable of developing force reaction with both horizontal and vertical
components and a moment reaction
 Free support (unsupported)
• does not prevent translation and rotation
• not capable of developing any reactions q2
P M
HA q
A 1
B

Fixed or clamped support Free support

MA
RA

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Types of Beams, Loads and Supports

• Overhanging beam – simply supported at two points but projects
beyond one or more supports
 Overhanging segment
• similar to a cantilever beam except that beam may rotate at both ends of
segment
P1 P2
M
A B C
Pin or hinge
support

RA
Roller support RB Free support

Classification of Beams

L L L

(a) Simply Supported Beam (b) Overhanging Beam (c) Cantilever Beam

Statically Determinate Beams

L1 L L2 L L

(d) Continuous Beam (e) Propped Cantilever Beam (f) Fixed-Ended Beam

Statically Indeterminate Beams

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Common Beam Supports

Name Symbol Reaction DOF

Roller

Pin/Hinge

Fixed/Clamped ----

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Typical Beam Loads

 Concentrated loads – discrete forces acting at a specific point
on the beam
 Distributed loads – act over a length of the beam and may be
uniform or non-uniform
 Moments or Couples – produced by pair of equal and opposite
forces acting on beam
q2
qo P
q1 M P0
h
P0h

Distributed Loads and Resultants

Type Loading Resultant (P)
q0 P = q0 a

Uniform a/2
a
q0 P = ( q0 a ) / 2

Triangle
a a/3
a
q( x)
P = ∫ q( x) dx
General
( ∫ xq( x) dx ) / P
0
a
a 0
x

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Support Reactions
• Finding support reactions usually first step in analysis of
beams
• Once reactions are known, internal beam stress resultants
(shear force, bending moment) and deflections can be found
• Statically determinate beams – reactions can be found from
free-body diagram and equations of equilibrium

∑F x =0 ∑F y =0 ∑M z =0

Shear Force and Bending Moment

P • Beam loads are often perpendicular to axis of
beam and will cause only shear and bending; no
A
m B axial force produced
• Internal beam forces consist of
x n
 a transverse shear force V
 a bending moment M
P
M • Shear forces and bending moments are known
A
m as stress resultants
• Stress resultants in statically determinate beams
x n can be calculated from equations of equilibrium
V
• Designing a beam is a two-part process
M Vm  determining V and M in beam
B
 selecting cross-section & material to resist
maximum V & M in beam
n

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Sign Convention
• A cut through a beam reveals equal and opposite shear forces
and bending moments on opposing faces
P P
m m M M Vm
B A B

x n x n V n

• Upward force positive? Anticlockwise moment positive?

Sign Convention
 Sign convention for stress resultants
called deformation sign convention
 because based upon how material is deformed
 deformation sign convention also used for axial
members
 Elongation (tension) is +ve; Shortening
(compression) is –ve
 Static sign convention used when writing
equations of equilibrium
forces are +ve or –ve according to chosen direction
P
M for +ve force
m
+ ↑ ∑ Fy = 0 :
A
P −V = 0
n
V

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Quiz

• Shear is positive when directed upwards

• A positive shear will be considered positive when writing
equation of force equilibrium
• Shear is negative when it tends to bend the beam concave
upwards
• Shear is negative when it is directed anti-clockwise about
an interior point in the beam

Example
q0
q(x)

A B
x
L

A cantilever beam that is free at end A and fixed at end B is subjected to a

distributed load of linearly varying intensity q. The maximum intensity of
the load occurs at the fixed support and is equal to q0 . Find the shear force
V and bending moment M at distance x from the free end of the beam.

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Solution
Intensity of distibuted load at distance x from A is
qx
q ( x) = 0 q0
L
q(x)
Total downward load on free body is m M
1  q0 x  2
q0 x A
  ( x) =
2 L  2L n
x V
+ ↑ ∑ Fy = 0 : L

q0 x 2 q0 x 2
−V − =0⇒V = −
2L 2 L # (Ans)

Solution

q0 x 2
+ ∑M mn = 0: 2L

 q x2   x  m M
M +  0   = 0
 2L   3  A
x
q0 x 3 3
n
⇒ M =− x V
6 L # (Ans) L

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Relations Among Load, Shear and Bending Moment

q P  Distributed loads and concentrated loads are
+ve when they act downward on beam
M V M + dM  Couple acting as a load on beam is +ve when it
M V M + M1 is counterclockwise
M0
dx V + dV M V M + M1
q dx V + V1
y
P
dx V + V1
M0
A B C
x
dx dx dx
RA RB

Distributed Load
q
+ ↑ ∑ Fy = 0 : V − q ⋅ dx − (V + dV ) = 0
M V M + dM
dV
⇒ = −q
dx
dx V + dV
 If q = 0 (no loading) on a segment of beam,
then dV/dx = 0, i.e. SF is constant
dV
= −q ⇒ dV = − q ⋅ dx  If distributed load is uniform (q = constant),
dx then dV/dx = constant, i.e. SF changes linearly
B B B
∴ ∫ dV = − ∫ q ⋅ dx ⇒ VB − VA = − ∫ q ⋅ dx  Change in shear force between 2 points A and
A A A
B along axis of beam equals to –ve of area
under load diagram between those 2 points

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Distributed Load
q + ∑M = 0:
M V M + dM  dx 
− M − q ⋅ dx   − (V + dV ) dx + M + dM = 0
 2 
dM
dx V + dV ⇒ =V
dx
B B  If shear force V = 0 over a beam segment, then
dM
= V ⇒ ∫ dM = ∫ Vdx dM/dx = 0, i.e. BM is constant in same segment
dx A A  Change in BM between 2 points A and B along axis
B of beam equals to area under SF diagram between
⇒ M B − M A = ∫ Vdx those 2 points
A
 Equation valid even when concentrated loads act
between A and B

Concentrated Load
P  dx 
+ ∑M z = 0 : − M − P   − (V + V1 ) ⋅ dx + ( M + M 1 ) = 0
 2 
M V M + M1
 dx 
⇒ M 1 = P   + V ⋅ dx + V1 ⋅ dx
 2 
V + V1 ⇒ M 1 = 0 (since dx is infinitesimally small)
dx

 Abrupt change in SF occurs at any point where a

+ ↑ ∑ Fy = 0 : concentrated load acts
V − P − (V + V1 ) = 0  As we pass from left to right through point where
concentrated load acts, SF decreases abruptly by P
⇒ V1 = − P  BM does not change as we pass through a point of
application of a concentrated load

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Concentrated Couple/Moment
M0 + ∑M z = 0:
M V M + M1 − M + M 0 − (V + V1 ) ⋅ dx + ( M + M 1 ) = 0
⇒ M 1 = − M 0 + V ⋅ dx + V1 ⋅ dx
⇒ M 1 = − M 0 (since dx is infinitesimally small)
dx V + V1
 SF does not change at point of application of a
+ ↑ ∑ Fy = 0 : couple/moment
BM changes abruptly at point of application of a
V − (V + V1 ) = 0


couple/moment
⇒ V1 = 0  BM decreases by M0 as we move from left to right
through a point of application of a couple/moment

SF and BM Diagrams
Design of beams
 Knowledge of how SF and BM varies throughout length of beam required
 Maximum and minimum values important
 Information can be presented in graphical forms by plotting quantity along
length of beam
• SFD (Shear-Force diagram)
• BMD (Bending-Moment diagram)
V M

x x

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Sketching Procedure
1. Sketch the free-body (load) diagram showing loads, support
reactions and dimensions for easy reference
2. Based on free-body diagram, determine support reactions using
equations of equilibrium
3. Construct vertical lines down from load diagram through all
points of concentrated loads/couples, supports and start and end
points of distributed loads
4. Start sketching SFD over each segment (between vertical
construction lines) from left to right of beam
5. Start sketching BMD over each segment (between vertical
construction lines) from left to right of beam

Sketching of Shear-Force Diagram

 Determine SF at left end of segment
 For 1st segment, SF at left end = left beam vertical support reaction
 If left end of beam is free, SF at left end of segment = 0
 Sign convention: +ve if upward, -ve if downward
 Determine SF at right end of segment using
B
VB − VA = − ∫ q ⋅ dx
A

 SF at right end = SF at left end - area under load diagram

 Area is +ve if distributed load is downward (i.e. q is +ve) and plotted above
beam axis in load diagram
 Follow direction of loading: VB > VA if distributed loading is upward
 Area = 0 if there is no distributed load, i.e. q = 0

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Sketching of Shear-Force Diagram

 Sketch the SFD within segment using

dV
= −q
dx

 SF at right end = SF at left end - area under load diagram

 If q is +ve, slope of SFD at corresponding point is –ve
 If q = +ve constant, SFD in segment is linear and sloping downwards
 If q = 0, shear force is constant within segment
 Abrupt change in shear force occurs at point of concentrated load
 Follow direction of loading: shear immediately to the right of point of
concentrated load point increases if load is up

Sketching of Bending Moment Diagram

 Determine BM at left end of segment
 For 1st segment, BM at left end = left beam moment support reaction
 If left beam is pin supported or free, BM = 0
 Sign convention: sagging moment is +ve, hogging moment is –ve
 Determine BM at right end of segment using
B
M B − M A = ∫ Vdx
A

 BM at right end = BM at left end + area under the SFD

 Area is +ve if SFD is +ve (i.e. plotted above beam axis)

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Sketching of Bending Moment Diagram

 Sketch the BMD within segment using

dM
=V
dx

 If V is +ve, slope of BMD is +ve at same point

 If V is a +ve constant, BMD within segment is linear and sloping upwards
 If V = 0, BM is constant within segment
 Abrupt change in BM occurs where there is a concentrated couple/moment
 Sign convention: if couple is +ve (anticlockwise), then BM immediately to the
right of couple will decrease and vice-versa

Example

q = 1.0 kN/m
M0 = 12.0 kN.m
B
A C

4m 8m 8m

A beam ABC with an overhang at the left-hand end is as shown. The beam is
subjected to a uniform load of intensity q = 1.0 kN/m on the overhang AB and a
counterclockwise couple M0 = 12.0 kN.m acting midway between the supports at
B and C. Construct the shear-force and bending-moment diagrams for this beam.

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Solution
q = 1.0 kN/m
M0 = 12.0 kN.m
B
A C
4m 8m 8m
RB RC
1. Sketch FBD showing loads, support reactions and dimensions for easy
reference
2. Based on FBD, determine support reactions using equations of equilibrium

+ ∑M B = 0 : RC ⋅16 + M 0 + q ⋅ 4 ⋅ 2 = 0 + ↑ ∑ Fy = 0 : RB + RC − q ⋅ 4 = 0
⇒ RC = −1.25 kN ⇒ RB = 5.25 kN

q = 1.0 kN/m
M0 = 12.0 kN.m
B
A C
4m 8m 8m
5.25 kN 1.25 kN
+1.25
V (kN) 0
# (Ans)
-4.0
+2.0
M (kN.m) 0 0

-8.0
# (Ans)
-10.0
5. Start sketching BMD over each segment (between vertical construction lines) from
left to right of beam

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Quiz

a) segments of oblique straight lines

b) segments of horizontal lines
c) segments of both oblique straight
and horizontal lines

Quiz

a) segments of oblique straight lines

b) segments of horizontal lines
c) segments of both oblique straight
and horizontal lines

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Quiz

a) a segment of a horizontal line

b) a segment of an oblique straight line
c) an arc of parabola

Quiz

a) a segment of a horizontal line

b) a segment of an oblique straight line
c) an arc of parabola

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Quiz

a) the shear diagram shows a discontinuity at the

point of application
b) the shear diagram does not show a discontinuity
at the point of application
c) the bending-moment diagram shows a
discontinuity at the point of application
d) the bending-moment diagram does not show a
discontinuity at the point of application

Quiz

a) the bending-moment at the point of application does not

change in value
b) the bending-moment at the point of application decreases by
an amount equal to the magnitude of the clockwise couple
c) the bending-moment at the point of application increases by
an amount equal to the magnitude of the clockwise couple

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Quiz

a) at one of the points where load q is zero

b) at one of the points where dM/dx is zero
c) at one of the points of discontinuity in the shear
force diagram
d) under concentrated loads where the shear
changes in sign

10. Flexural Members

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11. Stress/Strain Due to Bending

EG1109 Statics and

Mechanics of Materials

Pure Bending

Pure Bending: Prismatic members

subjected to equal and opposite couples
acting in the same longitudinal plane

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Pure Bending

• Loads acting on beam create internal forces or

stress resultants, namely SF & BM
• For design, we need to know what are the stresses
and strains associated with SF & BM
• Pure bending
 refers to flexure of beam under constant bending
moment
 occurs only in regions where SF = 0 (since V = dM/dx) zero shear
• Non-uniform bending
 refers to flexure in the presence of SF, i.e. non-
uniform bending moment
non-uniform
pure bending non-uniform
bending bending

Symmetric Member in Pure Bending

 Internal forces in any cross section are

equivalent to a couple.
 The moment of the couple is the section
bending moment.

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Neutral Surface
Beam with a plane of symmetry in pure bending:
 member remains symmetric
 bends uniformly to form a circular arc
 cross-sectional plane passes through arc center and
remains planar
 length of top decreases and length of bottom
increases
 a neutral surface must exist that is parallel to the
upper and lower surfaces and for which the length
does not change
 stresses and strains are negative (compressive) above
the neutral plane and positive (tension) below it

Curvature
 When loads are applied to beam, its longitudinal
M M axis deforms into a curve called deflection curve
A B  Resulting stresses & strains are directly related to
curvature of deflection
O’ Center of curvature  Curvature, a measure of how sharply a beam is
flexed, is defined as reciprocal of radius of
dθ curvature 1
κ=
ρ radius of curvature ρ
y
From geometry of triangle O ’m1m2:
m1 ds m2
x 1 dθ
A dx B ρ dθ = ds ⇒ κ = =
ρ ds

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Curvature
M Deflections usually very small compared to
M
beam length  deflection curve is nearly flat
A B ⇒ ds ≈ dx
1 dθ dθ
O’ Center of curvature ∴κ = = ≈
ρ ds dx
dθ
Sign convention for curvature follows that for
ρ radius of curvature bending moment:
y

m1 ds m2
x
A dx B

Longitudinal Strain Due to Bending

y a b y
m p
M e f M
dx y
s s x z
O

n q
 Consider beam segment ab in pure bending subjected to positive BMs M
 Longitudinal axis ss of beam assumed initially straight
 Cross section assumed to be symmetric about y axis
 Under action of BM, beam deflects in xy plane
 Longitudinal axis is bent into a circular curve (curve ss)
 Beam is bent concave upward which is +ve curvature

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 Under action of BM, beam deflects in xy plane

 Longitudinal axis ss is bent into a circular curve
 Cross sections (such as mn and pq) assumed to
remain plane and normal to longitudinal axis
 Cross sections mn and pq rotate about axis
perpendicular to bending plane
 Longitudinal lines on lower part of beam are
elongated (tension)
 Longitudinal lines on upper part of beam are
shortened (compression)
 Somewhere in between lower and upper part,
longitudinal line ss does not change in length
 Curve ss is called neutral axis (n.a.)

 Consider typical longitudinal line ef located at

distance y from n.a.
 Line ef “elongates” resulting in normal strain εx

δ = {( ρ − y ) dθ } − {dx} = { ρ dθ − ydθ } − {dx}

∴δ = {dx − κ ydx} − {dx} = −κ ydx

δ
⇒ εx = = −κ y
dθ dx
κ=
dx
ρ dθ = dx

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Normal Stress Due to Bending

 For linearly elastic material, Hooke’s law is valid
σ x = Eε x = − Eκ y
 Equations shows that normal stresses acting on cross section vary linearly
with distance y from n.a.
y
y
dA
σx
c1
M y
n.a. O n.a.
σx z
O
c2

Location of Neutral Axis

y
As there is no axial force when beam is in pure bending, dA
resultant force in x-direction is zero
c1
∑F
y
x : ∫ dF = ∫ σ
A
x
A
x dA = − ∫ Eκ y d A = 0
A
z n.a.
O
∫ y dA = 0
c2
⇒
A

Neutral axis passes through centroid of cross sectional

area provided
 Material follows Hooke’s law

 There is no axial force acting on cross section

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Moment-Curvature Relationship
y
Upon applying second equation of statics dA
∑M z : M = ∫ dM = − ∫ ydF = − ∫ yσ x dA = ∫ κ Ey 2 d A
c1
A A A A y
⇒ M = κ E ∫ y d A = κ EI
2
z n.a.
A
O
c2
in which I = ∫ y dA 2

Moment-curvature relationship:
1 M
κ= = EI = flexural rigidity
ρ EI

Flexure Formula
y
1 M
κ= =
ρ EI
Compressive
σ x = Eε x = − Eκ y stresses M
σx
My
σx = − Tensile
I Neutral Axis
stresses
 Flexure formula shows that stresses are directly
proportional to BM and inversely proportional to I
 Also, stresses vary linearly with distance y from neutral axis
 Stresses called bending or flexural stresses
 If BM is +ve, stresses are +ve (tension) below neutral axis
and –ve (compression) above neutral axis

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Maximum Flexural Stresses

Maximum tensile and compressive flexural stresses occur y
at points farthest from neutral axis
Mc1 M I
σ1 = − =− where S1 = Compressive
I S1 c1 M c1
stresses
Mc2 M I
σ2 = = where S2 = n.a. σx
I S2 c2
Tensile c2
stresses
S1 and S2 are called section moduli
c1 and c2 are distances from n.a. to extreme fibers

Section Moduli
y
y If beam is doubly symmetric,
then c1 = c2 = c
M
σ 1 = −σ 2 = −
S z h
z O
d I h
O where S=
c 2
Between two beams with same b
cross sectional area, the beam
πd4 πd3 with greater depth will be more bh3 bh 2
I= S= I= S=
64 32 effective in resisting bending 12 6

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Parallel Axis Theorem

 Given: Area A, centroid C and moments of inertia with respect to C, IxC and IyC
 Find: Moments of inertia relative to some other point P
yp
dx yc
I xP = I xC + A ( d y )
2
A

C xc
I yP = I yC + A ( d x )
2
dy

P xp

Method of Composite Areas

C1 C1

P P
C2 C2

C3 C3

= ∑  I xC ( )
+ A( ) d y( )  I yP = ∑  I yC ( ) 
n 2 n 2
(k ) ( )
+ A(
k)
d x(
k k k k)
I xP

k =1 
 
k =1 

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Finding C.G.
Z Z
y1
A1

y2 A2 c1

y3
A3
( A1 + A2 + A3 ) × c1 = A1 × y1 + A2 × y2 + A3 × y3
A1 × y1 + A2 × y2 + A3 × y3
∴ c1 =
A1 + A2 + A3

Example
q = 3.0 kN/m b
y

A B
C z O h
t
3.0 m 1.5 m

A beam ABC is simply supported at A and B and overhangs from B to C. A uniform

load of intensity q = 3.0 kN/m acts throughout the length of the beam. The beam is
constructed of three steel plates (thickness t = 12 mm) welded to form a channel section
that has width b = 300 mm and height h = 80 mm. For the purpose of determining
properties of the cross section, disregard fillets and welds and assume that the cross
section consists of rectangles. Determine the maximum tensile and compressive
stresses in the beam.

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Solution
q = 3.0 kN/m

Draw Bending Moment Diagram

Maximum stresses always occur at cross sections +3.375 kN +4.5 kN
where BM is largest V

M max = 1.898 kN ⋅ m -5.625 kN

M min = −3.375 kN ⋅ m M

b = 300 mm
Find neutral axis y
A1 c1 h = 80 mm
Find centroid of cross section
Z Z
z
A3
Area1 y1 = t 2 = 6 mm A1 = 3312 mm 2 O c2
A2
Area2 y2 = h 2 = 40 mm A2 = 960 mm 2 t = 12 mm

Area3 y3 = h 2 = 40 mm A3 = 960 mm 2 300 – 24 = 276 mm

c1 =
∑yA i i
=
y1 A1 + 2 y2 A2
= 18.48 mm
A1

∑A i A1 + 2 A2 A2 A3 80 mm

c2 = h − c1 = 80 − 18.48 = 61.52 mm
12 mm

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Calculate Moment of Inertia

1
I z1 = I zc + A1d12 = ( b − 2t )( t ) + A1 ( c1 − t 2 )
3 2

12
= 39744 mm 4 + ( 3312 mm 2 ) (12.48 mm )
2
b = 300 mm
y
= 555600 mm 4 A1 c1
Similarly for areas A2 and A3, we get Z Z
z
I z 2 = I z 3 = 956600 mm 4 O c2 A3

∴ I z = I z1 + I z 2 + I z 3 = 2.469 ×106 mm 4 A2 h = 80 mm
t = 12 mm
Calculate Section Moduli
Iz Iz
S1 = = 133600 mm3 S2 = = 40100 mm3
c1 c2

Calculate Maximum Stresses

At the cross section of maximum +ve BM
M 1.898 kN ⋅ m
σt = σ2 = = = 47.3 MPa
S2 40100 mm3
M 1.898 kN ⋅ m ∴ (σ t ) max = 47.3 MPa
σ c = σ1 = − = − = −14.2 MPa # (Ans)
S1 133600 mm3

Similarly, at the cross section of maximum -ve BM

M −3.375 kN ⋅ m
σ t = σ1 = − = = 25.3 MPa
S1 133600 mm3 ∴ (σ c )max = −84.2 MPa
M −3.375 kN ⋅ m # (Ans)
σc = σ2 = = = −84.2 MPa
S2 40100 mm3

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Design of Beams for Bending Stresses

 Design process requires consideration of many factors
 Type of structure (airplane, bridge, building, automobile, etc)
 Materials to be used
 Loads to be supported
 Environmental conditions
 Costs
 Design for strength
 Selection of shape and size of beam such that actual stresses do not exceed
allowable stresses for material
 Design process begins with calculation of required section modulus
 For double symmetric cross section and allowable stresses same for both
tension and compression, required section modulus is M max
S=
σ allow

Example

A temporary wood dam is constructed of

horizontal planks A supported by vertical
wood posts B that are sunk into the ground.
The posts are of square cross section and
spaced at distance s = 0.8 m, center to
center. Assume that the water level behind
the dam is at its full height h = 2.0 m.
Determine the minimum required dimension
b of the posts if the allowable bending stress
in the wood is σall = 8.0 MPa.

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 16/10/2014

1
2 s
1
2
s

h Hydrostatic
Loading

P0 = γ h

Solution
Each post subjected to triangularly
distributed load produced by water
pressure acting against planks:
q0 = γ hs

Each post is a cantilever beam.

Maximum BM occurs at base:
q0 h  h  γ h3 s
M max =  =
2  3 6

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M max γ h3 s
Therefore, required section modulus is S = =
σ allow 6σ allow

b3 γ h3 s
For a beam of square cross section, S = ⇒ b = 6S =
3

6 σ allow

Numerical values:

b 3
=
( 9.81 kN / m ) ( 2.0 m ) ( 0.8 m ) = 7.848 ×10
3 3
6
mm3
8.0 MPa
∴ b = 199 mm

Choose b = 200 mm
# (Ans)

11. Stress/Strain Due to Bending

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12. Deflection of Beams

EG1109 Statics and

Mechanics of Materials

Deflection of Beams
 When a straight beam is loaded laterally, the axis deforms into a
curve, called deflection curve
 Calculation of deflections an important part of structural analysis
and design
 Deflections produced must be within tolerable limits
 Specifications for design of buildings usually place upper limits on
deflections
 large deflections are unsightly and even unnerving and
 can cause cracks in ceilings and walls
 In design of machines and aircrafts, specifications may limit
deflections to prevent undesirable vibrations

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Elastic Curve
y

B C D
A x

y Elastic Curve
y
B Mo
C D
A x

x P

Differential Equation
O’
dθ dθ m2 θ + dθ

y y + dy ds
y ρ m1 θ
m2 y + dy
m1 ds y
A
x x
B
x dx x dx

Under service conditions, most beams undergo very small deflections and angles of
rotation. Deflection curves have extremely small curvatures. Thus, ds ≈ dx
dy 1 dθ dθ d  dy  d 2 y
Slope = tan θ ≈ θ Curvature κ = = ≈ = =
dx ρ ds dx dx  dx  dx 2

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Differential Equation
d2y
κ= 2
dx
If material of beam is linearly elastic and follows Hooke’s law, the curvature is:
M
κ=
EI
From the two expressions for curvature, we obtain the following differential
equation of the deflection curve:

d2y M Deflection y is +ve upward

=
dx 2 EI Rotation θ is +ve counterclockwise

Nonprismatic Beam
In the case of a nonprismatic beam, the flexural rigidity EI is variable.
Thus, differential equation rewritten as
d2y
EI x 2 = M
dx
Upon differentiating both sides of the equation, we get

d  d 2 y  dM
 EI x 2  = =V
dx  dx  dx
d2  d 2 y  dV
 EI x 2  = = −q
dx 2  dx  dx

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Prismatic Beam
In the case of a prismatic beam, the flexural rigidity EI is constant. Thus,
differential equations become

d2y d3y d4y

EI 2 = M EI 3 = V EI 4 = −q
dx dx dx

EIy '' = M EIy ''' = V EIy '''' = −q

Direct Integration Method

 Integrate BM equation twice with respect to x
EIy '' = M
EIy = ∫ ∫ M dx dx + C1 x + C2

 Alternatively, integrate SF equation thrice w.r. to x

EIy = ∫ ∫ ∫ V dx dx dx + C1 x 2 + C2 x + C3

 Or integrate load equation four times w.r. to x

EIy = − ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ q dx dx dx dx + C1 x 3 + C2 x 2 + C3 x + C4

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Example
y
q

B x
A A B
L δB
θB

Determine the equation of the deflection curve for a cantilever beam AB

subjected to a uniform load of intensity q. Also, determine the angle of
rotation θB and the deflection δB at the free end. The beam has length L
and constant flexural rigidity EI.

Solution
Bending moment q
qL 2
qx 2 M
M =− + qLx −
2 2
A
Differential equation qL2 x
2 2 2 V
qL qx
EIy = M = −
''
+ qLx − qL
2 2
Slope of the beam
qL2 x qLx 2 qx3
EIy ' = − + − + C1
2 2 6
qL2 x qLx 2 qx 3 Boundary condition: y ' (0) = 0
∴ EIy ' = − + −
2 2 6

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Solution
Deflection of beam
Boundary condition: y (0) = 0
qL2 x qLx 2 qx 3
EIy ' = − + −
2 2 6
Displacements at free end
qL x qLx qx 4
2 2 3
EIy = − + − + C2
4 6 24 qL3
qx 2 θB = − y ( L ) =
'

∴y =−
24 EI
( 6 L2 − 4 Lx + x 2 ) 6 EI
# (Ans)
# (Ans)
qL4
δB = − y ( L) =
8EI
# (Ans)

Limitation of Direct Integration Method

Shear, bending moment can be described by Single Analytical Functions
(SAF) provided there is no discontinuity in loading

Rarely, shear and bending moment can be described by Single Analytical

Functions because of discontinuity in loading
P = 1.2 kN
q
q o = 1 .5 k N /m M o = 1.44 kN ⋅ m
C D
B A B
A E
L 0.6m 1.2m 0.8m 1.0m

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Method of Superposition
 Deformations of beams subjected to combinations of loadings may be obtained as
the linear combination of the deformations from the individual loadings
 Superposition is valid because differential equation of deflection curve is linear
P
q 5qL4 qL3
(δ C )1 = ; (θ A )1 = (θ B )1 =
384 EI 24 EI
A B PL3 PL2
L C L (δ C )2 = ; (θ A )2 = (θ B )2 =
48 EI 16 EI
2 2
5qL4 PL3
y δ C = (δ C )1 + (δ C )2 = +
384 EI 48 EI
A C B x
δC θB θ A = θ B = (θ A )1 + (θ A )2 =
qL3
+
PL2
θA 24 EI 16 EI

Tables of Beam Deflections

y Procedure is facilitated by tables of solutions for
common types of loadings and supports
x
A B
δB
qx 2 
L θB y=− ( 6a 2 − 4ax + x 2 ) 

 (0 ≤ x ≤ a)
24 EI
q y =−
' qx
6 EI
( 3a − 3ax + x ) 
2 2

qa 3 qa 3
y=− ( 4 x − a ) y '
= − (a ≤ x ≤ L)
24 EI 6 EI
a b qa 3 qa 3
δB = ( 4L − a ) θB =
24 EI 6 EI

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Tables of Beam Deflections

q
qbx 2 
y=− ( 3L + 3a − 2 x ) 
 (0 ≤ x ≤ a)
12 EI
y =−
' qbx
( L + a − x) 
2 EI  a b

y=−
q
( x 4 − 4 Lx 3 + 6 L2 x 2 − 4a3 x + a 4 ) 

 (a ≤ x ≤ L)
24 EI
y =−
' q
6 EI
( x − 3Lx + 3L x − a )
3 2 2 3 


δB =
q
24 EI
( 3L4 − 4a 3 L + a 4 ) θ B =
q
6 EI
( L3 − a 3 )

Tables of Beam Deflections

P Px 2 Px
y=− ( 3a − x ) y ' = − ( 2a − x ) (0 ≤ x ≤ a )
6 EI 2 EI
Pa 2 Pa 2
y=− ( 3x − a ) y ' = − (a ≤ x ≤ L)
6 EI 2 EI
a b Pa 2
Pa 2
δB = ( 3L − a ) θ B =
6 EI 2 EI

M 0 x2 M x
M0 y=− y' = − 0 (0 ≤ x ≤ a)
2 EI EI
M a M a
y = − 0 ( 2x − a ) y' = − 0 (a ≤ x ≤ L)
2 EI EI
a b
M a M a
δ B = 0 ( 2L − a ) θB = 0
2 EI EI

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a b


y=−
qx
( a 4 − 4a3 L + 4a 2 L2 + 2a 2 x 2 − 4aLx2 + Lx3 ) 
 (0 ≤ x ≤ a )
24 EIL
y' = −
q
24 EIL
( a 4 − 4a3 L + 4a 2 L2 + 6a 2 x2 − 12aLx2 + 4Lx3 ) 

qa 2 
y=− ( −a 2 L + 4 L2 x + a 2 x − 6 Lx 2 + 2 x3 ) 
 (a ≤ x ≤ L)
24 EIL
qa 2
y =−
'

24 EIL
( 4 L2 + a 2 − 12 Lx + 6 x 2 ) 

qa 2 qa 2
θA =
24 EIL
( 2L − a ) θB =
2

24 EIL
( 2 L2 − a 2 )

P P P

L 2 L 2 a a

y=−
Px
( 3aL − 3a 2 − x 2 )
y=−
Px
48 EI
( 3L2 − 4 x 2 ) 6 EI

 L y' = −
P
( aL − a2 − x 2 ) ( 0 ≤ x ≤ a )
y' = −
P
16 EI
( L2 − 4 x 2 )  0 ≤ x ≤ 
 2
2 EI

PL 3 y=−
Pa
6 EI
( 3Lx − 3 x 2 − a 2 )
δ C = δ max =
48EI Pa
PL2
y' = − ( L − 2x) (a ≤ x ≤ L − a)
θ A = θB = 2 EI
16 EI Pa ( L − a )
δ C = δ max =
Pa
24 EI
( 3L2 − 4a 2 ) θ A = θB =
2 EI

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Example
P
q
2a 3

A B C
a b

A compound beam ABC has a roller support at A, an internal hinge at B, and a

fixed support at C. A concentrated force P acts at distance 2a/3 from support A
and a uniform load of intensity q acts between B and C.
Determine the deflection δB at the hinge and the angle of rotation θA at support A.
The beam has constant flexural rigidity EI.

Solution
P q

B
A B C
F
a F = 2P/3 b

y qb 4 Fb3 qb4 2 Pb3

δB = + = +
B C 8 EI 3EI 8 EI 9 EI
A # (Ans)

δB  2a  a  a
P    a + 
θA  3  3  3  4 Pa
2

B’ ( A )2
θ = =
6aEI 81EI
δB qb 4 2 Pb3 4
2 Pb3 4 Pa 2
(θ A )1 = = + ∴θ A = (θ A )1 + (θ A )2 =
qb
+ +
a 8aEI 9aEI 8aEI 9aEI 81EI
# (Ans)

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Moment-Area Method

 Alternative method for finding deflections and angles of

rotation of beams
 Method is based upon 2 theorems related to area of BMD,
hence its name
 Same assumptions apply, that is
 linearly elasticity
 small slopes
 Method is suited, from practical standpoint, to finding
deflections and rotations at specific points on beam

First Moment-Area Theorem

Mdx
dθ =
EI
B B Mdx
∫ A
dθ = ∫
A EI
MdxB
∴θ B / A = θ B − θ A = ∫
EIA

⇒ θB/ A = Area of M / EI diagram between A & B

First Theorem: The angle θB/A between

tangents to deflection curve at A & B = area
of M/EI diagram between those points

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Sign Convention

 Angles θA and θB are +ve counterclockwise

 Angle θB/A is +ve when θB is algebraically larger than θA
 Point B must be to the right of point A
 Bending moment M is +ve according to usual sign
convention
 Area of M/EI diagram sign is according to the sign of BM

Second Moment-Area Theorem

Mdx
dt = x1dθ = x1
EI
B B B Mdx
∫ A
dt = ∫ x1dθ = ∫ x1
A A EI
BMdx
∴ t B / A = ∫ x1
A EI
= First moment of area of M / EI diagram
between A & B, evaluated w.r.t. B

Second Theorem: The tangential deviation

tB/A of point B from tangent at A = first
moment of area of M/EI diagram between
A & B, evaluated w.r.t. B

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Construction of Moment Diagrams by Parts

b
P q
a

L
RL RR
RL L

-P (L - a)

-½ q (L - b)2

Properties of Typical Shapes

x
y rectangle
x y = kx n h A = bh x=
b
2
b
h x
b
h
triangle A=
bh
x=
b
2 3
bh
A= b
n +1 x
b bh b
x= parabolic A= x=
n+2 h 3 4

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Parabolic Shape
x

h A 2bh 5b
A= x=
3 8
b

bh 2bh
A+ = bh ⇒ A =
3 3
bh b b 5b
A ⋅ x + ⋅ = bh ⋅ ⇒ x =
3 4 2 8

Parabolic Shape
x
b1
h α=
A h1 b
b1
A=
(1 − α ) bh 3

b 3
1 − α 3 ( 4 − 3α )
2
h1  b1  b
=   ⇒ h1 = α 2 h where α = 1 x= b
h b b (
4 1−α 3 )
bh  b1h1  (1 − α )
3
b1h1 bh
A+ = ⇒ A= 1 − = bh
3 3 3  bh  3
b1h1  b1  bh b 1 − α 3 ( 4 − 3α )
A⋅ x + ⋅  b − b1 +  = ⋅ ⇒x= b
3  4 3 4 4 1−α 3 ( )

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Example
q

A
B
C
L 2 L 2

Find the angle of rotation θB and deflection δB at the free

end B of a cantilever beam ACB supporting a uniform load
of intensity q acting over the right-half of the beam. The
flexural rigidity EI of the beam is constant.

Solution
Angle of rotation
1  L   qL2  qL3
A1 =    =
3  2   8 EI  48 EI
L  qL2  qL3
A2 =  =
2  8 EI  16 EI
1  L   3qL2 qL2  qL3
A3 =    − =
2  2   8 EI 8 EI  16 EI

From 1st moment-area theorem:

7 qL3
θ B = A1 + A2 + A3 =
48 EI # (Ans)

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Solution
Deflection
δ B = t B / A = A1 x1 + A2 x2 + A3 x3
3  L  3L
x1 =   =
4 2 8
L L 3L
x2 = + =
2 4 4
L 2  L  5L
x3 = +   =
2 3 2 6
From 2nd moment-area theorem:
qL3  3L  qL3  3L  qL3  5 L  41qL4
δB =  +  +  =
48 EI  8  16 EI  4  16 EI  6  384 EI
# (Ans)

M/EI by Parts
q
1  qL2 
2
3qL A1 =  L
A 2  2 EI 
8 B
C 1
x1 = L
qL L 2 L 2 3
2  3qL2 
x1 A2 = −  L
qL2  8 EI 
2 EI 1
A1 x2 = L
2
A2 3qL2 1  qL2  L
− A3 = −  
8EI 3  8 EI  2
A3 qL2 1L
− x3 =  
8 EI 4 2 

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Example

P P

A 1.5EI EI
B C
L/2 L/2

For the cantilever beam and loading shown in the figure,

determine by the moment-area method (a) the slope at
point C, (b) the deflection at point C.

P P

Solution A
1.5EI EI
C
1.5PL B
2P L/2 L/2
1 PL  L
2
PL
A1 = −  = − 2P
2  EI  2 4 EI P

1  L = − PL
2
PL
A2 =  − 
2  3 EI  2 12 EI −0.5PL

−1.5PL
1  L = − PL
2
PL
A3 =  −  A2 A3
2  2 EI  2 8 EI A1
PL PL
PL − −
− 3EI 2 EI
EI

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P P

(a) Slope at C: 1.5EI EI

A C
1.5PL B
Apply 1st moment-area theorem: L/2 L/2
2
2P
11PL
θ C = θ C / A = A1 + A2 + A3 = −
24 EI A2 A3
#Ans
A1
PL PL
PL − −
− 3EI 2 EI
EI
(b) Deflection at C:
A
Apply 2nd moment-area theorem: θA = 0
θC tC / A
5  2  1 
3
11PL
yC = tC / A = A1  L  + A2  L  + A3  L  = − C
6  3  3  36 EI
#Ans

Simple Beam
L
A B
θA δC θB
tB / A
C θA = −
L
tC / A
θB = θB / A + θ A
C1

tB/ A 1
δ C + tC / A = t B / A
2
B1

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Example
P

A EI EI B 2EI C

L L L

Determine the deflection at B for the beam loaded as shown. The flexural
rigidity of the beam between A and B is EI, and between B and C it is
2EI. This corresponds to a stiffening of a portion of the beam.

Solution A EI EI B 2EI C

2P tB / A P tC / A
1  2 PL  PL2
A1 =   ( L) = 3 3
2  3EI  3EI L L L
2P
1  2 PL  PL 2
A2 =  ( L) = 3
2  3EI  3EI
P
1  PL  PL2 −
( )
2 PL
A3 =  L = 3
PL 3
2  3EI  6 EI 3
1  PL  PL2
A4 =  ( )
L = 2 PL PL
2  6 EI  12 EI 3EI 3EI PL
A2 6 EI
A1 A3
A4

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A EI EI B 2EI C

2P tB / A P tC / A
3 3
L L L
2 PL PL
3EI 3EI PL
A2 6 EI
A1 A3
A4

Apply 2 nd moment-area theorem: tC / A = A1  2 L +  + A2  L +  + A3  L +  + A4  

L 2L L 2L
 3  3   3  3 
3
29 PL
∴ tC / A =
18 EI

A EI EI B 2EI C

2P tB / A P tC / A
3 3
L L L
2 PL PL
3EI 3EI PL
A2 6 EI
A1 A3
A4
 L  2L  L
Apply 2 nd moment-area theorem: t B / A = A1  L +  + A2   + A3  
 3  3  3
3
13PL
∴ tB / A =
18EI

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A EI EI B 2EI C

2P tB / A P tC / A
3 3
L L L
2 PL PL
3EI 3EI PL
A2 6 EI
A1 A3
A4
2
By similar triangles: − y B + t B / A = tC / A
3
13PL 2 29 PL3
3
19 PL3
∴ yB = − =− #(ANS)
18 EI 3 18EI 54 EI

Example
Mo
A 3EI EI B
C
L2 L2

A simple beam is loaded as shown in the figure.

Determine (a) the slope at point A, (b) slope at
point C and (b) deflection at point C.

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Mo
A 3EI C EI B

Solution L2 L2

Mo

x1
Mo Mo x3
3EI 2 EI M
o
A1 A3
A2 6 EI

x2
θA

δC
tC / A
tB / A

x1
Mo Mo x3
3EI 2 EI M
o
A1 A3
A2 6 EI
A B
C
x2
θA

δC
tC / A
tB / A
1 M0 L 1 M0 L L 2 L 5L
A1 = = x1 = + =
2 3EI 2 12 EI 2 32 6
1 M0 L 1 M0 L L 1 L 2L
A2 = = x2 = + =
2 6 EI 2 24 EI 2 32 3
1 M0 L 1 M0 L 2L L
A3 = = x3 = =
2 2 EI 2 8 EI 32 3

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Apply 1st moment-area theorem:

1 M0L
θ C / A = A1 + A2 =
8 EI
Apply 2nd moment-area theorem:
2
5 M0L
t B / A = A1 x1 + A2 x2 + A3 x3 =
36 EI
(a) Slope at Point A:
tB/ A 5 M0L
θA = − =−
L 36 EI
5 M0L
∴θ A = #(ANS)
36 EI

(b) Slope at Point C:

1 M0L 5 M0L 1 M0L
θC = θC / A + θ A = − =−
8 EI 36 EI 72 EI
1 M0L
∴θC = #(ANS)
72 EI
(c) Deflection at Point C:
 2 L  1 L
2
5 M0L
tC / A = A1   + A2  =
3 2  3 2  144 EI
 5  M0L
2 2
1 5 5 M0L
δ C = tC / A − tB / A = −  =−
2  144 72  EI 144 EI
2
5 M0L
∴δC = ↓ #(ANS)
144 EI

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12. Deflection of Beams

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