International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmactool

Predictive force model for ball-end milling and experimental

validation with a wavelike form machining test
M. Fontaine*, A. Devillez, A. Moufki, D. Dudzinski
Laboratoire de Physique et Mécanique des Matériaux, UMR CNRS 7554, ISGMP, Université de Metz, Ile du Saulcy, 57045 Metz, France

Received 20 December 2004; accepted 13 May 2005

Available online 1 August 2005

Abstract
This paper presents a predictive force model for ball-end milling based on thermomechanical modelling of oblique cutting. The tool
geometry is decomposed into a series of axial elementary cutting edges. At any active tooth element, the chip formation is obtained from an
oblique cutting process characterised by local undeformed chip section and local cutting angles. This method predicts accurately the cutting
force distribution on the helical ball-end mill flutes from the tool geometry, the pre-form surface, the tool path, the cutting conditions, the
material behaviour and the friction at the tool-chip interface. The model is applied for a complex surface which is a wavelike form used as a
validation machining test. The results are compared with experimental data obtained from ball-end milling tests performed on a 3-axis CNC
equipped with a Kistler dynamometer.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cutting forces; Ball-end milling; Tool run-out; Thermomechanical modelling; Oblique cutting; Complex surface; Wavelike form; Validation test

1. Introduction used in the computation of the cutting forces acting on

The prediction of cutting forces in machining is essential
to enhance NC codes and then contributing to improve
reliability, accuracy and productivity in CNC machining. In
fact, it may give information about cutter deflection,
machine tool chatter, tool wear and breakage, and then
tool life and surface integrity can be optimised in selecting
appropriate cutting conditions. Modelling of cutting
operations is the focus of many research programs to follow
the development of High Speed Machining and to go
towards simulation of machining processes. The purpose of
this work is to develop a cutting force model for ball-end
milling process. This process is used extensively in the
manufacturing of free form surfaces such as dies, moulds
and many aerospace components.
The mechanistic approach is often used for the modelling
of ball-end milling. This approach has demonstrated that
orthogonal or oblique cutting force data may be successfully
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fontaine@lpmm.univ-metz.fr (M. Fontaine).
0890-6955/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2005.05.011
the tool. Several published works proposed accurate
solutions to calculate forces distribution on rigid cutters
[1–4] or on flexible cutters [5–7]. Afterwards, these classical
models were extended to the case of curved or complex
surfaces [8–16]. All these models are efficient to study tool
deflection, chatter vibrations, surface errors, tool run-out
and cutting conditions optimisation. However, they are
dependent on empirical laws giving the cutting force
coefficients necessary to perform the calculations. These
cutting force coefficients are obtained by fastidious and
expensive experiments, orthogonal or oblique turning tests
or directly milling tests, with varying cutting conditions.
The purpose of this work is to present an original and
predictive model using the oblique cutting approach
proposed by Moufki, Dudzinski and Molinari [17–19]. In
this model, the cutting forces calculation is achieved by
introducing the thermomechanical behaviour of the work-
piece material and the tool-chip interface friction charac-
teristics. In the same way as that in a mechanistic approach,
the ball-end milling operation is supposed carried out by a
series of infinitesimal cutting edge elements. Each elemen-
tary straight line cutting element is machining the work-
piece material in oblique conditions depending of
its position on the tool’s cutting edge. In other words,
368 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380

the ball-end milling process is constructed as an aggregation surface which consists of a cylindrical surface with a radius
of oblique cuts. R0 and a hemisphere surface with the same radius R0. Each
The obtained model is applied to ball-end milling on cutting edge is considered as a helix with a constant lead, the
a 3-axis machine. The tool inclination in regard of helix angle on the cylindrical part of the tool is noted i0.
main machine axis is then not considered here but For a point with positive altitude z, the cutter radius in the
the proposed approach may be easily adapted for more (x, y) plane at this point is:
complex machining configuration. The case of sculptured pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
surface machining is treated by introducing a wavelike form If z% R0 : RðzÞ Z R20 K ðR0 K zÞ2
(1)
machining test which is very useful to validate a complete If zO R0 : RðzÞ Z R0
process modelling and to obtain information about the tool
response for variable cutting conditions (in terms of surface The local point P, on the cutting edge referenced j at
inclination and axial depth of cut). height z, is located by its angular position jj(z) mesured
Finally, to validate the modelling, the predicted forces positively from the y-axis and defined by:
are compared with measured forces during the chosen ball- 2p
end milling operation on a 42CrMo4 steel, for which jj ðzÞ Z q K Dj C ðj K 1Þ (2)
Nt
material characteristics such as strain hardening, strain rate
sensitivity and thermal softening are known. where Nt is the number of teeth (cutting edges) and q is the
rotation angle of the mill also measured positively from the
y-axis around the z-axis. Dj is the lag angle between the tool
tip (zZ0) and a point on the helical flute at height z. For a
2. Geometry of the ball-end mill
constant lead length, it is obtained from:
z z
2.1. Global geometry Dj Z tan i0 Z tan iðzÞ (3)
R0 RðzÞ
The global geometry of the ball-end mill is described in In this case, the local helix angle i(z) is defined by:
Fig. 1(a). The mill parameters are defined in a Local  
Coordinate System (x, y, z) (noted LCS) linked to the tool tip RðzÞ
iðzÞ Z tanK1 tan i0 (4)
or tool end E. The cutting edges lie on the tool envelope R0

(b) dFr
κ
P' E t er dFψ
z
P eψ
x n eκ
dFx x
P C
θ ∆ψ
dFy dFκ
y ψ y
dF z ψ

(a)

z
ω
z
Pn
i0 R0 αn
(c)
λS
C dz
n = -er
P' Ps t
z eψ P
V dw eκ λS
E R( z )
x dFψ
dFκ
dFr

Fig. 1. Geometry of the ball-end mill. (a) Global geometry, (b) local geometry, (c) elementary cutting edge.
 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380
For ball-end mills, a constant lead length is more
common than a constant local helix angle. The constant
lead, which implies a variable helix angle along the flute, is
preferred by the cutter grinders to save material during re-
grinding operation. However, cutting mechanisms are more
uniform with constant helix cutters, which require varying
lead [20]. These two cases are approximations because of
re-grinding and compensation operations used to optimise
the tool design [21], then the real geometry is difficult to
obtain from tool manufacturers. A more accurate represen-
tation of the helical cutting edge profile on the ball-end part
can be used for specific tools from measuring points along
the cutting edge and fitting this data by a polynomial
function [3,11,14,22]. Nevertheless, it is fastidious to re-
calculate the real cutting edge geometry for each new tool.
The presented approximation with a constant lead length
gives a good correlation with the mills used in the
experimental validation.
2.2. Local geometry
The engaged cutting edges are decomposed into a series
of linear elementary cutting edges corresponding to the
axial increment dz, Fig. 1(a). For a current point P at height
z, the local unit base vectors er, ek, ej are introduced,
associated to the spherical coordinates (R0, k, j) of this
point, Fig. 1(b). They are in the radial direction and in
transverse directions of increasing j and increasing k
respectively. The angle k is function of height z:
 
K1 R0 K z
If 0% z% R0 : k Z cos
R0 (5)
p recent works [14,16,22]. In the plane (X, Z), the final
If zO R0 : kZ
2 machined surface is composed of two circle arcs with a
The elementary cutting edge at point P is drawn in the
tangent plane Ps defined by the unit vectors ek and ej at P,
Fig. 1(c). The local cutting velocity vector is collinear to the
direction of ej and the local cutting edge inclination angle ls
is the angle, measured in the tangent plane Ps, between the
elementary cutting edge and the normal direction to the
cutting velocity vector, it is given by:
sin ls tan ls
tan i Z Z 5 ls Z tanK1 ðtan i sin kÞ
cos ls sin k sin k
The local normal rake angle an, measured in the plane Pn
normal to the elementary cutting edge, is defined constant.
The elementary width of cut dw is:
dz
dw Z
sin k
The local cutting velocity V is simply calculated from:
V Z u RðzP Þ
with u the spindle frequency in rad/s and R the radius of the
mill at height zP, Eq. (1).
369
3. Geometry of the wavelike form machining test
3.1. Description of workpiece surface
The initial pre-form surface, or uncut surface, is here a
plane normal to the vertical machine Z-axis. The tool z-axis
and the machine Z-axis are merged (3-axis milling
configuration). In this first approach, the mill is assumed
to be rigid (no deflection occurs). The reference point of the
Global Coordinate System (GCS) is taken at the intersection
of three solid planes at a corner of the workpiece, point O in
Fig. 2. The Local Coordinate System (LCS) associated to
the tool is fixed at the tool tip E, Figs. 1 and 2(a, b).
Two inclination angles could be add between LCS and
GCS, in particular, a tool-surface inclination could be
imposed by the part design or imposed during machining to
limit cutting forces, avoid chatter or enhance surface finish
[4,10,23]. This inclination is typically constant on a 3-axis
milling machine but may vary with more degrees of freedom
available. The influence of the inclination angles of the tool
or of the workpiece in the Global Coordinate System on the
cutting forces are studied in parallel works. The purpose of
this paper is only to test and validate a cutting force model
for non-linear tool paths.
The local altitudes of pre-form and post-form surfaces
can be calculated for a complex shape by an analytical
relation (polynomial, canonical, NURBS) or by a discrete
representation (Z-Map, Z-Displacement Vectors). It is
chosen here to define analytically the initial and final
surfaces in order to simplify computing calculations.
The chosen machined surface is shown in Fig. 2(c), it is
comparable with those presented by several authors in
same radius RS, one concave and the other convex. The
difference of altitude DZ with the initial form varies
between a maximum in the concave arc and a minimum
in the convex one, noted respectively DZmax and DZmin.
These extreme values correspond to the extreme axial depth
of cut that occurs along the given tool path. The same value
of DZ is chosen at the entry, at the middle and the exit of the
workpiece. It is noted DZ0 and verifies the following
relation:
(6)
DZ0 Z ðDZmax C DZmin Þ=2 (9)
RS can be calculated from:
ðL0 =4Þ2 C ðDZmax K DZ0 Þ2
RS Z (10)
2ðDZmax K DZ0 Þ
(7)
where L0 is the workpiece length on the X-axis.
(8) 3.2. Description of tool path
The tool path is here defined by the movement of a
fixed point of the mill: the ball part centre C. The contact
370 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380

Fig. 2. Wavelike form machining test for 3-axis ball-end milling. (a) Machined workpiece, (b) geometrical representation, (c) pre-form and post-form surfaces
definition, (d) path of tool ball centre C.

point between the tool envelope and the specific post- If X1–2%XC%L0 then:
form surface has to be considered to respect geometrical qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
tolerances. The chosen reference tool path is shown in ZC ðXC Þ Z H0 K RS K DZmin C R2C2 K ð3L0 =4 K XC Þ2
Fig. 2(d). In the plane (X, Z), it is also composed of two (15)
circle arcs with adapted radius RC1 and RC2 centred
respectively in C1 and C2. This radius values are where XC and ZC are the coordinates of point C in the GCS,
deducted from RS by: H0 and L0 the initial dimensions of the workpiece
respectively on X and Z-axis, Rs the radius of circle arcs
RC1 Z RS K R0 (11) describing the post-form surface, RC1 and RC2 the radii of
the circle arcs centred at C1 and C2, respectively, and DZmax
and DZmin the extreme values of axial depth of cut.
RC2 Z RS C R0 (12) The feed vector per tool revolution noted f has a constant
modulus but varies continuously in direction in order to
where R0 is the radius of the mill ball part.
homogenise the cutting conditions along the tool path. The
The change of reference tool path between circle arc 1
feed per tooth vector ft is deduced from the feed vector, it has
and circle arc 2 is not located at L0/2, its position, noted X1–2
the same direction and its modulus is:
on Fig. 2(d), is calculated from:
  ft Z f =Nt (16)
L0 R0
X1–2 Z 2K (13) where f is the modulus of feed vector f and Nt the number of
4 RS
teeth of the mill.
The altitude of point C in GCS can be defined by: The feed per tooth vector ft is projected on the three axes of
If 0RXC%X1–2 then: the GCS and decomposed in three feed components noted ftx,
fty and ftz, Fig. 3. In our application, the resultant feed direction
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ZC ðXC Þ Z H0 C RS K DZmax K R2C1 K ðL0 =4 K XC Þ2 is only in the plane (X, Z), then the component fty is zero.
The feed per tooth vector makes a variable angle fz with
(14) the X-axis. This feed inclination is due to the tool trajectory
 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380 371

y
Previous tool Current point on
position the cutting edge

f tx P

Current position ∆p
of the mill at Z = ZP
Rp

Cp
Tool position on
previous path for XC = XP

Y
XP
Fig. 3. Axial depth of cut, decomposition of feed per tooth and undeformed
chip thickness t0 for a point P in (x, z) plane. X
Fig. 4. Relative position of current point P with previous tool positions in
the horizontal plane for (ZZZp).
and can be calculated from the inclination of the tangential
line to the tool path:
If 0%XC%X1–2 then:
   – the relative position of the workpiece uncut
L surfaces along the three axes and specifically on
4z Z sinK1 XC K 0 =RC1 (17)
4 Z-axis (upper initial or pre-form surface), Fig. 3,
– the previous tool path considered without any tool
If X1–2%XC%L0 then: deflection and with perfect surface finish, Fig. 4,
  
3L0 – and the path of the previous tooth which is defined
4z Z sin K1
K XC =RC2 (18) as a circle with the Martelloti’s equation
4
approximation [24], Fig. 4.
The angle fz can present negative values in case of
downward ramping. The position of point P is obtained by:
The feed components ftx and ftz can be expressed as: 0 1 0 1
Xp XC C x P
ftx Z ft cos 4z (19) B C B C
@ YP A Z @ YC C yP A (21)
ftz Z ft sin 4z (20) ZP GCS ZC K R0 C zP
with
0 1 0 1
xP RðzÞsinðjj ðzÞÞ
@ yP A B C
Z @ RðzÞcosðjj ðzÞÞ A (22)
4. Cutting force model
zP LCS z
4.1. Tool engagement determination where XC, YC and ZC are the coordinates of point C in GCS,
R(z) and jj(z) the radius and angular position at altitude z in
At any time or angular position of mill, each point LCS.
considered along each cutting edge is localised in the GCS Five conditions are necessary to check the engagement of
(X, Y, Z). To define if a current point P of a cutting edge is in the elementary cutting edge into the workpiece material:
working conditions, its relative position with the pre-form The length L0 and the width W0 of the initial workpiece
workpiece surface has to be determined. For each current on X and Y-axis respectively give simple conditions on local
point P, it is necessary to check: tool engagement. P is in cutting position (in GCS) if:
372 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380

Conditions 1 and 2:
0! XP ! L0 and 0! YP ! W0
The local altitude of uncut surface can be calculated for a
complex shape by an analytical relation or by a discrete
representation (Z-Map [4], Z-Displacement Vectors [11],
piece and tool meshing [14]). Here, to simplify calculation,
the pre-form surface is a plane corresponding to a roughing
or direct semi-finishing operation. Hence, the local altitude
of the uncut surface is directly obtained in the GCS from the
initial workpiece height H0:
Condition 3:
P is in cutting position ðin GCSÞ if 0! ZP ! H0
Another method is to compare the position of point P in
the LCS with the axial depth of cut da, Fig. 3:
Condition 3 0 :
where ftx and ftz are the projections of the instantaneous feed
per tooth ft respectively on the x and z-axis, Eqs. (19) and
(23)
(20).
A modified Martelloti’s equation is obtained; it takes into
account of the position along the cutting edge and the two
components of the feed. The sign of t0 has to be checked to
determine the position of current point P beside the previous
tooth path:
Condition 5:
P is in cutting condition if t0 O 0 (32)
If these five conditions are all verified, the elementary
(24) cutting edge defined at point P is considered engage in the
workpiece material.
4.2. Tool run-out

P is in cutting position ðin LCSÞ if zP ! da (25)
with
da Z H0 K ZC C R0 (26)
The actual position of the tool in the plane (X, Y) containing
the point P is also compared with the previous tool path, more
precisely, with the tool position on the previous tool path when
its axis was at the coordinate XP, Fig. 4. The point of this axis at
altitude ZZZP is noted CP. A condition is obtained by
comparing the modulus of vector PCp (vector from P to Cp,
Fig. 4) with the radius of the previous path mill RP:
Condition 4:
P is in cutting position if kPCP kO RP (27)
with
kPCP k Z jDp C yP j (28)
where Dp is the path interval (distance between two tool
paths on Y-axis), and
RP Z R½zP C ZC ðXC Þ K ZC ðXP Þ (29)
From Eqs. (1), (14) and (15).
The current position of the point considered has to be
compared with the path of the previous tooth to define if it is
inside or outside the pre-cut region. The path of the previous
cutting point is assumed to be a circle in the plane (x, y) at
the altitude zP as shown in Fig. 4. This Martelloti’s
approximation [24] gives a simplified relation for the
calculation of the undeformed chip thickness t0 on the
cylindrical part of the mill (zPRR0):
t0 Z ftx sin jj (30)
On the ball part of the mill (0%zP%R0), this value is
obtained by a scalar product between the total feed vector ft
and the vector er normal to the tool envelope at point P [25],
Fig. 3:
t0 Z f t $er Z ftx sin k sinjj K ftz cos k (31)
The previous equations and conditions describe a rigid
and stable process where no deflection and no vibration
occur. These disruptive factors are easily avoidable by
limiting and controlling the cutting conditions and by
choosing stiff tools and tool-holders. But there is another
problem which is difficult to control: the tool run-out. In
milling, this geometrical default can be due to tool itself
(wear, asymmetry, insert setting, dynamic imbalance and
thermal deformation) but it is mainly due to the offset
between the position of the tool rotation axis and the spindle
rotation axis. The consequence is a tool rotation around the
spindle axis with an eccentricity. This eccentricity modifies
the tool engagement and the local cutting conditions
(cutting velocity and angles). Then, the run-out has a direct
effect on the cutting forces level and variation. It depends on
the geometrical quality of the spindle and tool holder. Its
effect is particularly significant when the undeformed chip
thickness t0 reaches small values. In this case, one or several
cutting edges may cut no material. The tool run-out has to be
considered first for the modelling of machining defaults in
milling operations because of its large influence on cutting
forces and surface quality. An accurate modelling permits to
take into consideration all existing machine configurations
and propose fault diagnosis [26] and compensation methods
as variation of feed rate [16,27].
The tool run-out due to spindle/tool offset can be divided
into an axis tilt and a centre offset. The axial run-out due to
axis tilt is usually taken into account for face-milling
operations where the surface roughness is very sensitive to
the insert cutters location and where the large values of tool
diameter increase its influence. In the case of ball-end
milling operations, the limited tool diameter and the round
form of the tool allows to neglect this axis tilt if the tool
length is limited.
The radial run-out due to centre offset is always modelled
by a parallel axis eccentricity and a lag angle from the first
tooth position, noted respectively e and je on Fig. 5(a). For
a ball-end mill, this locating angle je has to be considered
 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380 373

On the ball part of the mill (0%zP%R0), if the

(a) eccentricity e is smaller than the feed per tooth ft, the value
of undeformed chip thickness can be obtained by the
following scalar product:
t0 Z ðf t C e K ejK1 Þ$er Z f t $er C ðe K ejK1 Þ$er (35)
e ∆ψ
where ft is the feed per tooth vector with its components
CR e P defined by Eqs. (19) and (20), er the vector normal to the
tool envelope at point P, e the eccentricity vector for the
z x position considered and ejK1 the eccentricity vector when
Cm ψe the previous tooth was in the same angular position at the
previous position of the mill. These two vectors are defined
by:
e Z e sin q x C e cos q y;
θ (36)
ejC1 Z e sinðq K 2p=Nt Þ x C e cosðq K 2p=Nt Þ y
θ
The equivalent radius Re of the cutter at point P (radial
y distance of point P from the rotation axis) is calculated to
determine the value of cutting velocity V, Fig. 5(b). From
(b) the projection of point P on the direction of vector e, noted
CR P 0 , the following relation can be found:
x sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
2p
Re(zP) Re ðzP ÞZ RðzP Þ2 Ce2 C2eRðzP Þcos je KDjCðjK1Þ
e Nt
R(zP)
(37)
Cm P
ψ e − ∆ψ The local cutting velocity is then calculated with:
θ VZu Re ðzP Þ (38)
y The cutting speed direction varies too and the local
angles an (normal rake angle) and ls (edge inclination
angle) slightly change. All these angle variations have no
P' significant effect on global forces and then are neglected in
this approach.
Fig. 5. Radial run-out parameters. (a) Radial run-out description,
(b) equivalent radius Re(zP) of the mill at point P.
4.3. Thermomechanical oblique cutting model

from the first cutting edge inclination at the tool tip. Cm(zP) For application to ball-end milling modelling, the main
is the centre of the mill at altitude zP and CR(zP) is the and useful equations of the thermomechanical oblique
projection of point Cm(zP) on z-axis which is the spindle cutting model [18,19] are reminded and summarised.
rotation axis. The vector formed between these two points For an elementary cutting edge, the chip element is
from CR(zP) to Cm(zP) is the eccentricity vector and is noted obtained under oblique cutting conditions, Fig. 6(a). The
e. The reference angular position of the spindle (qZ08) is primary shear zone is modelled as a shear band of constant
taken with the eccentricity vector e collinear to the y-axis. thickness h, as shown in Fig. 6(b). The strain due to the other
The angular position jj(zP) of point P on the cutting edge deformation zones is neglected.
j at height zP is now referenced by: The normal shear angle fn is assumed to be given by a
2p modified Merchant law:
jj ðzP Þ Z ðq C je Þ K Dj C ðj K 1Þ (33)
Nt fn Z A1 C A2 ðan K lf Þ (39)
The position of point P in LCS is now defined by: with
0 1 0 1
xP RðzÞsinðjj Þ C e sin q lf Z tanK1 ðmf Þ (40)
@ yP A B C
Z @ RðzÞcosðjj Þ C e cos q A (34)
where lf is the mean friction angle at the tool-chip interface
zP LCS z and mf the mean friction coefficient taken as an average
374 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380

where t, g, g_ and T represent respectively the shear stress, the

shear strain, the shear strain rate and the absolute temperature.
The characteristics of material behaviour are the strain
hardening exponent n, the strain rate sensitivity coefficient
m, the thermal softening exponent n and constants A and B, g_ 0 ,
Tr (reference temperature) and Tm (melting temperature).
The strain rate can be extracted from the constitutive law
(43) and written as:
 pffiffiffi 
t 3 1
_ t0 Þ Z g_ 0 exp
g_ Z gðg; K (44)
mg1 ðgÞg2 ðTÞ m
  n    
g T K Tr n
g1 ðgÞ Z A C B pffiffiffi ; g2 ðTÞ Z 1 K
3 Tm K Tr
(45)
The shear strain rate g_ corresponds to the material
derivative of the shear strain g. The material flow through
the band is supposed stationary and depending only on one
dimension: the coordinate zs, Fig. 6(b). Then it is obtained
_
for the strain rate g:
dg _ t0 Þ
gðg;
Z (46)
dzs V cos ls sin fn
From considering that the deformation in the chip is
limited to the band, the shear strain at the entry of the shear
band (zsZ0) is equal to zero:
g0 Z 0 (47)

Fig. 6. Elementary cutting edge and chip formation. (a) Direction of chip
At the outflow (zsZh), there is an additional boundary
flow (zfl) on the rake face and elementary cutting forces, (b) shear band condition:
parameters in plane (Pn).  
1 cos an
gh Z (48)
value in this study. A1 and A2 are constants depending on the cos hs sin fn cosðfn K an Þ
workpiece material. Equations of motion are reduced to a single relation:
The chip flow angle hc on the tool rake face, Fig. 6(a), is
given by the oblique cutting model with the assumption that dt
Z rV cos ls sin fn g_ (49)
the frictional force and the chip flow directions are collinear. dzs
It is calculated from the following implicit equation: with relation (46) and after integration, that leads to:
2
cosðfn Kan Þsin fn sin hc Ktan ls cos ðfn Kan Þcos hc t Z tðg; t0 Þ Z rðV cos ls sin fn Þ2 g C t0 (50)
Cðcos an Ksinðfn Kan Þsin fn Þtan lf sin hc cos hc where t represents the stress distribution in the primary
Ctan lf tan ls sinðfn Kan Þcosðfn Kan Þcos2 hc Z0 ð41Þ shear band, r the material density, V the cutting velocity, ls
the edge inclination angle, fn the normal shear angle, g
The angle hs characteristic of the shear direction in the the shear strain in the band and t0 the stress at the entry
primary shear plane is determined by: of the band.
  The integrated form of Eq. (46) and the boundary
K1 tan hc sin fn Ktan ls cosðfn Kan Þ
hs Z tan (42) conditions (47) and (48) are used to determine the stress t0
cos an
at the entry of the band (for zsZ0):
Theworkpiecematerialissupposedtobeisotropicandrigid ð gh
V cos ls sin fn
(elastic deformations neglected). The thermomechanical dg K h Z 0 (51)
0 _ t0 Þ
gðg;
response is described by the following Johnson-Cook law:
  n      A non-linear equation is obtained, with Eqs. (44), (45)
1 g g_ T KTr n
tZ pffiffiffi ACB pffiffiffi 1Cmln 1K and (50), the only unknown parameter is the shear stress t0.
3 3 g_ 0 Tm KTr The last important relation for the material flow through
(43) the band is given by the conservation of energy written with
 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380 375

the assumption of adiabatic shearing: represented on Figs. 1 and 6(a), are obtained by:
0 1 0 1
dFx ðq; z; jÞ sin jj sin k sin jj cos k cos jj
dT B C B C
rcV cos ls sin fn Z btg_ (52) B dFy ðq; z; jÞ C ZB cos jj sin k cos jj cos k Ksin jj C
@ A @ A
dzs
dFz ðq; z; jÞ Kcos k sin k 0
0 1
dFr ðq; z; jÞ
The first term corresponds to the material derivative of
B C
absolute temperature T in the band, r and c are respectively !B C
@ dFk ðq; z; jÞ A ð56Þ
the material density and its heat capacity. The second term
assumes that the fraction b (Taylor–Quinney coefficient) of dFj ðq; z; jÞ
plastic work is converted into heat. Using the previous They are summed for each edge j of the elementary disk
relations (46) and (50), it is obtained: considered:
0 1
  XNt

b g2 B dFx ðq; z; jÞ C
T Z Tðg; t0 Þ Z Tw C rðV cos ls sin fn Þ2 C t0 g 0 1 B B jZ1
C
C
rc 2 dFx ðq; zÞ BX Nt C
(53) B C B B
C
dFy ðq; z; jÞ C
@ dFy ðq; zÞ A Z B C (57)
B jZ1 C
dFz ðq; zÞ B N C
BX t C
where Tw is the absolute temperature in the workpiece @ dF ðq; z; jÞ A
z
before cutting. jZ1
The elementary cutting forces dFr, dFk and dFj
and summed for each elementary disk of the engaged length
represented on Fig. 6(a) correspond respectively to the
of the mill (axial depth of cut da) in order to obtain the
thrust force, the lateral force and the cutting force applied to
instantaneous forces on the whole cutter function of mill
the elementary cutting edge at point P in the (er, ek, ej)
angular position q:
frame. Their values on corresponding axes are evaluated
0 da 1
from the equilibrium of the forces applied to the elementary ð
chip after the outflow of the primary shear zone: B dFx ðq; zÞ C
B C
B C
0 1 B z¼0 C
Fx ðqÞ B dða C
dFr Z KdFs cos hs sin fn K Ns cos fn ; B C B
B C
C
@ Fy ðqÞ A Z B dFy ðq; zÞ C (58)
dFk Z dFs cos hs ½tan hs cos ls C cos fn sin ls  B C
Fz ðqÞ B C
B z¼0 C
B dða C
K dNs sin fn sin ls ; (54) B C
@ dF ðq; zÞ A
z
dFj Z KdFs cos hs ½tan hs sin ls K cos fn cos ls  z¼0

K dNs sin fn cos ls

5. Experimental validation

where dFs is the elementary shear force value on xs-axis 5.1. Experimental setup
(Fig. 6(c)), and dNs the elementary normal force value on
zs-axis (Fig. 6(a)), at the exit of the primary shear zone: A large number of cutting tests were performed without
lubricant on a vertical 3-axis milling machine to validate the
proposed modeling of ball-end milling. The cutting tests
t0 dw
dFs Z K t ; were conducted on a 42CrMo4 steel (equivalent to AISI
cos ls sin fn h 4142). It has the following chemical composition, in
(55)
tanðfn K an Þ C tan lf cos hc addition of iron (%mass):
dNs Z cos hs dFs C(0.425), Cr (1.180), Mn (0.749), Si (0.266), Ni (0.232),
tan lf cos hc tanðfn K an Þ K 1
Cu (0.227), Mo (0.154), S (0.029), Al (0.027), As (0.022), P
(0.016), N (0.008), Ti (0.005).
where th is the shear stress at the exit of the band given by A Kistler six-components dynamometer (model 9265B)
Eq. (50) for gZgh. has been used to measure cutting forces. The output signals
Finally, the elementary oblique force components dFr, were recorded and stocked on a PC Dewetron console
dFk and dFj are projected on the LCS axes corresponding through a height-channel Kistler charge amplifier.
here to the machine or table axes. The elementary values of A two fluted uncoated ball-end mill (referenced 51221)
cutting forces dFx, dFy and dFz (in LCS or CGS) as from Diager-Industrie company with a nominal diameter of
376 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380
Fig. 7. Wavelike tests on a specific workpiece device. (a) Slotting: DpZ
12 mm, (b) roughing: DpZ3 mm.
12 mm, a nominal helix angle of 178 and a normal rake
angle of 08 on ball part was used in the experiments.
R0Z6 mm; i0Z178; anZ08.
The workpieces were parallelepipeds with a height H0 of
20 mm, a length L0 and a width W0 of 50 mm, Fig. 7. The
wavelike form machining validation test was defined by the
surface topography presented in Fig. 2 with DZmaxZ3 mm
and DZminZ0.2 mm corresponding to typical depths of cut in
roughing and finishing operations respectively. In this view,
the results presented below give some information about
cutting force levels that can occur in such typical operations.
From these values and by using Eqs. (6)–(9), it is obtained the
additional values DZ0Z1.6 mm, RSZ56.5 mm, RC1Z
50.5 mm and RC2Z62.5 mm, characterising the machined
surface. The experiments were performed with three values
of spindle frequency: UZ2653, 3980 and 5000 rpm, and four
different values of feed rate: ftZ0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2 mm/tooth
and per revolution. Slot tests were first conducted, Fig. 7(a),
then successive tool paths through the workpiece were
carried out with several values of the path interval DpZ6 and
3 mm (roughing), Fig. 7(b), 1.5 mm (direct semi-finishing),
and 0.6 mm (direct finishing). In each case, up-milling and
down-milling were tested.
The tool run-out was measured with a dial indicator fixed
on the machine table and touching the cylindrical part of the
mill. The eccentricity value e is obtained by dividing
the measured lag value on a tool revolution by two, and the
locating angle is observed from the mill angular position
corresponding to the maximum measured value of
eccentricity.
5.2. Model parameters
The shear angle was obtained by using coefficients which
are, for this material, closely the same than those proposed
by Merchant: A1Z408; A2Z0.5.
The main friction coefficient was here an average value
determined from those identified in works of Moufki et al.
[28]. It depends mainly on the cutting and feed speeds. For
example, for fZ0.1 mm/tooth:
mfZ1.11 (lfZ488) for UZ2653 rev/min
mfZ1 (lfZ458) for UZ3980 rev/min
mfZ0.90 (lfZ428) for UZ5000 rev/min
The friction coefficient value can be superior to 1
because it reflects coupled phenomena appearing at the tool-
chip interface (seizure and sliding with plastic shearing).
These values are approximations but the model could be
used in an enhanced form with the introduction of a
temperature dependant friction law [19] to enhance the
model accuracy and study the temperature distribution
along the cutting edge. Here, an average value gives good
results for cutting forces prediction.
In a previous work [29], quasi-static and high strain rate
compression tests were conducted on a 42CrMo4 steel over
the strain rate range 10K3 to 104 sK1 and at temperatures
from room temperature to 700 8C. The flow stress data of
these tests were used to determine the parameters of the
Johnson–Cook constitutive law (43):
AZ612 MPa; BZ436 MPa; g_ 0 Z0.001 sK1;
nZ0.15; mZ0.008; nZ1.46;
TrZTwZ293 K; TmZ1793 K.
The other useful material parameters are:
rZ7800 kg/m3; cZ500 J/(kg K), bZ0.9.
The primary shear zone thickness is taken as hZ0.025 mm
which is a typical value found in works of Shaw [30].
6. Results
The results presented here correspond to a slotting test in
up-milling, Figs. 8 and 9, and a roughing test conducted in
up-milling too, Fig. 10, but all the stable signals were
checked.
6.1. Experimental cutting forces
The signals were recorded for all the length of the
workpiece [11] and the voltage/time signals were trans-
formed into force/rotation angle ones [22]. The signals on X-
axis are lightly low-pass filtered at 360 Hz (slotting test) and
540 Hz (roughing test) to suppress some accelerometer noise
due to vibration. This axis is more sensible to vibration
 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380
Fig. 8. Measured and predicted cutting force Fx for slotting and tool run-out influence. UZ2653 rev/min, ftZ0.1 mm/tooth, DpZ12 mm, eZ0.01 mm, jeZ08.
(a) Global force envelope, (b) zoom for daZ3 mm.
because of cutting configuration and because it is the main
axis of the piezoelectric sensors which tends to present a
typical accelerometer response when frequency grows up.
6.2. Simulated cutting forces
The program was all executed with Fortran 8.5 on a PC with
a 2.6 GHz single processor. The computation time is less than
3 min (slotting) and 2 min (roughing) for calculation
increments on q and z as dqZ108 and dzZ0.1 mm.
7. Discussion
7.1. Influence of tool run-out
The Fig. 8 shows measured and predicted cutting force
Fx (main feed direction) without and with run-out
377
simulation for the slot cutting test at cutting speed of
2653 rpm and with a feed rate of 0.1 mm per tooth. Fig. 8(a)
corresponds to the complete wavelike form machining test
(a full simple path), Fig. 8(b) gives the measured and
predicted force Fx only for five revolutions of the mill
during the test and corresponding to an axial depth of cut
daZ3 mm. More precisely, the first Fig. 8(b) gives the
cutting force on each tooth and during these five revolutions.
It can be observed that the difference of cutting force level
between the two teeth of the mill is regular and important. In
fact, at each mill rotation, one tooth is more engaged in the
workpiece than the other and that leads to higher local
cutting forces. It can be determined a ratio of about 30% on
force levels between the two teeth. The two other Fig. 8(b)
show that it is essential to take into account of tool run-out
in the ball-end milling model. With run-out simulation, the
force evolution predicted by the model is very closed to the
measured one. In the same way, for the full slotting test,
378 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380
Fig. 9. Measured and predicted cutting forces Fy and Fz for slotting. UZ2653 rev/min, ftZ0.1 mm/tooth, DpZ12 mm, eZ0.01 mm, jeZ08.
Fig. 8(a), modelling radial tool run-out reduces significantly
the discrepancy between predicted and measured forces, and
finally, the predicted global force envelope is very similar to
the measured one. A good correlation appears between
experimental and simulated cutting forces when radial run-
out is considered. The same observation can be made for the
other force components, Fig. 9, and tests with other cutting
conditions and successive tool paths with a smaller interval
Dp, Fig. 10. The shape of the envelope of measured and
predicted cutting forces is similar and the amplitude slightly
differs.
7.2. Shape of force envelope
The fast increase followed by a maximum peak at the
beginning of the cutting test represents clearly the entry of
the mill in the workpiece and it seems to be well
predicted by the model, Figs. 8–10. The fast decrease
followed by instabilities at the end of the machining test
due to the exit of the mill from the workpiece can be
observed too in both measured and calculated cutting
forces. The asymmetry between downward ramping
sequence and upward ramping sequence, for same values
of depth of cut, is retrieved too. However, it is more
pronounced on the measured signals.
7.3. Amplitude
The global force amplitude is well predicted for Fx and
Fy cutting force components, but a more important
amplitude offset appears on Fz (up to 30%), Figs. 8–10.
It is mainly due to the fact that the material flow which
occurs around the cutting edge is neglected in the modelling
approach, in particular, the cutting edge is supposed
perfectly sharp. The material flow and associated shearing
occurring at the clearance face lead to a ploughing force.
The ploughing force level becomes very significant around
the tool end when cutting velocity and undeformed chip
thickness tend to zero. These limit cutting conditions appear
at the tool tip and the resultant ploughing force value is high
in this region. The direction of this ploughing force is
mainly normal to the tool envelope (er-direction) and at the
tool tip, this direction is closed to be the z-direction. That is
why the force Fz is more affected by this phenomenon and
the predicted Fz values are lower than the measured ones.
For the same reason, the asymmetry between downward
ramping sequence and upward ramping sequence is more
evident on Fz measured curves. The explanation is that in
downward ramping configuration, the tool tip is widely used
and the resultant ploughing force increases. Hence, the
difference between measured and predicted forces is
proportional to the existing ploughing force.
This ploughing force can be added in the model by
introducing edge coefficients as in mechanistic approaches
[2], but in this case, the level of prediction decreases. The
ploughing effect can be limited by using a controlled tool-
workpiece inclination in 5-axis machining, for example.
Finally, according to the fact that its influence occurs mainly
on Fz force component, which is less important for tool
deflection, tool vibration calculation and then for surface
finish prediction, it was not taken into account of this effect
in our approach.
 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380
Fig. 10. Measured and predicted cutting forces for roughing. UZ3980 rev/min, ftZ0.1 mm/tooth, DpZ3 mm, eZ0.01 mm, jeZ208.
7.4. Influence of cutting conditions
The global forces level decreases with increase of cutting
velocity V tested values. In this context, higher values of V
tend to stabilise the process and signals. The difference
between measured and calculated forces tends to decrease
when V increases. The thermomechanical approach
adopted here gives better results at higher cutting speed
[19]. The feed rate variation affects proportionally the
cutting forces due to the variation of the undeformed chip
thickness t0. The tests corresponding to fZ0.05 mm/tooth,
not presented here, give unstable signals. The decrease of
the tool path interval Dp naturally reduces the cutting forces
values, Fig. 10, but the recorded signals for small values of
Dp (finishing operations) are often unstable and then
difficult to analyse. These signals could be compared with
an enhanced version of the model taken into account the tool
deflection and chatter vibrations calculated from cutting
forces for rigid case. Finally, the up cutting configuration
tends to stabilise the cutting process and the signals but the
379
down milling gives better surface finish, particularly for
small values of tool path interval Dp.
8. Conclusions
Ball-end milling is here modelled by using an analytical
approach of oblique cutting, applied for each active cutting
edge element. The tool engagement in the workpiece
material is defined by the relative position of this cutting
edge element with the initial workpiece dimensions, the
local altitude of uncut surface and the previous tool path.
This approach can be adapted for more complex surfaces
and tool paths by modifying the description of the machined
surface and the boundary conditions. A wavelike form
machining test was introduced and used to validate the
proposed model and to gather very complete information
about the process, the tool and material behaviour.
The obtained results give very good approximation for
the cutting forces and the main experimental tendencies are
380 M. Fontaine et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 367–380
retrieved. The modelling accuracy allows to analyse the
effect of different defaults as tool run-out or ploughing on
cutting force level. This model is useful to gain an
understanding of the cutting phenomena and to simulate
the machining process in order to enhance surface integrity,
tool life, stability and productivity by optimising cutting
conditions, tool path, tool-workpiece inclination and even
tool geometry.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank sincerely their colleagues
from the ENSAM of Metz (Ecole Nationale Supérieure
d’Arts et Métiers) and particularly Olivier Bomont for his
help in preparing and programming the experimental tests.
They also thank Lionel Schivre from their laboratory for his
response time and accuracy in manufacturing the workpiece
device and Florent Gaillard from Diager-Industrie for his
help in choosing and obtaining tools.
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