Slab Track - An Overview - ScienceDirect Topics

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Mitigation Measures for Rolling Noise

David Thompson, in Railway Noise and Vibration, 2009
7.4.6 Ballastless track forms

Ballastless track, or ‘slab track’ is growing in popularity in some countries for high speed lines. In such a track, the rail is attached by
resilient fasteners to a concrete base, typically 0.5 m thick. This gives a track with potentially lower maintenance costs, since the track vertical
and lateral profiles do not need to be maintained, for example by tamping the ballast at regular intervals.
Unfortunately, slab track has a reputation for being rather noisy. Increases in noise level relative to ballasted track of between 2 and 4 dB are
typically found. The reason for this is often given as the fact that the acoustic absorption offered by the ballast has been removed. However,
this is likely to explain only about 1 dB of the difference. A more important effect lies in the fact that slab track usually incorporates softer rail
fasteners. They are intended to substitute an extra compliance in the rail support to compensate for the loss of the vertical compliance
normally provided by the ballast layer. As seen in Section 7.4.1 above, soft rail fasteners can lead to higher rail noise as the rail can vibrate
over a greater length.
The concrete slab usually has such a high impedance that its vibration is much less than that of the rail, and its noise radiation is thus also
negligible. Therefore track models for slab track can be based simply on a single layer of resilience under the rail (see Section 3.2).
Acoustic treatments, such as that shown in Figure 7.35, have been demonstrated on slab tracks in Germany [7.16, 7.80, 7.81]. The full
treatment shown in Figure 7.35 gave a noise reduction of about 6 dB. Omitting the raised barriers lowered the benefit to about 4.5 dB. A
more limited absorptive treatment, which left the rail exposed, gave a noise reduction of about 3 dB. This was nevertheless sufficient to
make the track equivalent to a conventional ballasted track with concrete sleepers [7.81].
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FIGURE 7-35. Absorptive treatment applied to slab track [7.16, 7.80, 7.81]
Since the concrete slab usually has a high mechanical impedance, the stiffness of the rail support can be increased considerably without the
component of noise radiated by the slab becoming significant compared with the rail noise. The use of a stiffer rail support will increase the
attenuation of vibration along the rail. In the STV project a track was designed in which the rail was continuously supported by embedding it
in a visco-elastic material within a channel in the slab. This made it possible to use a smaller rail section as the track bending stiffness is
partly provided by the slab. A small rail profile was developed, referred to as SA42. This rail had a mass per unit length of 42 kg/m but a
height of only 80 mm, half the height of the reference UIC54 rail. This was continuously supported by the stiff embedding material, which
provided a considerable damping effect on the wave propagation in the rail, restricting the rail noise component. The radiating surface area
of the rail and embedding material was also minimized, thus reducing the sound radiation. This was measured as giving approximately 3 dB
reduction in track noise compared with ballasted track and 5 dB reduction compared with a slab track fitted with embedded UIC 54 rails. An
alternative analysis based on reciprocal vibro-acoustic measurements indicated a noise reduction from the SA42 track of 7 dB [7.15] which
was more consistent with theoretical estimates [7.82, 7.83].
The slab track was also tested in configurations with a layer of absorptive material on top of the track slab, with integral absorptive mini-
barriers and with both. These are shown in Figure 7.36. The barriers were designed around the Dutch national structure gauge and came to
a height of 0.7 m above the top of the rail. They were constructed of concrete elements with a layer of rockwool and an absorptive top layer.
These mini-barriers gave a reduction of 6 dB and the absorptive panels on the track slab a reduction of approximately 2 dB in the overall
noise [7.15].
FIGURE 7-36. Slab track with SA42 rail section, absorptive treatment and integral mini-barriers [7.16]
Some problems occurred in the tests due to the absorptive material from the track slab becoming detached and finding its way into the
wheel/rail contact region. This led to increases in noise for which adjustments had to be made. The prototype track was dismantled after the
tests.
CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF WHEEL LOAD VARIATION ON THE HIGH

SPEED OPERATING LINE
Yoshihiko Sato, Yutaka Satoh, in Railroad Track Mechanics and Technology, 1978
5 DEVELOPMENT OF IMPROVED TRACK STRUCTURE WITH BALLAST, USED IN THE

NATIONWIDE SHINKANSEN NETWORK
5.1 Proposal of Improved Track Structure with Ballast and Its Maintenance
It has already been decided to use slab tracks wherever possible, for the purpose of reducing maintenance work [6]. However, track sections
must be ballasted where long term displacements of sub-structures are anticipated.
We proposed both a new track structure with ballast and a new method of maintaining it, which could be used in such sections to reduce
the variation of wheel load in the existing operation of 200 km/h. The new structure will be able to support the load in the commercial
operation at 260 km/h with use of new mass produced cars based on the 961 prototype car.
The recommended points for the design and maintenance of the new structure are as follows:
In order to restrain the variation of wheel load to a certain magnitude:
(1) the spring constant of a rail fastening device is to be reduced from 90t/cm to 60t/cm, and
(2) the newly developed ‘Ballastmat’ which has a spring constant of 90t/cm for a rail fastening device is to be laid under the ballast on the
aerial structures and in the tunnels [7].
In order to avoid a very large wheel load:

(1) a rail produced with smooth running surface is to be used,
(2) the welding joint is to be finished smooth enough, and
(3) the track which causes a very large wheel load after the laying is to be detected and improved.
In order to be able to absorb very large wheel loads when they happen:
(1) the rail is not to be welded by existing thermit method, and
(2) a newly designed PC tie which can stand the wheel load of 30t is to be used.
The existing track structure and the proposed structure are compared in Fig. 14. Here, the adoption of the ‘Ballastmat’ brings about a
revolution in the existing track structure. This has become possible by the low cost, based on the reuse of used automobile tires. For the
fabrication of rail, a reviewing of the concerned JRS (Japanese Railway Standards) has been underway. To detect the location where a large
wheel load has occurred, the measurement of the acceleration of axle box is being considered and new equipment called HISTIM (High
Speed Track Inspection Machine) is under development. At the location where a large wheel load has occurred, the rail surface is corrected
by grinding, assuming that the large wheel load was caused by the irregularities of rail surface. Rails are shop-welded by the flash or gas-
pressure method or field-welded by the enclosed arc method.
Fig. 14. Comparison of the Proposed Structure with the Existing Structure
5.2 Test Result of Proposed Structure

A test section of the newly proposed track structure had been laid on the Tokaido Shinkansen between September and October, 1972. This
section was tested by using the 951 type test car and mass produced cars during November and December 1972. The obtained results are
given in the following:
(1) Vertical displacements of rail are as shown in Fig. 15. The figure shows that the expected value of track spring constant 91.2t/cm has
been realized.
Fig. 15. Vertical Displacement of Rail
(2) Standard deviations of the ratio of variation of wheel load to the static wheel load are shown in Fig. 16. The figure shows that under the
speed of 200 km/h the standard deviation for the improved track structure is reduced by 40% from that for the existing track structure
and above the speed of 200 km/h the difference is nearly the same for the bogie of DT 9011-type, but it becomes smaller for the bogie of
the DT 9012-type.
Fig. 16. Ratio of the Deviation of Dynamic Wheel Load to the Static Wheel Load (Measured by Car Structure Laboratory)
(3) The improved structure reduced vibrational accelerations of the tie, the ballast and the aerial structure from one fourth to one fifth of
those in existing structures.
(4) The noise under the aerial structure was reduced by 8 dB(A) with use of the improved track structure.
(5) The periodic inspections after the tests make it clear that the deterioration of ballast is remarkably decreased with use of the improved
structure.
5.3 Use of Improved Track Structure with Ballast in Nationwide Shinkansen Network
The improved track structure with ballast was adopted in the ballasted section of the Nationwide Shinkansen Network. It was utilized on 144
kms out of the total 796 kms of track on the San-yo Shinkansen between Okayama and Hakata, on the aerial structures and in the tunnels
(other 544 kms: slab track, 108 kms: ballasted track on the embankment or cutting).
THE MECHANICS OF RAIL FASTENERS FOR CONCRETE SLAB

TRACK
Bernard Bramall, in Railroad Track Mechanics and Technology, 1978
2 VERTICAL ELASTICITY OF FASTENERS

So far, conventional rails have been used in slab track. Their bending stresses limit the permissible spread of loading, and hence the
allowable flexibility of supporting pads.
Using available rails as supplied for conventional track, spacing of fasteners has tended to adhere to usual practice, and support elasticity
adopted to give more or less the customary distribution of wheel loading. Thus, in the evaluations from tests shown in Table 1, the
maximum reaction per fastener is about half the applied wheel load for a variety of different types of fasteners used on slab base track.
TABLE 1.
Type of BR LTE NS NS SNCF CFF BRDL BRDL BRCT B on C (Ballast on

track Std. (Soft) (Stiff ) Monaco Sonneville (Stiff ) (Soft) concrete)
K″ MN/m 90 135 111 76 75 153 111 90
L m 0.76 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.60 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
I cm3 2346 1698 2346 2346 2346 2346 2346 2346 2346 2346
EI MN.m2 4.833 3.498 4.833 4.833 4.833 4.833 4.833 4.833 4.833 4.833
R/P 0.504 0.549 0.462 0.407 0.374 0.514 0.462 0.430
Note: Data taken from Table 1, ORE Report D 87/RP 6. K″ = Apparent track stiffness, L = Distance between fastenings, I = Second moment of area
of rail, E = Elastic modulus of rail = 2,100 T/cm2 = 20.6 MN/cm2 and R/P = (L/4)K″/(EI)3.
In fact the vertical support elasticity was intended to be equivalent to that commonly provided by a cross tie resting on ballast.
The types of fasteners shown in Fig.'s 2.1 to 2.5 had been tested in a laboratory under pulsating load, having a vertical component of half the
wheel load plus impact allowance. They withstood 2.5 million load cycles and Fig.'s 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 show in summary form the distortions
occurring under load and residual deformations [8].
Fig. 2.1. Pulsator for Testing the NS Fastenings
Fig. 2.2. Pulsator for Testing LTB Experimental Fastenings
Fig. 2.3. Pulsator for Testing DB Fastenings for Underground Lines
Fig. 2.4. “Sonneville” Direct-Fastening System Using Special Shoe
Fig. 2.5. “Monaco” Direct–Fastening System
Fig. 3.1. Rail Deflection Under Dynamic Loading
Fig. 3.2. Rail Inclination Under Dynamic Loading
Fig. 3.3. Gauge Widening Under Dynamic Loads
For such spacing and stiffness of fasteners, the differences in calculating maximum reactions by the theory of discrete supports [5] or by the
continuous support theory are negligible.
There have, in fact, been serious attempts to develop a continuous support for the rail. Instances are illustrated in Fig.'s 4 and 5. The British
version is still not perfectly continuous, since rail clips are retained at a spacing of 65 cm. The Dutch experiment, on a bridge, uses an
elastomer enveloping a large part of the rail.
Fig. 4. Continuous Support - British Railways
Fig. 5. Continuous Rail Support - Dutch Experiment
Fig. 6 illustrates typical flexure of rail and slab, having regard to the local spread of reaction between rail and slab and the greater spread on
the soil accomplished by the slab. Comparison is given between a yielding foundation and an absolutely rigid base. Self evidently, the
relative deflection between rail and slab is practically alike in both cases. Hence the reaction intensity between continuous rail and
continuous slab might in practice be calculated as if the slab did not deflect.
Fig. 6. Deflections Under Bogie
Any lack in continuity must, of course, modify the equilibrium. The fastening and the slab must for instance be capable of withstanding
reactions at a rail joint. A hinged joint in the slab has less serious consequences than a joint which is unable to transmit shear, provided that
the slab has continuous bearing on the soil.
If, however, the slabs are laid as a series of simply supported bridges, an abrupt change of slope occurs at their ends under loading.
Discussion rages about permissible deformation of repetitive bridge spans for high speed lines, but even for the static bending of rails, a
limitation of deflection should be observed. In Fig. 7 a comparison is offered between the effects of grade change and the effects of a 10 ton
wheel load. Basis of calculating end grade is the proposition that the deflection of a span be limited to span length divided by 800 under a
uniformly distributed loading. Then the end slope would be 1/250.
Fig. 7. Effects of Grade Change and Wheel Load
UIC 65 rail with elastic supporting stiffness of the fasteners amounting to 1 ton per centimeter of length per centimeter of relative
deflection, give quite typical parameter values. The effect of end slope on rail bending is seen to be quite serious. Some extra reaction on the
fasteners is also engendered by the extra relative deflection between rail and slab. They must, therefore, be designed to accommodate this
extra compression without damage.
Ground-borne Noise∗
13.6.4 Booted sleepers

Figure 13.19 shows the concept of a ‘booted sleeper’. There are a number of proprietary booted sleeper systems on the market. These
perform in the same way as sleeper soffit pads but the design is integrated with a slab track. The design is usually based around a bi-bloc
sleeper design. Again a normal rail pad is used between the rail and the sleeper blocks and a soft pad is used between the sleeper blocks and
the slab. This is kept in place and protected by the ‘boot’. At installation the track panel (rails with sleepers attached), complete with the boots
and integral soft pads, is suspended and levelled. The concrete slab is then cast in situ around the boots.
FIGURE 13-19. Arrangement of booted sleepers in slab track
Adhesives and Sealants

Bernd R. Burchardt, Peter W. Merz, in Handbook of Adhesives and Sealants, 2006
6.8.13 Rail Fastening

In railway track laying, the rails are generally fastened onto sleepers that are embedded in ballast. The majority of tracks are laid in this
manner. For a number of different reasons, it is necessary to design ballast-free trackbeds – also called slab track systems. Bridges have to
be designed according to the weight of the ballast and in tunnels, excavation has to be minimised for economical reasons.
The ballast trackbed, besides providing support and lateral resistance to the sleepers, must also dampen the oscillations caused by train
traffic to protect rolling stock and the rails themselves from damage and excessive wear. Specially developed elastic adhesives are able, due
to their particular dampening characteristics, to assume that function of the ballast trackbed. The use of adhesives also reduces the
thickness of the subrail construction to about 30 mm underpouring height and on bridges, the dead load of the ballast can be saved.
The elastic rail fastening not only dampens noise but also attenuates knocks and vibrations which act on adjacent structures and buildings,
thus increasing their service life and reducing maintenance costs. A further positive aspect is that the usual track fastening hardware such as
chairs, bolts, hook bolts, clips, spring elements, pads, etc. can be used as before.
There are, in principle, two different ways of rail fastening by elastic adhesives: spot-wise bonding on single supports and continuous
bonding. Both methods require the bonding work to be executed on site. The rails are aligned and afterwards bonded with a 30-mm-thick
layer of adhesive.
Adhesive bonding, unlike slab track systems with prefabricated rubber mats, allows high tolerances in the trackbed because the adhesive
layer takes care of level adjustments. The adhesive also ensures a load-bearing connection between trackbed and rail or chair. The elasticity
and compressibility of the special adhesive and pouring compound reduce impact noise by means of insulation and vibration dampening. In
addition, the electric resistance of the elastomers insulates against stray currents. These two elastic bonding rail fastening methods are
explained in more detail in the following subsections.
Single supports
Single-support fastening was first used alongside the pits of maintenance halls and washing plants. Later on, the system was also used in
track laying. The advantages are considerable, in particular for bridges and tunnels. In the same way as the sleepers are fastened on a ballast
trackbed, the rail is fastened to single supports. The chairs are bonded at intervals of 65 cm to the concrete or steel substrate (Fig. 114).
Figure 114. Single support: (1) Chair, (2) Rail, (3) Elastic adhesive, (4) Anchor bolt, (5) Concrete track bed.
For reasons of higher safety, the chairs are additionally fixed with bolts which are rigidly sealed into the concrete or welded onto the steel
plate. Depending on the degree of loading, it is possible to use four bolts or only two diagonally arranged bolts. The rail is pressed down
onto the chair by spring clips or rigid clips (K-fastening). This type of fastening is used by German and Swiss railways and on tracks for
urban railways, tramways and underground railways (Fig. 115).
Figure 115. Single support fastening on a bridge (Inselbrücke, Stuttgart, Germany).
Continuous rail bonding

The sealed-in track is an almost maintenance-free system for tramways in city centres where the rails – embedded in a two-part
polyurethane adhesive – more or less ‘float’ on the road. Before the application of adhesive the surface of concrete must be pre-treated
(Fig. 116).
Figure 116. Application with 2C-pump device at construction place.
The rails are embedded flush with the surface of the road, so that public transportation buses or rescue service vehicles have a free lane at
their disposal in an emergency.
The adhesive onto the concrete directly bonds the foot of the grooved rail. Approximately 20 mm to the right and left of the rail, a form
made of moist sand or wooden slats wrapped in plastic sheeting is erected. The polyurethane compound poured underneath the rail foot
evens out all irregularities of the substrate. After having bonded the cores into the cavities of the rails, the polyurethane compound can be
filled into the lateral gaps (Fig. 117). As an alternative, the road surface can be completed first and then serve as the shuttering.
Figure 117. Continuously sealed-in rail: (1) Rail foot; (2) Grooved rail; (3) Bituminous maintenance joint; (4) Filler core; (5) Poured adhesive compound.
Track Vibration
3.1.1 Track structure

A typical railway track structure is shown in cross-section in Figure 3.1. The rails are held by clips to transverse sleepers, which may be made
of concrete, wood or steel. These in turn are supported in a layer of stones known as ballast, the depth of which is typically up to 30 cm
beneath the sleepers. Details of the subgrade, etc. below the ballast are not of interest at this stage.
FIGURE 3-1. Typical track construction showing rails, sleepers and ballast
Figure 3.2 shows a typical rail fastening system. An important component of the track, which has a considerable influence on the rolling
noise behaviour, is the rail pad. This is made of rubber or synthetic rubber and is located between the rail foot and the sleepers, as can be
seen in Figure 3.2. These pads have the primary function of protecting the sleepers, particularly concrete ones, from high impact loads
which may cause cracking but, as will be seen, their stiffness also affects the noise produced by the track.
FIGURE 3-2. Pandrol Fastclip rail fastening system. (a) Exploded view showing the rail, rail pad, clips, isolators and brackets for attaching to the sleeper. (b) Assembled fastening
(drawing courtesy of Pandrol, used by permission)
Ballastless, or slab, tracks have been used increasingly in recent years but are still much less common than conventional ballasted track.
They are generally more expensive to install but have lower maintenance costs [3.1]. In some forms of slab track, conventional concrete
sleepers are embedded in concrete to form the slab; in other cases the rails are directly attached to the concrete slab. In each case,
importantly, the rail fasteners used on slab tracks involve more flexible pads or baseplates than on ballasted track as they are required to
replace the resilience of the ballast.
The wheel, being a finite and lightly damped structure, has a clear set of modes of vibration which are important in characterizing its
vibration, as seen in Figure 2.16 and discussed further in Chapter 4. In contrast, the track is essentially an infinite structure. It therefore acts
as a waveguide, permitting one or more structural waves to propagate along it. Moreover, the intrinsic damping of the track structure is
much higher than for the wheel. Although the support structure introduces behaviour that can be understood in terms of modes of
vibration at low frequency, the rail does not have resonances in the same way as the wheel. Instead, at a given frequency a number of
different structural waves can exist in the rail. Initially, at low frequencies, these are vertical and lateral bending, torsional and longitudinal
waves but at higher frequencies additional waves occur involving deformation of the rail cross-section.
In this section an introduction is given to track vibration on the basis of some examples of measured data. These results will then be
explained in more detail in subsequent sections through the development of models for track vibration of increasing complexity.
Dynamic Analysis of High-Speed Railway Curves

Sirong Yi, in Dynamic Analysis of High-Speed Railway Alignment, 2018
4.1.1.1 The Law of Ideal Track Geometry

Parts 3.2–3.5 analyze the influence of curve parameter on the vehicle–track dynamic characteristics when the track obeys the law of ideal
track geometry and the train goes through the curve at high speed. The track geometry of a practical track is not an ideal alignment as there
is random irregularity; the random irregularity of track is one of the main excitation of the vehicle–track dynamics. To study the law of
influence of the technical condition of curve on the vehicle–track dynamic characteristics in the condition of practical track, according to the
numerical simulation method of random irregularity of track in the Chapter 2, we did numerical simulation for the German high-speed low-
disturbance line and the German high-speed high-disturbance line. Under the type of track structure and the random irregularity of track,
the relationship between the wheel–rail interaction force and the curve radius is given as in Figs. 4.1–4.4.
Figure 4.1. Graph showing the relationship graph between the maximum of ballastless track wheel–rail vertical force and curve radius. (A) The track obeys the law of ideal track
geometry. (B) The track follows the condition of random irregularity.
Figure 4.2. Graph of the relationship between the maximum of ballastless track wheel–rail lateral force and curve radius. (A) The track obeys the law of ideal track geometry. (B)
The track follows the condition of random irregularity.
Figure 4.3. Graph of the relationship between the maximum of ballasted track wheel–rail vertical force and curve radius. (A) The track obeys the law of ideal track geometry. (B)
The track follows the condition of random irregularity. (C) Outside wheel–rail in random irregularity. (D) Inside wheel–rail in random irregularity.
Figure 4.4. Graph of the relationship between the maximum of ballast track wheel–rail lateral force and curve radius. (A) The track obeys the law of ideal track geometry. (B) The
track follows the condition of random irregularity. (C) Outside wheel–rail in random irregularity. (D) Inside wheel–rail in random irregularity.
Analyzing dynamical simulation data and the change law of Figs. 4.1 and 4.2 we can arrive at the following conclusions:
1. Considering random irregularity of track, performance indicators of train have obvious change. Compared with the value of the track on
the ideal track geometry, the safety index obviously increases: the wheel–trail vertical force increases from 91.6% to 115.62% and the
wheel–trail lateral force increases from 61.1% to 106.41%. When the slab track is applied random irregularity that German high-speed
low-disturbance line simulate and the ballast track is applied random irregularity that German high-speed high-disturbance line, the
difference of performance indicators of train have different changes: the maximum of wheel–trail vertical force' difference is 8.18%, the
maximum of wheel–trail lateral force's difference is 40.43%, and the values of performance indicators of ballast track are all greater than
those of performance indicators of the slab track, which means that under the same condition of curve parameter, the slab track is better
than the ballast track.
2. As for the random irregularity that exists, under most curve conditions, when the radius is greater than 8000 m, the wheel–trail force
changes slowly to a steady-state value; the reason is as follows: as 3.2 simulation showing, at this time because the train's lateral
acceleration caused by the unbalanced superelevation only takes a very small proportion, the interaction characteristics produced when
the train goes through the curve approaches the interaction characteristics when the train goes through the straight line. Under the
condition of actual superelevation h = 170 mm and h = 190 mm, when R is greater than 9000 m and excess superelevation exists, the
wheel–trail force increases under the condition of ideal track geometry, but continues decreasing under the condition of random
irregularity.
3. Under the same condition of track technology, the wheel–trail vertical force is less than the value of ballast track, about 25%. This
indicates that slab track is steady and ride of train is good when high-speed train goes through the track; the train waggles slightly, so
the wheel–trail force is less than the value of ballast track. Applying the same axle load of train, the wheel–trail vertical force is greater
than the value of unballast track; the wheel–trail vertical force of ballast track with a velocity of 200 km/h is close to the value of unballast
track with a velocity of 350 km/h.
4. For slab track, when the track has random irregularity, the wheel–trail vertical force is not greater than the limit 170 kN and the wheel–
trail lateral force is less than the limit 52.516 kN. When the curve radius is 5500 or 6000 m and the actual superelevation h is less than
130 mm, with the actual superelevation increasing, every security dynamics performance index decreases quickly, whereas when the
actual superelevation h is greater than 130 mm, with the actual superelevation increasing, every security dynamics performance index
decreases at a significantly slower rate. Because when h < 130 mm, unbalanced superelevation is oversize, the wheel force applies outer
rail more and the train runs approaching security limit.
5. For ballast track, wheel–trail vertical force is not greater than 170 kN; when the train goes through the curve whose radius is 5000–
11,000 m with a velocity of 250, 300, and 350 km/h, the relationship between the maximum of wheel–trail vertical force and curve radius
does not monotonously increase, but when the radius is 7000 m, a peak value appears, the outside wheel–rail vertical force is minimum,
and inside wheel–rail vertical force is maximum; the wheel–rail lateral force increases with the increase in deficient superelevation, and
when deficient superelevation is greater than 110 mm, the wheel–rail lateral force is greater than 52.515 kN at some points. On further
analysis we come to know that the maximum wheel–rail vertical and lateral force is mainly in direct proportion to the actual deficient
superelevation and excess superelevation; according to the change of wheel–rail vertical force, for a ballast track high-speed rail the
velocity is greater than 250 km/hha, the best radius is about 7000 m, and its deficient superelevation is inappropriately greater than
110 mm.
Design of Rail Substructure and Components

Ping Wang, in Design of High-Speed Railway Turnouts, 2015
9.1.3 Slabs for Ballastless Turnout

Ballastless slab turnouts featured stable structure, smaller track height, less cast-in-situ concrete, convenience, and fast construction. The
construction can be commenced before the mobilization of rails. They are widely used in Chinese HSRs (e.g., Wuhan–Guangzhou,
Shanghai–Hangzhou, Beijing–Shanghai, Beijing–Shijiazhuang, and Shijiazhuang–Wuhan).
1. Structural design
There are two types of slab track in the turnout zone: slab track with leveling course and that with filler course. The slab track with
leveling course is composed of turnout parts, slabs, base, and leveling course. The turnout slab will be fine-tuned on the finished
leveling course. Self-compacting concrete will be placed between the slab and leveling course. The turnout slab is connected with the
base through Π-shaped steel trusses reserved on the slab bottom. The track is limited longitudinally and laterally with the bonding force
and friction force between turnout slab bottom and base and shearing force of Π-shaped steel truss. The turnout slab is made of C55
concrete, provided with a 0.5% lateral drainage slope on slab surface. The support rail bed has no slope. The base is made of 180-mm-
deep C40 self-compacting concrete with good fluidity, about 400 mm wider than the slab in the lateral direction, provided with a 4%
drainage slope on the projected edge. The leveling course is made of 130–200-mm-deep C25 concrete, about 300 mm wider than the
base slab in the lateral direction. It may not be reinforced. On the slab bottom, Π-shaped steel trusses are reserved to be built in the
base, so as to integrate the slab and the base. See Figure 9.15 for specific structure.
Figure 9.15. Track structure in turnout zone with leveling course.
The slab track with filler course is composed of turnout parts, turnout slabs, filler course, and base. The turnout slab will be fine-tuned
on the finished concrete base. The filler course will be placed between the turnout slab and base. Pins will be inserted into the holes on
the turnout slabs and base. The track is limited longitudinally and laterally with the bonding force and friction force between turnout
slab bottom and base and shearing force of Π-shaped steel truss. The turnout slab is made of C55 concrete, provided with a 0.5% lateral
drainage slope on slab surface. The support rail bed has no slope. The fillers must have good construction performance (fluidity,
expansivity, and degree of dissociation), mechanical property (compressive strength, shear strength), and durability. Emulsified asphalt
mortar is generally used. The C40 concrete base may be continuous in the turnout zone, about 400 wider than turnout slab in the lateral
direction and provided with a 4% drainage slope on the projected edge. The turnout slabs and base are securely connected by pins.
Turnout slabs may be blocked to facilitate production and construction. The turnout slab extends from the center of the expansion gap
in front of the switch rail to a position as determined by track structure at turnout rear. At the switch and crossing, the slabs are divided
by the foundation pit for the switch rod. According to conversion requirements, the space for the switch machine should be reserved on
the slab. For No. 18 turnouts in China, the maximum and minimum lengths of turnout slab are 5900 and 4560 mm, respectively.
Slab depth relates to operational conditions of the railway line (train load), track height, turnout slab structure (concrete performance,
application of prestressing, or rate of common reinforcement), and height of the support rail bed. According to mechanical analysis and
design of structural reinforcement, the slab depth is defined as 240 mm (including the height of support rail bed).
As the track geometry is variational in a turnout, the lateral width of the turnout slab may also vary in the longitudinal direction of the
line. In the design, sufficient strength and stability of slab, depth of concrete protection layer, and a minimum distance of 300 mm from
sleeve to slab side must be ensured. The slab width will be continuously variational. The slab edge is in a straight line in the main track,
varying along the line type of the curve rail. Two neighboring slabs will have continuous widths to make the turnout edges smooth and
aesthetically appealing. In terms of transport, at least one of the dimensions (length and width) should be greater than 3500 mm. In
China, the maximum slab width for a No. 18 turnout is 5445 mm.
A lateral full-length support rail bed 260 mm wide is arranged on top of the turnout slab, which has a minimum height of 12 mm at the
rail base. For Chinese fastenings, the total height of pads is 56 mm, and the minimum clearance between the rail base and slab surface
is 68 mm, meeting the requirements for operating spaces for small track-lifting machines during maintenance.
The structural reinforcement of turnout slab is composed of an upper and a lower layer, with interlayer spacing of 100–120 mm. Each
layer is in the form of a crisscrossed grid, with average grid spacing of 120 mm (longitudinally)×125 mm (laterally). Both the longitudinal
and lateral reinforcements are of Grade HRB335 ϕ12 and ϕ14 mm. The minimum depth of the concrete protection layer for the main
reinforcement is 30 mm.
For a ballastless turnout on subgrade, the slabs are connected with the base with Π-shaped reinforcements (ϕ12 mm, Grade HRB335)
reserved on the slab bottom. Meanwhile, the slab bottom is provided with a coarse surface (roughening) to enable secure connection
with the self-compacting concrete of the base. For a ballastless turnout on a bridge, the slabs are connected by means of filler course
and pins, where holing will be performed as per detailed reinforcement layout so as to avoid interference with reinforcements during
other holing operations. Each slab is to be anchored with at least eight pins.
Three insulation types are used for ballastless track slabs in China: heat-shrinkable sleeves, epoxy-coated reinforcement, and plastic
insulating clamps for reinforcement. The ballast track slabs are insulated with lateral epoxy-coated reinforcement, with the electric
resistance between reinforcements no less than 2 MΩ. The spiral reinforcement around the sleeve and embedded nuts for electrical
equipment must not come into contact with reinforcements nearby during manufacturing; therefore, adjoining reinforcements will have
insulation coat applied, and sleeve spiral reinforcement may be installed after the coat becomes dry to achieve required insulation
performance of turnout.
2. Stress analysis
A calculation model of “beam-slab-slab” for turnout slab under vertical train load should be established. In the model, the turnout rails
are modeled with beam elements, the turnout slab and base are deemed shell elements, and the leveling course is regarded as an elastic
foundation plate.
The warping stress of a turnout slab can be obtained by the Westgaard theory in two cases: “cold at the top+hot at the bottom” and “hot
at the top+cold at the bottom.” The two cases employ the same temperature gradient. For a 220-mm-deep turnout slab or bed slab, the
coefficient of warping stress is approximated as 1.0 with the equation below:
σqx=σqy=EαtβhTgh2 (9.15)
Mq=qqh26 (9.16)
where
σqx=the maximum longitudinal warping stress
σqy=the maximum lateral warping stress
E=transformed elastic modulus of reinforced concrete
αt=expansion coefficient of concrete
βh=slab depth correction coefficient of temperature gradient
Tg=temperature gradient
h=depth of turnout slab; and
Mq=bending moment of turnout slab induced by temperature gradient.
The bending moment of turnout slab under lateral force:
Mq=12×0.3×Q×H/a (9.17)
where 1/2 indicates that the upper and lower bending moments of the slab are the same, equaling half of the total value under lateral
load; 0.3 refers to the distribution coefficient of lateral force along longitudinal direction of track; Q is lateral force, taken as 70 kN; H
represents the clearance between the action point of lateral force and slab top, equaling the slab depth, 0.22 m.
Affected by subgrade settlement and deflection deformation of the bridge, given that turnout slabs and base are consistent in
deformation, the bending moment on corresponding turnout slab will be:
Mu=EIρmax (9.18)
where EI is the bending elastic modulus of turnout slab and ρmax is the deformation curvature of the foundation. To ensure the
rationality and economic efficiency of design, the combined loads for additional bending moment of subgrade settlement may adopt a
combination coefficient of 0.5.
In view of load combination, longitudinally, the combination of “vertical train load+temperature warping” (main forces) will be taken as
the design load, and the combination of “vertical train check load+temperature warping+inhomogeneous settlement of foundation”
(main forces+additional force) will be taken as the check load. Laterally, the combination of “vertical train load+lateral load+temperature
warping” (main forces) will be taken as the design load.
The strength and cracks of turnout slabs can be verified with the design bending moment, check bending moment, structural
dimensions, and reinforcement. Under design load, the compressive stress of slab concrete is 5.82 MPa, the tensile stress of
reinforcement is 172.83 MPa, and the crack is 0.18 mm wide. Under check load, the compressive stress of slab concrete is 6.42 MPa, the
tensile stress of reinforcement is 190.63 MPa, and the crack is 0.19 mm wide, within the allowable range.
3. Other verifications
Besides the above verification, the slab strengths during manufacturing, transport, and construction will also be verified, supplemented
by verification of the strength of the Π-shaped reinforcement, shear stress of concrete at embedded sleeve and around lifting sleeve, etc.
The quality of steel die, formation of reinforcement framework, and positioning of embedded sleeve are critical processes in
manufacturing turnout slabs. High precision and rapid fine-tuning are essential during laying.
Sound Radiation from Wheels and Track

6.4.2 Effect of ground plane

The above results have been obtained for a rail radiating in free field conditions. In practice, the rail is located close to the ground.
Depending on the assumptions made, this can have a significant effect on the radiation ratio at low frequencies.
Two extreme cases can be considered, shown in Figure 6.15. First, if the rail is actually mounted on a rigid ground plane, the bottom of the
rail foot cannot radiate sound. This is the case on a slab track if the rail is supported on a continuous pad. As the top and bottom areas of
the rail section are no longer equal, a net monopole component is present and the radiation ratio is increased at low frequencies, as shown
in Figure 6.16. The radiation ratio is proportional to f at low frequencies.
FIGURE 6-15. Two-dimensional boundary element models of a rail. (a) In free space; (b) on rigid ground; and (c) located above a rigid ground
FIGURE 6-16. Sound radiation from vertical vibration of a rail in the presence of a rigid ground calculated using two-dimensional boundary elements. —, in free field; – – –,
attached to the surface; – · – ·, just above rigid surface
On the other hand, if the rail is located close to the rigid ground but is not in contact with it, the dipole source due to vertical motion will be
reflected in the ground plane and together the source and its image will form a quadrupole. The radiation is therefore reduced at low
frequency, as shown in Figure 6.16. However, between 500 and 1000 Hz the order of these three results is reversed and a peak appears for
the case above a rigid ground, caused by a standing wave occurring under the rail foot.
For a rail in ballasted track, the situation is more complex. Part of the rail will be supported on the rail pads directly above the sleepers while
the remainder is located a small distance above the ground. However, this ground is not rigid but rather is partially absorptive. It is
therefore not a simple matter to determine the most appropriate model for this situation. Despite these uncertainties, in ballasted track the
rail component is masked by the sound radiation from the sleeper for frequencies below about 400 Hz, see Figure 2.14, and it is not critical
which model is used for the rail.
Solutions for Saturated Soil Under Moving Loads and Engineering

Applications
Yuanqiang Cai, Honglei Sun, in Solutions for Biot's Poroelastic Theory in Key Engineering Fields, 2017
2.4 Engineering Application
The Beijing-Tianjin intercity railway line is the earliest constructed high-speed railway line in China; it connects the two municipalities of
Beijing and Tianjing. Construction of this intercity railway line was started on Jul. 4, 2005 and was completed on Dec. 15, 2007. The
designed operating speed was 350 km/h. In order to ensure ride quality as well as reduce maintenance costs, the slab track Bögl imported
from Germany was adopted on the railway line. The subgrade of the railway lines was mainly composed of soft clay, and then treated by CFG
piles with a diameter of 0.4 m and a length of 28 m. After debugging, the railway started test runs on Jul. 1, 2008. During this period,
Zhejiang University was invited to measure the dynamic responses of the track and embankment. Two locomotive types, Harmony CRH2
and CRH3, were used during the test runs. The measured vibration of the track and embankment is presented herein.
The testing site was chosen at Yangcun. The instrumentation of the velocity sensor and the accelerometer on the cross-section of the railway
line is shown in Fig. 2.4.1. V and H in Fig. 2.4.1 denote the sensors in the vertical and horizontal directions, respectively.
Fig. 2.4.1. Cross-section arrangement of the sensors for the vibration test.
The measured results follow. When the train runs at the speed of 145.1 km/h, the measured velocity at the sleepers, embankment, and free
field are presented in Figs. 2.4.2–2.4.4. The peak velocity at the sleeper was about 1.0 cm/s, and then decreased as the distance from the
railway centerline increased. When the train speed increased to 335.1 km/h, the measured velocity at the sleepers, embankment, and free
field are presented in Figs. 2.4.5–2.4.7, and it can be seen that the velocity at the sleeper was amplified to 1.5 cm/s, then decreased as the
distance increased.
Fig. 2.4.2. Measured velocity at the sleeper (V1) under a train speed of 145.1 km/h maximum value 1.046, minimum value − 0.906.
Fig. 2.4.3. Measured velocity at the embankment (V3) under a train speed of 145.1 km/h maximum value 0.058, minimum value − 0.025.
Fig. 2.4.4. Measured velocity at the free-field (V7) under a train speed of 145.1 km/h maximum value 0.026, minimum value − 0.053.
Fig. 2.4.5. Measured velocity at sleeper (V1) under a train speed of 335.1 km/h maximum value 1.866, minimum value − 1.419.
Fig. 2.4.6. Measured velocity at the embankment (V3) under a train speed of 335.1 km/h maximum value 0.245, minimum value − 0.348.
Fig. 2.4.7. Measured velocity at the free-field (V8) under a train speed of 335.1 km/h maximum value 0.020, minimum value − 0.031.
In order to validate the correctness of the theoretical model proposed in the previous section, the comparison between the calculated and
measured velocity at the sleeper (V1) under a train speed of 145.1 km/h and 335.1 km/h is shown in Figs. 2.4.8 and 2.4.9, respectively. It is
shown that the calculated and measured results agreed well.

Fig. 2.4.8. Comparison between the calculated and measured velocity at the sleeper (V1) under a train speed of 145.1 km/h.
Fig. 2.4.9. Comparison between the calculated and measured velocity at the sleeper (V1) under a train speed of 335.1 km/h.
Based on the in situ test results, the following results were obtained:
(1) The velocity of the track was intensified significantly as the train speed increased; the velocity amplitude of the track at 350 km/h was
about two times what it was at 120 km/h.
(2) The vibration decayed rapidly along the transverse direction; the vibration velocity at the free-field was significantly smaller than that at
the sleeper of the track.
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Mitigation Measures for Rolling Noise

7.4.6 Ballastless track forms

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CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF WHEEL LOAD VARIATION ON THE HIGH

5 DEVELOPMENT OF IMPROVED TRACK STRUCTURE WITH BALLAST, USED IN THE

In order to avoid a very large wheel load:

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5.2 Test Result of Proposed Structure

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Fig. 15. Vertical Displacement of Rail

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THE MECHANICS OF RAIL FASTENERS FOR CONCRETE SLAB

2 VERTICAL ELASTICITY OF FASTENERS

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Type of BR LTE NS NS SNCF CFF BRDL BRDL BRCT B on C (Ballast on

K″ MN/m 90 135 111 76 75 153 111 90

R/P 0.504 0.549 0.462 0.407 0.374 0.514 0.462 0.430

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Fig. 2.1. Pulsator for Testing the NS Fastenings

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Fig. 2.2. Pulsator for Testing LTB Experimental Fastenings

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Fig. 2.3. Pulsator for Testing DB Fastenings for Underground Lines

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Fig. 2.4. “Sonneville” Direct-Fastening System Using Special Shoe

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Fig. 2.5. “Monaco” Direct–Fastening System

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Fig. 3.1. Rail Deﬂection Under Dynamic Loading

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Fig. 3.2. Rail Inclination Under Dynamic Loading

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Fig. 3.3. Gauge Widening Under Dynamic Loads

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Fig. 4. Continuous Support - British Railways

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Fig. 5. Continuous Rail Support - Dutch Experiment

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Fig. 6. Deﬂections Under Bogie

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Fig. 7. Eﬀects of Grade Change and Wheel Load

13.6.4 Booted sleepers

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FIGURE 13-19. Arrangement of booted sleepers in slab track

Adhesives and Sealants

6.8.13 Rail Fastening

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Figure 115. Single support fastening on a bridge (Inselbrücke, Stuttgart, Germany).

Continuous rail bonding

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Figure 116. Application with 2C-pump device at construction place.

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3.1.1 Track structure

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Dynamic Analysis of High-Speed Railway Curves

4.1.1.1 The Law of Ideal Track Geometry

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