1

VETERINARY GROSS ANATOMY- I

INTRODUCTION
Anatomy is a branch of biological science which deals with the form and structure
of the organisms. According to Vesalius (1543), anatomy should rightly be regarded as
the firm foundation of the whole art of medicine and its essential preliminary. Vesalius is
considered as the father of modern anatomy. Anatomy is the basis of medical and
veterinary sciences. The term “Anatomy” came from a Greek word which means ‘to cut
apart’ or the art of dissection of the body. Systematic dissection of the body can provide
us an understanding of the correlations and inter-relationships of different parts of the
living organism.
FIELDS OF ANATOMY
1. Macroscopic or Gross Anatomy: Study of all the structures by naked eye.
2. Microscopic Anatomy or Histology: Study of minute and fine details of the
organism by the microscope.
3. Developmental Anatomy or Embryology: Study of the changes in the organism
during development.
4. Ontogeny: Study of the development of the individual.
5. Phylogeny: Study of the evolutionary history during the development of different
species or evolutionary history to establish phyla.
“Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”
6. Comparative Anatomy: Comparison of the bodily structure of different species. It
forms the basis for their classification.
7. Special Anatomy: Description of the structure of a single species.
8. Morphology: Deals with the form and structure of the animal without regard to their
function.
9. Veterinary Anatomy or Anatomy of the Domestic Animals: Deals with the form
and structure of the domestic animals and it is studied as (A) Systematic anatomy, (B)
Topographic anatomy and (C) Applied anatomy.
(A) Systematic Anatomy
Here the body is regarded as consisting of systems of organs or apparatus which
are similar in origin and structure and are associated in the performance of certain
functions. The divisions of systematic anatomy are:
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a) Osteology – Description of the skeleton (bones and cartilages) whose function is to

support and protect the soft parts of the body.
b) Syndesmology/Arthrology – Description of the joints whose functions are to make
the rigid bones movable and to hold them with strong fibrous bands, the ligaments.
c) Myology – Description of the muscles and its accessory structures that function to put
the bones and joints into useful motion.
d) Splanchnology – Description of the viscera (digestive, respiratory and urogenital
systems, peritoneum and ductless glands).
e) Angiology – Description of the organs of circulation (heart, arteries, veins, lymphatics
and spleen).
f) Neurology – Description of the nervous system whose function is to control and co-
ordinate all other systems.
g) Aesthesiology – Description of the sense organs which relate the individual to the
environment.
h) Integumentary system or the skin – Skin is the largest organ in the body. It is
envelope of the body that provides mechanical, chemical and microbiological protection.

(B) Topographic or Regional Anatomy

Deals with the position, relationship and arrangement of body parts or regions as
well as body cavities without necessarily relating them to organ systems.

(C) Applied Anatomy

Deals with the anatomical facts in their relation to surgery and systematic
physical examination of the patient.

The Language of Anatomy: Anatomical language must be precise and unambiguous.

The internationally accepted vocabulary is NAV ie Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria
(introduced in 1968 and revised in 1994). The terms of NAV are in Latin but it is
permissible to translate them into vernacular equivalents.
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THE POSITION OF THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SYSTEM

Animal Dog Cat Pig Ox, Sheep, Horse, Rabbit Fowl

Goat Donkey
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Craniata or Vertebrata
Class Mammalia Aves
Subclass Eutheria/Placentalia Neornithes
Order Carnivora Ungulata Lagomorpha Galliformes
Artiodactyla Perissodactyla
Suborder Fissipedia Suina Ruminantia Hippomorpha
Family Canidae Felidae Suidae Bovidae Equidae Laporidae Gallinae
(Cavicornia)
Species Canis lupus Felis silvestris Sus scrofa 1. Bos indicus 1. Equus Oryctolagus Gallus
familiaris catus domestica (Indian cattle) caballus cuniculus domesticus
(Dog) (Cat) (Pig) 2. Bubalus (Horse) (Europian (Domestic
bubalis 2. Equus rabbit) fowl)
(Buffalo) asinus
3. Ovis aries (Donkey)
(Sheep)
4. Capra hircus
(Goat)
Topographic Terminology
Apply to a quadruped in a normal standing position.
 Dorsal/Superior – The surface directed away from the ground (towards the back
of the animal)
 Ventral/Inferior – The surface directed towards the plane of support (ground) ie.,
towards the belly of the animal.
 Cranial/Rostral/Cephalic/Anterior – Towards the head
 Caudal/Posterior – Towards the tail.
The median plane divides the body longitudinally into the halves.
 Median – is a position on the median plane
 Sagittal plane – those running parallel to the median plane
 Transverse plane – cut the long axis of the body perpendicular to the median
plane or an organ or limb at right angles to its long axis. It divides the body into
segments from cranial to caudal.
 Frontal/Horizontal plane – is perpendicular to the median plane and sections the
body into segments which are parallel to the dorsal surface.
 Medial – means close to the median plane.
 Lateral – means away from the median plane.
 In respect to hollow organ:
1. Internus – for inside
2. Externus – for outside
 Superficial - means towards the surface of the body.
 Profundus / Deep – means towards the centre of the body or body part or farther
from the surface
 Proximal – indicates towards the trunk.
 Distal – away from the trunk
 Dorsal & Palmar – Cranial and caudal surfaces of the forelimb in the in the
manus
 Dorsal & Plantar (Pedal) – Cranial and caudal surface of the hind limb in the pes.
 Axial – Towards the central axis
 Abaxial – Away from the central axis of animals other than horse
 Dexter – right; Sinister – left
 Longus –long; Brevis – short.
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LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

Locomotor system includes all organs which are necessary for body stability and
active movement and those which are responsible for the basic conformation of the
individual species. The active locomotor apparatus consists of the skeletal muscles and
their ancillary structures. The passive locomotor system consists of bones, ligaments
and joints.

OSTEOLOGY
The term osteology is derived from the Greek word ‘Osteon” = bone. Osteology
is the study of bones which are the hardest structures in the body which support and
protect the softer tissues of the body and form the framework (skeleton). It acts as a
lever to which muscles and their tendons are attached and serve as parts of locomotor
apparatus. Both the passive and active locomotor apparatus have a close
developmental connection and throughout life, they form a complete structural and
functional unit.
Regarding the constituent elements, several different stages of development,
varying from one another can be distinguished during both phylogenesis and
ontogenesis. Invertebrates have a membranous or connective tissue skeleton (which is
formed in young vertebrate embryos), which is supported by a primitive axial skeleton,
the notochord.
The next stage is of a cartilaginous skeleton which persists in primitive
vertebrates living in water (cartilaginous fish). In higher vertebrates, (terrestrial ones) the
highest stage of development is the bony skeleton. During ontogenesis, connective
tissue skeleton of the developing embryo rapidly disappears and there remains some
jelly-like remnant, the nuclei pulposi of the intervertebral disc. The cartilaginous skeleton
remains as a primordial skeleton which becomes the bony skeleton.

PROPERTIES OF BONE
Physical properties:
Fresh dead bone has a yellowish white colour, when macerated/boiled and
bleached, it is white. In living animal, it is bluish pink in colour. Specific gravity of fresh
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compact bone is 1.9. It is very hard and resistant to pressure. Its compressive strength
is about 20000 pounds per square inch, and its tensile strength averages 15000 pounds
per sq. inch – considerably higher than white oak.
Chemical properties
The completely developed bone consists of organic and inorganic matter in the
ratio of 1:2. The hardness of bone is due to the deposition of mineral salts within the soft
organic matrix. The organic portion of the bone (ie. Osteiod) consists chiefly of a
protein called bone collagen or ossein which provides cohesion, toughness and
elasticity. The organic matter when boiled yields gelatin. If a bone is exposed to an acid
(decalcification), its inorganic compounds are dissolved leaving an elastic mass made up
of collagenous substance which can readily be bent or cut. Incineration (heating)
destroys the organic matrix leaving the bone ash. However in both cases, the
characteristic shape of the bone is maintained.
Constituents:
Gelatin – 33.3%
Phosphate of lime – 57.35 %
Carbonate of lime – 3.85%
Magnesium phosphate – 2.05%
Sodium carbonate and chloride – 3.45%
The presence of inorganic substance has allowed bones to survive geological ages thus
providing valuable research materials for paleontologists. Bones are also used in
forensic medicine for species identification (shape etc).
Structure of bone:
Bone is living substance with living blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves. Bone
tissue is arranged as concentric lamellae around the Haversian canal. In between the
lamellae are the lacunae that contain the bone cells, the osteocytes, which are
connected with one another by fine canaliculi. This unit is known as Haversian system or
osteone.
Bone consists of an external shell of dense compact substance, within which is
the more loosely arranged spongy substance (cancellated bone).
Compact bone: It is dense white and hard and aggregated in positions where there is
greatest strain on the bone. It is found in the diaphysis of long bones. Haversian
system is present in the compact bone.
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Spongy bone: Made up of delicate bony plates which intercross each other forming a
meshwork with spaces containing marrow. It is found in epiphysis of long bones.
Haversian system is absent.
Coverings of the bone: Periosteum: It is thin layer of specialized connective tissue with
osteogenic property and lines the outer surface of the bone except where it is covered
with cartilage (epiphysis). It consists of external fibrous layer and internal cellular
vascular layer which has the ability to form new bone tissues throughout life.
Endosteum: It is a thin fibrous membrane which lines the medullary cavity and the larger
Haversian canals.
Bone marrow: Occupies the interspaces of the spongy bone and the medullary cavity of
the long bone. It consists of delicate network of recticular cells in the meshes of which
are lodged the various developmental stages of blood cells together with a network
blood vessels. The marrow consists of red and yellow marrow. In young animal red
marrow is present and is later replaced by yellow marrow. Red marrow is having
haemopoietic property. Eg. Sternum, vertebra, ribs (sternum contains red marrow
throughout life). Yellow marrow contains adipose tissue and is present in old age.

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES:-
With the exception of vertebrae, a few skull bones and those of the sternum, the
bones of the skeleton are paired and symmetrical.
1. Long bones: Consist of an elongate cylindrical body/shaft (diaphysis) and two
expanded extremities – epiphyses. Metaphysis is the joining point of diaphysis and
epiphysis. In growing bone, the metaphysis is wide and is the region of bone elongation.
The shaft encloses the medullary cavity and is formed by compact bone outside and a
thin layer of spongy bone lining the medullary cavity. eg. humerus and femur. They
develop from at least three centers of ossification one for shaft and two for the two
extremities.
2. Aborted long bone: Some bones do not develop completely and their medullary
cavity is very small or absent. eg. Ulna of horse.
3. Elongated long bone: Some bones though long do not have medullary cavity. eg. rib
4. Flat bone: are plate like bones, affording large surface area for the attachment of
muscles and protection of subjacent structures. They are composed of two compact
osseous tables which encloses a small amount of spongy bone, known as diploe. Outer
layer of compact bone is lamina externa and the inner layer is lamina interna or tabula
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vitrea. In the case of sinuses, inner surfaces are lined by mucous membrane. eg
scapula, ilium, bones of the skull.
5. Short bones: have an irregular, cuboid, cylindrical or spherical shape. They are
made up of thin layer of compact bone outside and spongy bone inside. They help to
diffuse concussion. They have only one center of ossification. eg. carpals, tarsals.
6. Sesamoid bones: (resembling a sesame seed) are short bones which do not bear
the weight of the body (non-weight bearing bones) and they are developed in the
capsules of joints or in the tendons. They alter the direction of the tendons and also give
increased leverage to the tendons of muscles. Eg. patella.
7. Irregular bones: are irregular short bones, median in position and unpaired. eg.
vertebrae.
8. Pneumatic bones: contains air spaces within compact substance instead of spongy
bone and marrow. These air spaces are termed as sinuses. eg. Frontal sinus, maxillary
sinus; humerus, femur, vertebrae & sternum of fowl.
9. Heterotropic or Splanchnic or Visceral bones: Bones within the viscera
Eg. Os cordis: in the aortic ring of ox. Two in number.
Os penis in dog or os clitoridis in bitch (also seen in cats, bats, rodents and some
primates)
Os phrenic in the diaphragm in camel.
Os rostrale in the snout of pig.

DESCRIPTIVE TERMS OF BONES:

Process : prominence
Tubercle : small blunt projection. (eg. Greater tubercle of humerus)
Tuberosity : more developed projection (eg. Ischiatic tuberosity)
Trochanter : largest projection. (eg. Greater trochanter of femur)
Spine : pointed projection. (eg. Scapular spine)
Crest : sharp ridge (eg. Crest of humerus)
Head : round articular enlargement to the end of a bone. (eg. Head of femur)
Neck : narrow portion between head and shaft.
Condyle: some what cylindrical articular eminence (eg. Condyles of humerus)
Epicondyle: non-articular projection (eg. Lateral epicondyle of humerus)
Trochlea: pulley-like articular area (eg. Trochlea of femur)
Glenoid cavity:shallow cup -like articular surface. (eg. Glenoid cavity of scapula)
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Cotyloid cavity: deeper cup like articular surface (eg. Acetabulum of os coxae)
Facet : small articular surface neither concave nor convex or flat (eg. Costal
facet on thoracic vertebrae)
Fossa : shallow cavity in a bone (eg. Infraspinous fossa)
Fovea : pit-like depression (non-articular) (eg. Fovea capitis of femur)
Sulcus / groove : deeper depression (eg. Grooves on the distal end of radius)
Fissure : penetrating narrow clefts (eg. Incisive fissure of premaxilla)
Notches / incisurae: identations of the bone margin (eg. Glenoid notch of
scapula)
Foramen: perforation or hole for the passage of vessels and nerves etc. (eg.
Obturator foramen)
Sinus: is an air cavity within a bone/bones lined with mucous membrane and
communicates with the exterior (eg. Maxillary sinus)
Hiatus: a depression leading to two or more foramina. Eg. maxillary hiatus in pig;
hiatus aorticus in diaphragm .
Cornu or hamulus: curved bone like process (eg. Hamulus pterygoideus)
Canal : a bone tunnel (eg. Palatine canal)
Meatus : a narrow passage (meaty = passage) eg. external auditory meatus

DEVELOPMENT OF BONES:-
Bones are derived from the mesenchyme. Two types of ossification:
1. Flat bones of the skull are developed by ossification in a membranous layer formed
by condensation of mesenchymal tissue. This is known as intramembranous
ossification.
2. The bones of the apendicular skeleton, vertebral column and ribs are developed by
intracartilaginous or endochondral method of ossification. In this a cartilaginous model
of future bone is formed first and is then replaced by bones. The number of ossification
centers is different for the various bones in the body but the number for each bone is
constant in a particular species.
By the time of birth, skeletal development has reached different stages in
different mammalian species. In ungulates, immediately active after birth, almost all
epiphyses are well established at term. This contrasts sharply with the much less mature
condition of the canine and most especially, human neonatus in which many of the
secondary ossification centres have yet to appear.
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CLASSIFICATION OF SKELETON – CHART

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Basically appendicular skeleton comprises two pairs of appendages (1)
Forelimbs or pectoral limbs or thoracic limbs and (2) Hind limbs or pelvic limbs. The
thoracic limb serves more for support and walking. It represents the “bearing and
support lever” of the body. But the pelvic limb not only has a supporting function but it
also plays the more important role in the forward propulsion of the body. It represents
the “work lever” of the body.
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Bones of the thoracic limb

1. Thoracic girdle (pectoral girdle) – scapula, clavicle, coracoid
2. Arm (Brachium) – Humerus
3. Forearm (antebrachium) – Radius &Ulna
4. Manus – Carpals, metacarpals, digits
It should be noted that in all animals, there are considerable modifications in the
number and extent of development of the various bones as compared with the typical
pattern. Significant modifications are (1) The absence of a typical pectoral girdle and
only scapula being well developed in all the mammals. (2) Ulna is being reduced and
fused to the radius in ox and horse. (3) Extensive modifications in the bones of the
manus, with two well developed digits in the ox, sheep, goat and pig; only one in horse;
five (first reduced) in dog and three in fowl.

THORACIC GIRDLE
It unites the thoracic limb to the trunk. Basically it consists of the coracoid, the
clavicle and the scapula or shoulder blade, but these elements vary both in the degree of
their development and attachment to the trunk in the different mammalian species
according to function. For example, some animals require the girdle purely for support
while others use it for grasping, climbing, flying etc. All the three bones are fully
developed in reptiles and flying birds. In man, clavicle and scapula are well developed.
In ox, thoracic girdle consists of a well developed scapula and a small fused coracoid
process. Clavicle is absent and represented as a tendinous band in brachiocephalic
muscle.

SCAPULA OR SHOULDER BLADE

It is a flat triangular bone, situated on the craniolateral part of the thorax and
directed obliquely downward and forward. The clavicle being absent, it is connected to
the axial skeleton only by muscles (Synsarcosis). Scapula has two surfaces, 3 borders
and 3 angles. The lateral surface is wide above and narrow below. It is divided into two
fossae by the spine of the scapula, which extends from the dorsal border to the neck of
the bone; the small cranial supraspinous fossa for the supraspinatus muscle and the
large caudal infraspinous fossa for the infraspinatus muscle and the ridges at its lower
part for the teres minor muscle. The free edge of the spine is in great part
subcutaneous, somewhat rough and tuberous in the middle to form the tuberosity of the
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spine for the trapezius muscle. The spine is prolonged downwards to form the
acromion process for the deltoideus. Acromion process is laterally flattened to form a
hamate process in carnivores and is furnished with an additional projection, the
suprahamate process in cat and rabbit. In horse, pig and man, the acromion process is
absent. So deltoideus muscle is having only scapular part in these species. Acromion
part is absent. The medial surface (costal) presents a shallow subscapular fossa for
subscapularis muscle. The upper third of this surface is a roughened area ie Facies
Serrata, which presents cranially a triangular rough area for serratus ventralis cervicis
and caudally a rough line for the serratus ventralis thoracis muscle.

The cranial border is convex and rough dorsally and concave and smooth ventrally.
The caudal border is thick, presents the nutrient foramen in the ventral third and is rough
for deltoideus, teres major, long head of triceps brachii and tensor fascii antebrachii
muscles. The dorsal border is thick and pitted and carries the scapular cartilage, the
unossified part of the foetal scapula. It is semilunar in shape in ruminants. The medial
face of the cartilage gives attachment to the rhombodius muscle. Scapular cartilage is
absent in man. Scapular cartilage primarily acts as a shock absorber in domestic
animals.
The cranial (cervical) angle is thin. The caudal (thoracic) angle is thick and rough.
The ventral (glenoid) angle is joined to the body of the bone by the neck of the scapula.
Ventral angle bears the glenoid cavity for articulation with the head of the humerus.
The rim of the cavity presents the glenoid notch, incisura scapulae on the cranio-lateral
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aspect. Cranial to the glenoid cavity is the supraglenoid tubercle (Tuber scapulae) for
the attachment of the biceps brachii and presents the coracoid process on its medial
aspect for the coracobrachialis muscle. Glenoid notch is indistinct in ox.

Sheep &Goat:
1. The vertebral border is longer and the neck is narrower.
2. The scapular spine is less tuberous. (Tuberosity of spine is absent in goat).
3. The inferior or glenoid extremity is relatively longer since the tuber scapulae is
connected with the rim of the glenoid cavity.
4. Rim of the subscapular fossa is extensive.
Horse:

1. Acromion process is absent.

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2. Subscapular fossa is deeper and separates two rough triangular areas in the
upper third.
3. Glenoid notch on the craniomedial aspect of the rim.
4. The supraglenoid tubercle is larger and placed further away from the glenoid
cavity.
5. Coracoid process is well developed.
6. Scapular spine is placed further backward.

Dog:
One or two bones. Clavicle and scapula.
Clavicle: Small and thin, irregularly triangular bone or cartilaginous plate,
embedded in the brachiocephalicus muscle, cranial to the shoulder joint and
makes no articulation with the rest of the skeleton.

Scapula:
1. Spine is in the middle of the lateral surface and divides into nearly two equal
fossae. It increases in height dorsoventrally to the level of the glenoid cavity
where it terminates in acromion process which is laterally flattened to form a
hamate process in dog. In cat and rabbit, suprahamate or metacromion
process is present as a small, broad, caudally directed process from it.
2. The dorsal border is convex and the scapular cartilage is in the form of a thin
band. The anterior border is also convex and anterior angle is practically absent.
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3. Glenoid cavity is shallow and oval in shape and extends to the ventral surface of
supraglenoid tubercle.
4. Coracoid process is small or absent. (In cat, it is present as a pronounced
cylindrical process).
5. The caudal border is thickened above the shoulder joint to form the infraglenoid
tubercle (also present in man).
Pig:
1. Spine is triangular and is very wide in its middle. It curves backwards over the
infraspinous fossa and bears a tuberosity.
2. Acromion process is rudimentary or absent.
3. Cranial border is convex, thick and rough in the middle.
4. Glenoid notch is absent.
5. Glenoid cavity is oval in shape.

6. The scapular cartilage is shaped like “the blade of a scythe” the point of which
lies at the cranial angle and the broad end at the caudal projecting somewhat
beyond it.
Rabbit:
Pectoral girdle consists of scapula and the rudimentary clavicle. Pectoral limb is
connected to the sternum by sterno-clavicular ligament in addition to muscles.
Scapula:
1. Acromion process is broad and continued backwards in the form of a projection
known as metacromion process or suprahamate process.
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2. Coracoid process is well developed.

3. Height of the scapular spine increases dorsoventrally and the acromion process
reaches upto the level of glenoid cavity.
4. Tuberosity of the spine is absent.
5. Spine inclines over the infraspinous fossa.
6. Glenoid cavity extends to the ventral face of the supraglenoid tubercle.
Fowl:
Pectoral girdle consists of all the three bones namely the clavicle, coracoid and
scapula.

Clavicles: These are slender rod-like bones, ventrally fused into a flattened plate, the
hypocleidium or furcular facet. It is connected to the carinal apex of the
sternum by a ligament, the hypocleidial ligament. The two combined clavicles
form the furcula or wish bone which because of its shape forms a support for
the shoulders preventing them from coming too close together during flight.
Coracoid: Strongest bone of the pectoral girdle, directed ventrally and caudally to
articulate with the sternum. The upper extremity is prolonged into a hook-like
process medially and presents a small articular surface (glenoid cavity) for the
humerus. Below this is another area for scapula.
Scapula: It is a narrow sabre- or sword–shaped bone, placed parallel to the vertebral
column reaching almost to the ilium. The cranial end presents a depression
laterally which forms part of the glenoid cavity. Cranially there is a projection, the
acromion process, which meets the clavicle and coracoid to form the foramen
triosseum through which the tendons of major flight muscles like deep pectorals
and supracoracoideus pass.
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HUMERUS OR ARM BONE

It forms the skeleton of arm or brachium. It is a long bone directed obliquely
downward and backward between the shoulder joint above and elbow joint below. It is
the largest bone of the thoracic limb. It has a body and two extremities.

The body/shaft is irregularly cylindrical and has a twisted appearance. It consists

of four surfaces. The lateral surface is smooth and spirally curved forming the
musculospiral groove (sulcus musculi brachialis) and lodges the brachialis muscle. The
medial surface is nearly straight in its length and proximal to its middle presents the
teres tubercle (teres major tuberosity) for latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles. The
cranial surface is triangular, wide and smooth proximally, and narrow and rough distally
for the coracobrachialis. It is separated from the lateral surface by the crest of the
humerus, which bears proximal to its middle the deltoid tuberosity for the deltoideus.
The crest is for the insertion of the brachiocephalicus and superficial pectoral muscles.
A curved line extends upwards and backwards from the deltoid tuberosity and is for the
lateral head of the triceps brachii, ie. tricipital line. The curved line presents a tubercle
(the teres minor tuberosity) for the teres minor muscle. The caudal surface is rounded
from side to side and smooth. It presents a nutrient foramen in its distal third.
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It forms the skeleton of arm or brachium. It is a long bone directed obliquely

downward and backward between the shoulder joint above and elbow joint below. It is
the largest bone of the thoracic limb. It has a body and two extremities.

The proximal extremity consists of a head, neck, two tuberosities and the inter-
tuberal groove (bicipital groove). Head presents circular convex articular surface which is
considerably larger than the fossa with which it articulates and articulates with the
glenoid cavity of the scapula. Neck is well defined caudally. The two tubercles are
divided into cranial and caudal parts in both ox and horse. The greater tubercle (lateral
tubersity) is placed craniolaterally and consists of two parts – the cranial summit (point
of shoulder) curves medially over the groove and forms the lateral boundary of the
intertuberal groove and gives attachment for the lateral tendon of the supraspinatus
muscle. Distal and lateral to it is the prominent circular rough area for the long tendon of
the infraspinatus. The caudal part or convexity is for he short tendon of infraspinatus.
The lesser tubercle or medial tuberosity is smaller and consists of cranial and caudal
parts. Cranial forms the medial boundary of the intertuberal groove and is for the medial
tendon of supraspinatus and pectoralis ascendens (deep pectoral) muscles. Caudal part
is for subscapularis. Intertuberal (bicipital) groove is situated cranially and is bounded by
the cranial parts of both tuberosities. In life it is covered by fibrocartilage and lodges
tendon of origin of biceps brachii muscle.
The distal extremity has an oblique articular surface which is divided by a ridge
into two condyles, the medial and lateral. The medial condyle (trochlea) is larger and is
traversed by a groove which extends caudally into the olecranon fossa. The lateral
condyle (capitulum) is smaller. The condyles articulate with the concavities in the
proximal extremity of the radius and the groove on the medial condyle with the semilunar
(trochlear) notch of ulna. This extremity presents cranially above the articular area the
radial (coronoid) fossa which receives the coronoid process of the radius in extreme
flexion of the elbow joint. Lateral to the fossa there is a depression for the extensor carpi
radialis and extensor communis digitorum. Caudally it presents the deep olecranon
fossa which receives the anconeus process of the ulna during extreme extension of the
elbow joint. The margins of the fossa are for the origin of anconeus muscle. The fossa is
bounded by two thick ridges, the epicondyles; the medial for the origin of pronator teres,
flexor carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris, superficial flexor, humeral head of deep flexor
and medial collateral ligament of the elbow joint; (medial epicondyle gives origin to the
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flexor muscles of carpus and digits); the lateral epicondyle for extensor carpi radialis,
ulnaris lateralis and a rough depression laterally for the lateral collateral ligament of
elbow.
Sheep and Goat:
1. Humerus is relatively longer and slender than that of ox
2. The deltoid tuberosity is closer to the proximal end and not so prominent.
3. The lateral tuberosity is smaller and does not overhang the bicipital groove.
4. Olecranon and coronoid fossa shallower
5. The shaft is round or oval in small ruminants but triangular in ox.
Horse:
1. Deltoid tuberosity is more prominent.
2. Intertuberal groove is subdivided by an intermediate ridge/ intermediate
tubercle
3. The cranial part of greater tuberosity does not arch inwards.

Dog:
1. Deltoid tuberosity is in the form of a low ridge.
2. Musculospiral groove is shallow
3. Greater tuberosity is undivided
 20

4. Radial and olecranon fossae are deeper and sometimes communicate through a
large supratrochlear foramen through which no soft structure passes. In the cat
alone, the mediodistal part of the humerus immediately above the medial
epicondyle is pierced by a supracondylar foramen that gives passage to the
median nerve and brachial artery.
Pig:
 21

1. Some what like in “italic f” (minus the cross bar). This is due to marked
backward and forward inclination of proximal and distal ends, respectively.
2. Teres tubercle is absent.
3. Deltoid tuberosity is small.
4. Olecranon fossa is deep. Sometimes perforated (supratrochlear foramen)
5. The condyles are of equal size.

Rabbit:
1. Head is more extensive and globular
2. Deltoid tuberosity is in the form of a ridge
3. Musculospiral groove is shallow
4. Supratrochlear foramen is present
5. Lateral tuberosity is undivided.
Fowl:
1. Humerus is directed parallel to the thoracic vertebrae with the wing at rest.
2. Proximal extremity presents on the medial aspect, the pneumatic foramen.
3. Head is elongated or oval.
4. Proximal extremity craniolaterally presents the deltoid ridge.
5. Distal extremity presents two condyles of which the large one articulates with
ulna and small one with radius.
 22

FOREARM OR ANTEBRACHIUM
Radius and ulna constitute the skeleton of fore arm. In horse and ox, the radius
is cranial and medial; while the ulna is caudal and lateral. In pig, proximal extremity of
ulna is placed more medially. In carnivores, there is a cross over so that the proximal
end of ulna lies medially against the radius. Radius and ulna are not fused in dog, firmly
united by dense fibrous tissue in pig and united by ossification in ox and horse. In the
same sequence of species, the ulna becomes progressively reduced with a concomitant
enlargement of the radius. The extreme example is seen in horse where the distal third
of ulna is entirely lacking. This overall variation naturally reflects the degrees to which
the bones of the forearm participate in supporting the humerus. There is also
progressive reduction in the number of digits from carnivores, through pigs and
ruminants to the horse. The degree of this regression corresponds to the extent to
which the mobility of the fore limb is lost, to be replaced by the functions of support and
locomotion.
RADIUS- Ox
Larger and shorter of the two bones of the forearm. It is a long bone and consists
of two surfaces and two borders.
The shaft is flattened cranio-caudally. Cranial surface is smooth, convex and
covered by the extensors of the carpus and digits. Caudal surface is concave in its
length. It presents along its lateral border a narrow rough area where it is fused with the
ulna. The rough area is interrupted above and below by two smooth areas which form
the cranial boundaries of the proximal and distal interosseous spaces of the forearm
(radioulnar arches). The two spaces are connected laterally by the radio-ulnar groove for
the passage of the interosseous vessels.
The medial border is largely subcutaneous and in its proximal end there is a
rough area for brachialis and medial ligament of the elbow. The lateral border is limited
by the radio-ulnar groove and gives attachment to the lateral digital extensor and
abductor digiti I longus (extensor carpi obliquus).
The proximal extremity presents an articular area which is divided by a sagittal
groove into two divisions, the medial being larger. It articulates with the distal extremity
of the humerus. The rim carries the coronoid process about the middle of its cranial
border. Caudally just below the articular surface are two facets and a quadrilateral rough
area above the proximal interosseous space for articulation with the ulna. On the
craniomedial aspect presents an elevated rough area, the radial tuberosity for the biceps
 23

brachii. Medial tuberosity is continuous with the radial tuberosity and gives attachment to
the medial ligament of the elbow joint. Lateral tuberosity is more prominent and gives
attachment to the lateral ligament of elbow and lateral digital extensor and common
digital extensor.
The distal extremity (trochlea radii) is wide and presents oblique facets for the
carpal bones (radial, intermediate and ulnar). The facet for ulnar carpal is partly
furnished by the ulna. The cranial surface presents three shallow grooves for extensor
tendons. Middle one is for extensor carpi radialis, lateral for common digital extensor,
medial is very narrow and oblique for extensor carpi obliquus.
Sheep & Goat
1. It is relatively larger and more curved
2. Dorsal surface is more regularly rounded.
Horse:
1. The caudal surface at its proximal part presents only one smooth area to form
the proximal interosseous space.
2. Radial tuberosity is more prominent.
3. The facets of the distal extremity are less oblique.
4. The facet for ulnar carpal is formed by the radius only (distal extremity of ulna is
absent).
Dog:
1. The radius and ulna are relatively long and articulate with each other at their
extremities enclosing narrow interosseous space and permit slight movement.
2. Proximal extremity of the radius is small and bears a concave surface for
articulation with the humerus above and a convex marginal area caudally for the
ulna.
3. The distal extremity is wide and its medial border projects distally forming the
styloid process of the radius.
4. Laterally the distal extremity presents a concave facet for the ulna.
5. The shaft is tubular and convex cranially.
Pig:
1. Short and narrow, but thick. Shaft increases in size distally.
2. Greater part of the caudal surface is in apposition with the ulna.
3. Distal end is large and has two facets for the carpals Radial and intermediate).
4. Only the middle extensor groove is distinct.
 24

Rabbit
a. Radius and ulna are long and curved.
b. Radius and ulna are separate bones but can’t move over one another.
c. Interosseous space is very narrow.
Fowl:
 25

1. Bones of the forearm are parallel to the humerus when the wings are at rest.
Radius is slender; ulna is thicker and longer. Articulate at their ends and enclose
a wide interosseous space.
Radius:
1. Proximal extremity presents a concave articular area for humerus.
2. Distal extremity is flattened from side to side and possesses a small facet for
ulna and also articulates with radial carpal.

ULNA
Ulna is a reduced (aborted) long bone, fused with the radius and is longer than
the radius. It is situated on the caudo-lateral part of the radius. It consists of a body and
two extremities. Body has three surfaces. The cranial surface is rough except at two
places where it is smooth and forms the caudal boundary of the interosseous spaces.
Medial surface is wide. Lateral surface presents the radio-ulnar groove between the ulna
and the radius.
Medial and lateral borders are thin and sharp except at the interosseous space.
Caudal border is slightly concave in its length.
The proximal extremity is made up of the trochlear (semilunar) notch and
olecranon tuberosity. Olecranon tuberosity is quadrilateral in shape and forms the
point of elbow. It gives attachment to the triceps brachii, tensor fasciae antebrachii and
anconeus muscles. Cranial border is concave and terminates below as the anconeal
process (beak-like) for anconeus muscle and during extreme extension of the elbow
joint, it passes into olecranon fossa. Caudal border is thick and concave. The free end,
the summit forms the point of elbow. The trochlear notch is placed below the anconeal
process and articulates with the groove on the medial condyle of the humerus. Below the
notch are two facets for articulation with the like facets on the caudal surface of the
proximal extremity of the radius.
The distal extremity is fused with the radius, projects distal to the level of the
radius, forming the styloid process of the ulna, which furnishes part of the facet for the
ulnar carpal.
Sheep and Goat
1. Shaft of the ulna is more slender especially in its distal half.
2. Fusion with the radius occurs in the later part of life and the fusion is much less
extensive than in ox.
 26

Horse:
1. Shorter, reaching only the distal third of the radius.
2. It forms only the proximal interosseous space
3. No articulation with the ulnar carpal
Dog:
1. Ulna is well developed and crosses the caudal face of the radius (medio-laterally)
enclosing a narrow interosseous space.
2. Olecranon is grooved and shows three prominences (two cranial and one caudal), of
which the caudal one is larger and rounded.
3. Below the trochlear notch is a concave surface (radial notch) for the radius.
4. The styloid process articulates medially with the radius and below with the ulnar and
accessory carpals.
Pig:
1. Massive and much longer. About one third of its length comprises the olecranon
which extends far above the radius.
2. Body is curved, wide and covers most of the caudal surface of the radius.
3. The distal extremity is notched cranially to accommodate the ridge of the radius.
Rabbit:
1. Olecranon is grooved as in the dog and the caudal process is large and rounded.
Fowl:
1. Longer and thicker than the radius. Curved in its length with the concavity facing the
radius and there is a nutrient foramen in the middle.
2. Olecranon process is short and blunt.
3. Semilunar notch is not well marked.
4. Distal extremity is expanded and presents a trochlea for articulation with the radial
and ulnar carpals.
SKELETON OF THE MANUS
The skeleton of the distal part of the thoracic limb is comparable to the skeleton
of the human hand. Originally the distal part of the thoracic and pelvic limbs had five
radiating units or digits, the first one of which medially and the fifth laterally. In different
species, a reduction in number and size of these digital units has occurred at the same
time of the phylogenetic development, when the mammals changed the posture of their
feet from the plantigrade to the digitigrade and finally to the unguligrade position. The
reduction begins with medial or the first digit; then the second and fifth (in pelvic limb, the
 27

first and second) and ultimately the fourth, so that finally the third or middle digit remains
fully developed.
Mammals can be divided into three groups based on their types of foot posture.
1. Plantigrade foot - the whole foot is in contact with the ground (bears, lower
primates, man).
2. Digitigrade foot - the animals walk on their toes (carnivores).
3. Unguligrade foot - only the point of the toe contacts the ground (pig, ruminant
and horse).
The foot of plantigrades has all the five digits. The medial first digit is reduced
and does not reach ground and it is usually absent in the hind limb of dog, and always
absent in the cat. Reduction is a progressive process in unguligrades so that in pigs,
there are four digits (2nd to 5th) and in ruminants two digits (3rd and 4th). Ruminants and
pigs are two-toed animals or Artiodactyles where only two toes are in contact with the
ground. In horses (Perissodactyles or single-toed animals), only the third digit is
developed.
CARPAL BONES
The carpals homologous to the wrist of man contains short bones, the ossa carpi.
These are typically eight in number and are arranged in two transverse rows – the
proximal (antebrachial) and distal (metacarpal) rows.
Proximal row: Radial, Intermediate, Ulnar, Accessory (From within outward)
Distal row: First, Second, Third, Fourth.

Carpal bone Ox Goat Sheep Horse Pig Dog Cat Rabbit Fowl
Radial/Scaphoid       
Intermediate/Lunate/Semilunar         -
Ulnar/Cuneiform         
Accessory/Pisiform         -
First/Trapezium - - - Inconstant     -
Second/Trapezoid      -
  
Third/Capitate/Magnum      -
Fourth/Hamate/Unciform         -
Total 6 6 6 7/8 8 7 7 8+1 2
(central)
 28

OX: Six carpal bones

Proximal row: Radial, Intermediate, Ulnar, Accessory
Distal row: Second and third fused, Fourth.
RADIAL CARPAL
Largest bone of the upper row. Medial most bone in all animals. Articulates with
radius. Proximal surface is convexo-concave from before backwards and articulates
with the radius. This surface is broader in front a narrow behind. The dorsal surface of
this bone of left leg presents an irregular outline which resembles the map of Africa.
Distal face articulates with the fused second and 3rd carpal. Cranial, medial and palmar
surfaces are continuous and rough. Lateral face articulates with the intermediate carpal.

INTERMEDIATE CARPAL
Wedge shaped. Cranial face or base is rough, caudal face or apex is prolonged
medially. Proximal face is convexo-concave from before backward and resembles a
bicycle seat and articulates with the radius. Distal face divided by a sagittal ridge into
two facets for the fused 2nd and 3rd and 4th carpals. Medial face has facets for radial
carpal. Lateral face articulates with the ulnar carpal.
ULNAR CARPAL
Very irregular and larger than in horse. Proximal face is oblique, directed
backwards and outwards, encroaches on the lateral face and articulates with the radius
and ulna. Distal face oblique, articulates with the 4th carpal. Medial face has facets for
 29

intermediate carpal. Cranial face – rough and convex; caudal face has a facet for the
accessory carpal.
ACCESSORY CARPAL
Short thick and rounded sesamoid bone situated behind the ulnar carpal.
Proximal face narrow and rough for flexor carpi ulnaris and ulnaris lateralis. Distal face –
broad and rough; cranial face has a facet for the ulnar carpal. \

FIRST CARPAL: Absent

FUSED 2nd AND 3rd CARPAL:
Largest carpal bone in ox and is the medial one of the two bones of the distal
row. Proximal face has two facets, medial larger for the radial carpal and lateral smaller
for the intermediate carpal. Distal face articulates with the large metacarpal. Lateral face
– facets for the 4th carpal; cranial, medial and caudal faces are continuous and rough.
FOURTH CARPAL
Proximal face has 2 facets; medial for intermediate and lateral oblique for ulnar
carpal. Distal face articulates with the large metacarpal. Medial face has facets for
fused 2nd and 3rd carpal. Cranial and lateral faces are continuous and rough.

Sheep & Goat

Resembles that of ox. The accessory carpal is long and tuberous.
Horse
Seven or eight carpal bones.
Proximal row: Radial, intermediate, ulnar and accessory.
Distal row: First (inconstant), second, third, fourth
Radial carpal: Resembles that of ox but the proximal face is broader behind also. It is
the largest carpal bone in horse.
Intermediate carpal: Lateral angle of its proximal face is pointed.
Ulnar carpal: Smallest bone of the proximal row. Proximal face articulates only with the
radius since the distal extremity of ulna is absent.
Accessory carpal: Discoid in shape. Medial face is concave. Lateral face is convex and
rough and presents a smooth groove for the long tendon of ulnaris lateralis. Cranial
border presents two facets, upper concave for the radius and lower convex for the ulnar
carpal.
 30

First carpal: Inconstant. When present it is a pea-like structure or nodule and is situated
behind the second carpal.
Second carpal: Smallest constant bone of the distal row. Proximal face has convex
facet for radial carpal. Distal face is flat and articulates with the medial small metacarpal
(large facet) and the large metacarpal (small facet). Lateral face – 2 facets for 3rd carpal.
Cranial and medial faces - continuous and rough.
Third Carpal
Largest carpal of the distal row. Regularly triangular with the base cranial.
Proximal face articulates with radial and intermediate carpals; distal face with large and
medial small metacarpal, medial border is more concave than the lateral.
Fourth carpal:
Somewhat wedge-shaped and larger than the 2nd. Proximal face presents a
small articular face for intermediate carpal and a large convex articular face which
curves laterally for the ulnar carpal. Distal face articulates with the large and lateral
small metacarpals; medial face presents facets for the 3rd carpal. Palmar surface bears
a tubercle on its distal part ie the volar tubercle.
Dog:
Seven bones
Proximal row : Radio-intermediate Ulnar Accessory
Distal row : First Second Third Fourth
Pig:
Eight bones
Proximal row : Radial Intermediate Ulnar Accessory
Distal row : First Second Third Fourth
Rabbit: 9 carpal bones.
4 in the proximal row (Radial, Intermediate, Ulnar, Accessory)
5 in the distal row (First, Second, Central, Third, Fourth). These five bones correspond
to 5 metacarpals in the rabbit.
Fowl: Two bones; Radial carpal: quadrilateral in shape; Ulnar carpal: fork-shaped.
Distal row is fused with the metacarpals to form the carpometacarpal bones.
 31

METACARPAL BONES
Metacarpus contains five metacarpal bones; one for each digit.
In carnivores and rabbit: 5 bones; Mc1 shortest, Mc 3 & 4 longest, Mc 2 & 5 shorter.
In pigs: 4 bones; Mc1 absent, Mc 3 & 4 longest, Mc 2 & 5 shortest
In ruminants: 2 bones; Mc1 & 2 absent, Mc 3 & 4 fused to form large metacarpal, Mc 5 is
the rudimentary small Mc.
In horse: 3 bones; Mc 3 fully developed large Mc, Mc 2 & 4 small Mc, Mc 1 & 5 absent.
In cervidae family (eg. Deer): Metacarpals and metatarsals will be longer, which is a
species adaptation for running.

OX
Metacarpus consists of a large metacarpal and a lateral small metacarpal.

Large Metacarpal Bone / Cannon bone

Results from the fusion of the third and fourth metacarpals of the foetus. It is a
long bone placed vertically between the carpus above and the fetlock joint below. The
body is semicylindrical (the cut section is ‘D’-shaped) and has two surfaces and two
borders. Dorsal surface is convex transversely and is marked by a vertical vascular
 32

groove, the dorsal longitudinal groove, at the either end of which is foramen which
traverses the thickness of the shaft. The palmar surface is flat and presents a shallow
vertical groove, the palmar longitudinal groove which communicates with the dorsal
longitudinal groove through the foramina ie. metacarpal canal (usually at the distal end).
This surface is in contact with the suspensory ligament of the digit.
The fusion of the two bones forming the large metacarpal is indicated by the
presence of a double medullary cavity and by the fact that the dorsal and palmar
surfaces bear the dorsal and palmar longitudinal grooves. The medullary cavity is
divided by a sagittal septum which is incomplete or often totally lacking proximally.
Medial and lateral borders are present. The lateral border at its palmaro-lateral
angle has a facet for the small metacarpal bone which is a reduced long bone.
Proximal extremity presents two facets separated by a ridge; the medial facet is
larger for the fused second and third carpal and lateral for the fourth carpal. At the
dorsomedial aspect of the extremity is the metacarpal tuberosity for the extensor carpi
radialis muscle. At the palmaro-medial aspect is a tubercle for the abductor digiti I
longus (extensor carpi obliquus) muscle. The palmaro-lateral aspect bears a small facet
for lateral small metacarpal.
Distal extremity is divided into two parts by a sagittal notch, the intertrochlear
incisor. Each division bears an articular surface composed of two condyles separated
by a sagittal ridge of which the abaxial condyle is larger. Condyles articulate with the first
phalanx below and two sesamoids behind. The abaxial aspects of each division are
depressed for ligamentous attachment.
Lateral Small Metacarpal (5th metacarpal) bone
It is a reduced/aborted long bone about 3 to 5cm long and lies against the
proximal part of the lateral border of large metacarpal bone. Proximal extremity is
rounded and bears a small facet on the cranial face for the large metacarpal bone. The
distal end is pointed.
Sheep and Goat:
1. Large metacarpal resembles that of ox.
2. The small metacarpal is usually absent.
3. If present, it is in the form of a ridge on large metacarpal bone.
Horse
There are three metacarpal bones, the 2nd, 3rd and the 4th. The third one or the
large metacarpal bone is fully developed and bears a digit. The 2nd and 4th units, the
 33

medial and lateral small metacarpals are reduced to slim rods (splint bones) which lie
behind and to the side of the large metacarpal bone.
Large metacarpal bone:
1. Dorsal and palmar longitudinal grooves absent.
2. Palmar face is roughened on either side in its proximal two-thirds for the
attachment of the small metacarpals (splints), with which it forms a wide groove
for the lodgement of the suspensory ligament.
3. Articulates with 2nd, 3rd and 4th carpals above and by small facets on either side
with the proximal extremities of the splints.
4. Distal extremity resembles one of the two parts of the distal extremity of the large
metacarpal of the ox.
5. Longer than in ox, cut section is ‘oval’ in shape.
Small metacarpals or splint bones:
They are two in number, 2nd and 4th. Shaft is rough for the attachment to the
large metacarpal bone. Proximal extremity is massive and has one or two facets
dorsolaterally for the large metacarpal. Medial one bears two facets above for 2nd and
3rd carpals; lateral one has a single facet for the fourth carpal. Distal extremity is in the
form of a small nodule and forms the button of the splint.
Pig
Four metacarpal bones. 1st is absent. 3rd and 4th are larger and carry the chief
digits. 2nd and 5th smaller and bear accessory digits.
Dog
Five metacarpal bones. 1st is the shortest; second longer than fifth; third and
fourth longest. They lie close together above but diverge distally.
Rabbit
Five metacarpal bones. 1st is the shortest; second longer than fifth; third and
fourth longest, they are cylindrical in shape.
Fowl
Three bony elements (2nd, 3rd and 4th ) fuse together to form a single bone.
Second is in the form of a nodule projecting from the upper extremity of the third bone to
which it is united. Third and fourth are united at their extremities with a narrow space at
their shafts.
 34

DIGITS
OX
rd th
Two digits, 3 and 4 are fully developed and have three phalanges and three
sesamoids each. 2nd and 5th are vestigial and are placed behind at the fetlock as “dew
claws”; each contain one or two phalanges which do not articulate with the rest of the
skeleton and not contact with the ground. The phalanges of the dew claws are
connected to the large digits by ligaments. In mountain breeds of cattle, the dew claws
are usually better developed since they are often required for weight bearing. In small
ruminants the dew claws are very often missing altogether and are frequently only
cutaneous structures without any bony skeleton.
Proximal phalanx / First phalanx / Os suffraginis / Os compadale: It is a long bone
placed obliquely downward and forward between the large metacarpal above and 2nd
phalanx below. The body has three surfaces (axial, abaxial and palmar) with a rounded
dorsal border. Interdigital or axial surface is flattened. Palmar surface bears a
prominence for the attachment of interdigital ligaments. Abaxial surface is convex.
Proximal extremity is larger than the distal. The articular surface is concave and
is divided by a sagittal groove into two areas of which the abaxial one is larger and
higher. Palmar to these are two facets for articulation with the proximal sesamoid
bones. The palmar surface bears two tuberosities for ligamentous attachment.
The distal extremity is smaller and its articular surface is divided by a sagittal
groove into two convex facets of which the abaxial one is larger.
 35

Middle phalanx / Second phalanx / Os coronae: It is a long bone placed obliquely

downward and forward between the 1st and 3rd phalanges. The distal half of each is
included within the hoof. The shaft is three sided. The palmar surface is encroached on
by the distal articular surface. The abaxial surface is rough while the axial surface is flat
and depressed.
The proximal articular surface is divided by a sagittal ridge into two glenoid
cavities of which the abaxial one is larger. Palmar aspect presents two tubercles for the
attachment of superficial digital flexor tendons.
The distal extremity is smaller and is divided by a sagittal groove into two
condyles, the abaxial being the larger. It articulates with the third phalanx below and
distal sesamoid behind.
Distal Phalanx / Os pedes / Os ungularis: It has the same shape as the bony claw of
the ruminants. It is a short bone, entirely enclosed in the hoof and consists of four
surfaces and an angle. The parietal surface is marked in its distal part by a shallow
 36

groove, along which there are several foramina of considerable size, the palmar one
(abaxial foramen) of the series is the largest and leads to a canal in the interior of the
bone. Distal to the groove, the surface is prominent, rough and porous. Proximal end
bears the extensor process for common digital extensor. The articular surface presents
two areas for the distal extremity of the second phalanx and a small facet along the
palmar border for the distal sesamoid. The solar surface is nearly flat, wide in the
middle and narrowest in front. It is in contact with the sensitive sole in life and presents
flexor tubercle for deep flexor tendon. Interdigital or axial surface is smooth and grooved
distally and rough and porous proximally. At the proximal angle, it is perforated by a
large axial foramen. The angle is short and blunt.
Sesamoid bones: Proximal sesamoids – One pair for each digit. (4 bones in each
forelimb). They are situated behind the distal extremity of the large metacarpal and
afford increased leverage to the flexors of the digits. Each bone has the form of a three-
sided pyramid. Base presents a facet for the first phalanx. The articular surface
articulates with the distal extremity of the large metacarpal at its palmar aspect. Each
sesamoid presents a facet for articulation with a similar facet of its fellow. The flexor
surface is flattened and oblique and in fresh state; it is covered by a layer of cartilage.
Abaxial pair presents a ridge in their palmar aspect whereas the axial pair shows a
flattened palmar surface.
Distal sesamoid: One in each digit. It is placed behind the second interphalangeal
articulation. It consists of two surfaces, two borders and two extremities. Articular
surface presents two facets for the second phalanx of which medial is larger. Palmar
(flexor) surface is broader and is covered by fibro-cartilage for deep flexor tendon.
Proximal border is grooved for ligamentous attachment. Distal border bears a small
facet for IIIrd phalanx. Extremities are rounded.
Sheep and Goat:
Similar to that of ox.
Horse:
Only one digit ie. the third digit. It consists of three phalanges and three
sesamoids (two proximal and one distal).
Proximal phalanx / Long pastern:
1. Palmar surface bears a triangular rough area for distal sesamoidean ligament.
2. Proximal face bears an articular surface divided by a sagittal groove into two
articular cavities, medial being larger.
 37

3. The lateral axes bear tubercles for ligamentous attachment.

Middle phalanx / Short pastern:
It is wider than long.

Distal phalanx / Coffin bone:

Conforms to the shape of the hoof. A plate of cartilage surmounts the angles on
each side, being related above and behind to the distal sesamoid bone. It consists of
three surfaces, three borders and two angles. The articular surface presents two
nd
articular areas for the distal extremity of the 2 phalanx and a small area along the
palmar border for the distal sesamoid. The parietal or dorsal surface is perforated by
numerous foramina of various sizes. Solar surface is arched and divided into two
unequal parts by a curved rough line, the semilunar line. The larger dorsal area is
crescent-shaped, concave and corresponds to the sole of the hoof. The smaller palmar
area, the flexor surface is semilunar and attaches the deep flexor tendon. It presents a
central prominent rough area on either side of which is a solar groove leading towards a
solar foramen. The foramen leads into the solar or semilunar canal within the bone.
The parietal and articular surfaces meet at the coronal border which extends
dorsoaxially to form the extensor process (at its middle) for common digital extensor
tendon. The palmar or proximal border is nearly straight. The parietal and solar
 38

surfaces meet at the border of the sole. This solar border is irregularly notched with a
wider notch in front.
The angles (palmar processes or wings) are prismatic and are divided into proximal and
distal parts by a notch or are perforated by a foramen. Dorsal border of the angles
carries the marginal cartilages.
Proximal sesamoids: One pair, much larger and distinctly pyramidal in shape. It
articulates only with the large metacarpals. Abaxial surface is concave.
Distal sesamoid: Shuttle (weaver’s) shaped bone or Navicular bone or Os navicularis
(= little ship) – Longer than in ox with narrow extremities(description similar to that of ox).
Dog:
Five digits. 3rd and 4th are the longest, 2nd and 5th shorter. 1st digit has 2
phalanges (ie. first and third), others have 3 phalanges each. The first phalanges of the
chief digits have four sided shaft and the second phalanges about two-thirds the length
of the first phalanges and their distal extremities are wider and flatter than that of the
first. Third phalanx of all the 5 digits corresponds to the form of claw. The proximal
face or the base of the third phalanx is encircled by a collar of bone with which it forms a
groove into which the proximal border of the claw is received. Proximal sesamoids are 9
or 10 in number (Ist digit has 1 or 2; 2nd to 5th have 2 each). Dorsal sesamoids: 5 in
number, one in each digit located on the dorsal side in the capsule of each metacarpo-
phalangeal joint. Distal sesamoids are 5 in number, one in each digit and are
cartilaginous. (Total number of sesamoids in each limb = 9+5+5+1(accessory carpal)
ie. 20)
Pig:
Four digits. The chief digits are 3rd and 4th. All the digits carry 3 phalanges and 3
sesamoids. 2nd and 5th digits are the accessory digits which are smaller and do not
reach the ground.
Rabbit:
Similar to that of dog, 5 digits, 1st digit - 2 phalanges, 2nd to 5th three phalanges.
Many proximal sesamoids in the metacarpo-phalangeal joint.
Fowl: 3 digits. 1st and 2nd have two phalanges each and the 3rd has only one phalanx.
Sesamoids are absent. The first digit is known as the thumb or pollex.
 39

BONES OF THE PELVIC LIMB

PELVIC GIRDLE / OSSA COXARUM:

The pelvic girdle serves as a connection between pelvic limb and the trunk. It
consists of two hip bones or the ossa coxarum (singular- os coxae, os innominatum
(human term), innominate bone). In the young animals it can readily be seen that each
os coxae comprises three bones, the craniodorsal, ILIUM, the cranioventral PUBIS and
the the caudoventral ISCHIUM. Os coxae is the largest flat bone in the body. All the
three bones meet at the acetabulum by a synchondrosis, the cartilage of which ossifies
later in life. Fusion of the three bones occurs at 7-10 months of age. The two hip bones
are united ventrally at the pelvic syphysis or symphysis pelvina by a fibrocartilaginous
joint which becomes ossified with advancing age. The fibrocartilage of the symphysis
can become loosened during pregnancy by the action of hormones. The symphysis is
divided into a cranial pubic symphysis and a caudal ischial symphysis. In man only
pubic bones unite (only the pubic symphysis present) and in most birds the pelvis being
open ventrally for the passage of egg. The sacrum lies dorsally in the space between
the two hip bones. It articulates with the two iliac bones and thus establishes the union
between the vertebral column and the pelvic limb. The two hip bones, with the sacrum
and the first few caudal vertebrae, form the bony pelvis. The os coxae or hip bone is the
largest flat bone. Ilium is the largest, ischium is larger than the pubis.
 40

ILIUM
Largest of the three parts and presents two surfaces, three borders and three
angles. The gluteal (lateral) surface is wide cranially to form the wing of ilium and
narrow caudally. This surface is traversed by the gluteal line, running nearly parallel to
the cotyloid edge and becomes continuous with the ischiatic spine. This surface gives
attachment to the gluteus medius and gluteus profundus (deep gluteus). Position of the
wing of ilium differs in different mammals. In ox and horse, the wing is horizontal so that
the gluteal surface is directed dorsally. In pigs and carnivores, the position is such that
the gluteal surface is directed laterally.
The sacropelvic surface consists of two parts, medial triangular sacral surface
and a smooth quadrilateral iliac surface. Sacral surface bears an articular surface for
articulation with the sacrum. Iliac surface is covered by the iliacus. Ilio-pectineal line
(arcuate line) which separates these two surfaces begin from below the articular facet,
joins the cranial border of the pubis and forms the lateral boundary of pelvic inlet. It
bears about the middle the psoas tubercle for the psoas minor muscle (except in man
and dog).
The cotyloid border (lateral border) leads to the acetabulum and presents
depressions dorsal to the acetabulum for the origin of rectus femoris muscle. Ischiatic
border is concave and forms the greater ischiatic notch. In life this notch forms the lower
boundary of the greater ischiatic foramen, which is bordered above by the sacro-ischiatic
/ sacrotuberal ligament, for the passage of cranial gluteal vessels and nerves. This
border continues caudally with the ischiatic spine. It is tall and sharp in pig and
ruminants but low and thickened in carnivores and horse. The cranial border or the iliac
crest is thick, concave and rough for the muscles of the loins.
The medial angle – the sacral tuber or tuber sacrale is separated from its fellow
and forms with it and the sacral spines the point of croup. It is an important clinical
landmark for locating the junction between the last lumbar and the first sacral vertebrae
and thus the lumbosacral space for giving epidural anaesthesia. The lateral angle tuber
coxae- forms the point of hip; large and prominent, wide in the middle and smaller at
either ends and serves for the attachment of the iliacus, obliquus abdominus internus,
tensor fasciae latae and gluteus medius. The acetabular angle is thick and meets the
other parts of the actetabulum
 41

ISCHIUM
Forms the caudal part of the ventral wall (floor) of the bony pelvis. It is smaller
than ilium; irregularly quadrilateral and placed behind the ilium and the pubis. It consists
of two surfaces, four borders and four angles.

Dorso-pelvic surface is concave transversely and forms the caudal part of the
pelvic floor. Ventral surface presents about its middle a rough ridge for the gluteobiceps
or biceps femoris. It is roughened for the origin of the adductor muscles of the thigh.
Cranial border is concave and forms the caudal border of the obturator foramen.
Caudal border slopes medially and cranially to meet the border of the other side forming
with it the ischiatic arch, which forms the distal boundary of the pelvic outlet. Medial
border meets the opposite bone and forms the ischial symphysis. Symphysis presents
ventrally a ridge (symphyseal crest) for the attachment of suspensory ligament of penis
in male and that of udder in female. Lateral border is concave, forms the lesser ischiatic
notch and is continuous with ischiatic spine. Ischiatic spine is thin and pointed in ox and
pig and thick and low in horse and dog. The notch forms the lower boundary of the
lesser ischiatic foramen for caudal gluteal vessels.
Craniolateral angle joins the other two bones at the acetabulum. Craniomedial
angle (symphyseal angle) meets the pubis with which it forms the medial boundary of
the obturator foramen. Caudomedial angle joins its fellow at the symphysis.
Caudolateral angle or tuber ischii or ischiatic tuberosity is thick, trifid process with dorsal,
 42

ventral and lateral tuberosities (dorsal protruberance is well developed) for biceps
femoris, semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles at its ventral surface. Tuber
ischii forms the point of buttocks. Tuner ischii is also known as pin bone in ox. In the
case of horse and dog, the ischiatic tuberosity is in the form of a ridge. In pig, it is
elongated and presents a ventral tubercle.
PUBIS
The smallest of the three parts of the os coxae and forms the cranial part of the
pelvic floor. It is irregularly triangular. It consists of three parts – the body, the
transverse ramus cranialis (ramus acetabularis) and ramus caudalis (ramus symphysis)
which lies longitudinally in the paramedian plane. The body meets the ilium and ischium
at the acetabulum.
The pelvic surface forms the cranial part of the pelvic floor and the urinary
bladder rests on it in life. Ventral surface is rough for muscular attachment.
Cranial border of the cranial ramus (pectin ossis pubis) is thick and laterally it
bears the rough iliopubic eminence for the attachment of prepubic tendon. This border
is marked by a transverse groove which ends ventral to the iliopubic eminence. The
body and caudal margin of the cranial ramus form the cranial margin of the obturator
foramen. Obturator foramen is covered by the obturator muscles during life time. The
caudal ramus unites with the ramus of the opposite side and forms the pubic symphysis.
The lateral border of the caudal ramus forms the medial margin of the obturator foramen.
Caudal ramus joins the ischium with which it forms the inner boundary of the obturator
foramen. The cranial ramus and the body join the ilium and ischium at the acetabulum.
ACETABULUM ( = vinegar cup)
It is a cotyloid cavity which lodges the head of the femur. It consists of an
articular (facies lunata) and a non-articular part (fossa acetabuli), for ligamentous
attachment. The former part articulates with the head of femur. The rim is rounded and
presents on its caudo-medial aspect the acetabular notch which transmits the round
ligament of the hip joint. In ox, at the craniomedial aspect, one more notch is present in
some animals. The non-articular part, the acetabular fossa is situated in the depth of the
acetabulum. In carnivores and rabbit, before the ossification take place, there is a fourth
bone, the os acetabuli which lies in the middle. This acetabular bone is lacking in other
mammals. A thorough knowledge of the normal osteology of hip area is essential for
proper interpretation of radiographic anatomy particularly in dog because of the
prevalence of hip dysplasia.
 43

OBTURATOR FORAMEN: It is the largest bony foramen in the body. It is large and
elliptical opening on the floor of the pelvis and is circumscribed by the ischium and the
pubis. It is covered in life by the obturator muscles.

BOUNDARIES OF BONY PELVIS:

Bony pelvis consists of two pelvic bones, sacrum and first 3 or 4 caudal
vertebrae. Dorsal wall (roof)- sacrum and three to four caudal vertebrae; ventral wall
(floor) – pubis and ischium; lateral walls – ilia, body, (acetabular part) of the ischium and
sacrotuberal ligaments.
Pelvic Inlet (cranial aperture): Elliptical and more oblique. It is bounded dorsally
by the base of the sacrum, ventrally cranial border of the pubis (pectin ossis pubis) and
laterally by ilio-pectineal line. Pelvic outlet (caudal aperture): Bounded dorsally by the
third caudal vertebrae; ventrally ischiatic arch and laterally broad sacrotuberal ligament
and semimembranosus muscle in horse (thus enclosing the perineum).
Sexual differences:
1. As a rule, the female pelvis is more spacious than that of male. This is particularly
striking in horse.
2. Conjugata vera or conjugate diameter ie. height of pelvic inlet greater in the female ie
medial line from cranial end of sacrum to cranial end of pelvic symphysis
3. Vertical diameter: Vertical line from cranial end of pelvic symphysis to ventral surface
of sacrum or caudal vertebra ie. height of pelvic cavity. Greater in the females.
4. Transverse diameter: ie the line between two psoas tubercles. More in female.
5. Wider ischiatic arch in female. The pubes and the ischia of the opposite sides meet
at a more open angle in the female than in the male. The ligament uniting the pubis and
ischial bones ventrally are softened during pregnancy by hormones (relaxin and
estrogen) which facilitate expansion of pelvic outlet during delivery.

Sheep & Goat

1. The long axis of ilium is almost in straight line with that of ischium as in pig.
2. Greater ischiatic spine is low and everted.
3. Ischial symphysis is not ossified even in old animals.
4. Acetabulum is large and deep.
5. The pelvic brim is elliptical in outline.
 44

Horse:
Ilium:
1. Gluteal line is faint.
2. Tuber coxae is large quadrilateral mass composed of four tuberosities arranged in
pairs.
Ischium:
1. Pelvic surface of the ischium is more concave and meets its fellow at a more open
angle.
2. Ischial arch is wide and shallow.
3. The ridge on the ventral face of ischium is absent.
4. The tuber ischii is not trifid and its lower border forms the ventral ischiatic spine.
Pubis:
1. Ventral surface of the pubis near the cranial border is crossed by the pubic groove
which leads to the acetabular notch in the medial part of the rim. This groove lodges the
accessory ligament or pubofemoral ligament which prevents side kicking in horses.
2. Acetabular part is in the medial part of the rim.

Dog:
1. Ilium is in a vertical plane.
2. Crest of the ilium is strongly convex.
3. Sacral tuber is separated by a notch into cranial and caudal dorsal iliac spines.
 45

4. Gluteal surface is concave and sacropelvic surface is almost flat.

5. Ischium has a twisted appearance.
6. Lesser ischiatic notch is shallow, smooth and rounded.
7. Acetabulum is deep.
8. Obturator foramen in dog resembles an equilateral triangle with the angles rounded
off.
9. Symphysial part of the pubis is thick and fuses late with the opposite bone.

Pig:
1. Os coxae is long and narrow.
2. Ilium and ischium are almost in line with each other.
3. Gluteal surface is divided into two fossae by a ridge which is continuous with the
ishiatic spine caudally.
4. Sacral surface is extensive and iliac surface is narrow.
5. Iliac crest is convex and thick, rough and prominent in the middle which forms the
highest point of the bone.
6. Sacral tuber and coxal tuber are lower than the crest.
7. Iliopubic eminence is prominent.
8. Psoas tubercle is well marked.
9. There is a crest or tubercle on the ventral surface of ischium.
 46

10. Pelvic inlet is elliptical in outline.

Rabbit:
1. Obturator foramen is large
2. Ilium and ischium are placed in a single line and is parallel to the vertebral column
3. Ischiatic spine is thick and low and ends in a caudally directed sharp process
4. Tuber ischii is a trifid process
5. Lateral surface of the body of ilium presents a tuberosity in front of acetabulum.
6. Os acetabuli is present. Acetabulum is formed by ilium, ischium and os acetabuli
and pubis does not participate in the formation of acetabulum since it is separated from
acetabulum by the os acetabuli or cotyloid bone.
7. Tuber sacrale are blunt and therefore the space between these tubers is wide.
Fowl:
1. Ilium is elongated and extends over the entire length of the hip bone. It is firmly fused
to the transverse processes of the lumbosacral mass.
2. The pelvic face presents two cavities for the lodgement of the kidney.
3. Internal border is free in its anterior half but is fused with the ischium behind.
4. Ischium is smaller and lies below and lateral to the caudal half of the ilium. Ischium is
triangular in shape.
5. Ilio-ishiatic (sciatic) foramen is present between the ischium and the ilium.
6. The lateral border of ischium forms the obturator foramen with the pubis.
7. Pubis is long and slender, running along the ventral border of the ischium and projects
beyond it posteriorly.
8. The anterior end of the pubis has a muscular process.
9. Acetabulum is large and perforated and presents at its dorso-caudal part the
antitrochanteric process for articulation with the great trochanter of the femur.

FEMUR
Forms the skeleton of the thigh. It is the most massive (largest and longest) of
the long bones, extends obliquely downward and forward between the hip and the stifle
joints. It is also known as thigh bone or round bone. It not only acts as a supporting
lever but also as one for forward propulsion of the body. The actions of locomotor
muscles vary in different domestic mammals. Consequently, the processes, ridges and
general contour of femur differ from species to species. In large animals, the bony
 47

processes are well developed and more so in horse than in ox. In small animals, they
are less developed.
Shaft: The shaft (body) is cylindrical consisting of four sufaces. The cranial, medial and
lateral surfaces are continuous, convex from side to side and are covered in life by the
quadriceps femoris muscle. The caudal surface is narrow in middle and rough for
adductor. Below this is an oblique vascular groove running downward and outward
indicating the position of the femoral vessels.

Borders: Two borders. The medial border bears in its proximal part a rough tuberosity
the lesser trochanter, for quadratus femoris and iliopsoas muscles. Extending from the
lesser trochanter obliquely and joining to the greater trochanter is the intertrochanteric
 48

crest which forms the caudolateral boundary of the trochanteric fossa. The crest is for
the gluteus medius and the fossa for gemellus, obturator externus and internus. The
distal third of the medial border carries the medial supracondyloid tuberosity for the
medial head of the gastrocnemius. Rest of the border below the lesser trochanter is for
the pectineus. There is a nutrient foramen almost in the middleof this border. The
lateral border bears in its distal third presents the supracondyloid fossa, which is
bounded laterally by the lateral supracondyloid tuberosity for the lateral head of
gastrocnemius. The fossa is for the superficial flexor of the digit.
Extremities: The proximal extremity is composed of head and greater trochanter.
Head is medial and articulates with acetabulum. The small non-articular sulcus, the
fovea capitis on the middle of the head is shallow for the round ligament of the hip joint.
Greater trochanter is massive and is for the gluteus medius. Below its base are two
rough tubercles, upper one for middle gluteus and lower for deep gluteus. In the case of
ox and horse, the greater trochanter of femur is at a higher level than the head. In pig
and dog, they are at same level. In man and cat, the head is at a higher level.
Distal extremity comprises a trochlea cranially and two condyles caudally. The
trochlea articulates with the patella, and its medial ridge is wider and more prominent.
The condyles, medial and lateral, are separated by the deep intercondyloid fossa and
articulated with the condyles of the tibia through the medium of two cartilaginous discs,
the menisci of the stifle joint. Each condyle has a depression for the attachment of the
ligaments and a protruberance, the medial and lateral epicondyles. The medial
epicondyle is a rounded prominence on the medial surface of the distal extremity which
attaches the medial collateral ligament and adductor muscle and the lateral epicondyle is
less distinct attaching the lateral collateral ligament. Distal and caudal to the depression
for lateral collateral ligament (near the lateral condyle) is the popliteal fossa for the
tendon of origin of popliteus muscle. Intercondyloid fossa lodges the intercondyloid
eminence (spine) of the tibia and the cruciate ligaments of the stifle joint (cranially
attaches the caudal cruciate ligament and caudolaterally the cranial cruciate ligament).
Betweeen the lateral condyle and the trochlea is the extensor fossa for the common
tendon of the extensor digitorum longus and fibularis tertius (complex muscle).
Sheep & Goat:
1. A distinct line separates the lateral and posterior surfaces.
2. The trochanter major is higher than the head.
3. Trochlear ridges are slightly oblique.
 49

Horse:
1. Lesser trochanter is a thick rough ridge.
2. Lateral border bears the trochanter tertius in its proximal third for gluteus superficialis
muscle.
3. Supra-condyloid fossa and the lateral supracondyloid tuberosity are better developed.
4. Intertrochanteric crest is vertical and extends from the trochanter tertius to the greater
trochanter and this crest forms the lateral wall of the trochanteric fossa.
5. The greater trochanter presents a cranial low convex part (convexity) and caudal
pointed part (summit)
6. Caudal surface bears in its proximal third a rough elevation for the gluteobiceps
muscle.
7. Fovea capitis is in the form of a deep notch on the medial aspect of the head to which
the accessory or pubofemoral ligament is attached
8. Trochlear tubercle- it is a large prominence proximally on the medial ridge of
trochlea of femur in horse.

Dog:

1. Shaft is proportionally large and strongly curved with the convexity forward.
2. Supracondyloid fossa is absent.
3. Trochanteric fossa is rounded and deep.
4. Trochanter and head are in the same level.
 50

5. Posterior surface of the shaft is bounded by two rough lines called the medial and
lateral labia which diverge towards the extremity the area called as the planum
trochantericum proximally.
6. Ridges of the trochlea are sagittal and equal.
7. Intercondyloid fossa is wide.
8. On the caudal part of the distal extremity immediately above each condyle presents a
small facet for a sesamoid, fabella.
Fabellae are two small, rounded sesamoid bones, located one each on the condyles of
the femur caudally. They are developed in the tendons of origin of the gastrocnemius
muscle.
9. Popliteal sesamoid bone is also developed in the tendon of popliteus in dog at the
region where the tendon is changing to fleshy portion.
Pig:
1. Head and greater trochanter are in same level.
2. Supracondyloid fossa is absent.
3. Ridges of the trochlea are similair and almost sagittal.
4. Head is strongly curved and neck is distinct.
5. The shaft is wide and relatively massive
6. A ridge extends from the trochanter major to the lateral supracondyloid crest.

Rabbit:
1. Bone is comparatively long.
2. Just below the proximal end, trochanter tertius is present laterally as in horse.
 51

3. Intertrochanteric crest is vertical and extends from the trochanter tertius to the greater
trochanter and this crest forms the lateral wall of the trochanteric fossa.
4. Trochlear ridges are almost equal and sagittal.
5. Supracondyloid fossa and crest are absent.
Fowl:

1. Head is prominent, but smaller than accetabulum and the articular surface extends on
to the trochanter and articulates with the acetabulum and facets on its rim.
2. The sharp cranial border of greater trochanter continues distally on the cranial
surface of shaft as a thin bony ridge.
3. Only greater trochanter is present. Lesser trochanter is absent.
4. Ridges of the trochlea are separated by a wide groove.
5. Lateral condyle presents on its lateral aspect a groove for the head of the fibula.
PATELLA (= little plate) or Knee cap
It is the largest sesamoid bone which articulates with the trochlea of the femur.
It gives increased leverage to the extensors of the leg. It is irregularly triangular and
presents two surfaces, two borders, a base and an apex.
Cranial surface is strongly convex, very rough and irregular. Articular surface is divided
by a vertical ridge into two concave areas of which the medial is larger. The two borders
converge to the apex below. The lateral border is convex. Medial border is concave
and presents a large cartilaginous process at the base for the attachment of
 52

fibrocartilage of the patella. Base faces upwards; irregular and narrow. Apex is directed
downward and elongated.

Sheep & Goat: It is relatively longer and narrower than that of ox.
Horse: Quadrilateral, base – wide and concave, apex – blunt.
Dog: Long and narrow
Pig: Compressed transversely and presents three surfaces.
Rabbit: Triangular but elongated, apex is blunt, base is comparatively narrow.
Fowl: Wide and thin.
SKELETON OF THE LEG (CRUS)
The skeleton of the leg or crus is formed by two long bones, the medial one the
tibia, which is stouter and the lateral one, the fibula, which is more slender. They remain
almost parallel and fibula does not articulate with the femur. The tibia bears the weight
of the body while the fibula is subject to varying phases of reduction. Due to the
 53

variation on the development of the fibula there are differences in the interosseous
space between the tibia and fibula.
TIBIA (Shin bone)
It is a long bone placed obliquely downward and backward between the stifle and
the hock joints. The shaft is three sided proximally and becomes smaller and flattened
distally. It consists of three surfaces and three borders.

Surfaces: The lateral surface is smooth and wide proximally and inclines gradually to
the cranial part of the bone distally (somewhat spiral). It is covered by the tibialis
cranialis. The medial surface is subcutaneous, broad proximally and rough for medial
ligament, the sartorius, gracillis and semimembranosus. The caudal surface is flat and
at its proximal fourth has a triangular area marked by the popliteal line for the popliteus.
Popliteal line runs obliquely from the proximal part of the lateral border to the middle of
 54

the medial border. Nutrient foramen is situated on or near the line. Rest of the surface
is marked by rough lines (ie. lineae muscularis) for deep flexor muscles.
Borders: Cranial border separates the medial and lateral surfaces and is prominent in
its proximal third, forming the crest of the tibia. Medial surface of the crest presents a
rough prominence for the semitendinosus. Rest of its extent is rounded and indistinct.
The lateral border is concave and has the fibrous part of the fibula applied against it in
life. The medial border is thick and rounded on its proximal fourth for the popliteus.
Extremities: Proximal extremity is large and is made up of two condyles, a tuberosity
and an intercondyloid eminence (tibial spine). The condyles, medial and lateral present
a somewhat saddle - shaped surface for articulation with the corresponding condyles of
the femur and through the medium of menisci. The condyles are separated caudally by
the popliteal notch and on the medial side of which is a tubercle for the attachment of the
caudal cruciate ligament. The lateral condyle has the rudimentary fibula fused with it on
its lateral aspect and serves for the attachment of the lateral ligament of the stifle. The
intercondyloid eminence (tibial spine) is placed between the condyles and the articular
surfaces are continued on the eminence. It is bifid at the summit. Medial projection of
the spine is larger than the lateral one in ox but has the same height in sheep and goat.
Cranial and caudal to the tibial spine are intercondyloid fossae for ligaments. The large
cranial eminence is the tuberosity of the tibia, continued distally with the tibial crest and
is for the attachment of the straight ligaments of the patella. Between the tuberosity and
the lateral condyle is the semicircular notch (sulcus muscularis or sulcus extensorius or
extensor groove) for the passage of tendon of origin of the extensor digitorum longus
and fibularis tertius (complex muscle).
Distal extremity (cochlea tibiae) is smaller than the proximal. The articular
surface presents two deep sagittal grooves. The medial groove is bounded on the
medial aspect by the medial malleolus (which is fused with the tibia) and its cranial part
is prolonged distally to end in a blunt point. The lateral groove is separated by a sharp
ridge, which is for the articulation with the lateral malleolus and thus completes the
lateral groove. Lateral malleolus is the distal extremity of fibula.
Sheep & Goat:
Similar to that ox
Horse:
1. Cranial tuberosity is grooved vertically.
2. Below the lateral margin of the lateral condyle is a facet for fibuala.
 55

3. The grooves on the distal extremity are oblique.

4. Lateral malleolus is fused to the tibia
5. Popliteal line is prominent
6. Medial border presents a tubercle at its upper part for popliteus.

Dog:
1. Shaft forms a double curve, the proximal part is convex medially, the distal part
laterally.

2. Tibial crest is short but very prominent

3. Facet for the fibula is on the caudolateral part of the condyle on the proximal
extremity.
4. Articular surfaces and groove on the distal extremity are almost sagittal.
5. Lateral part of the distal extremity presents a facet for the fibula.

Pig:

1. Cranial tuberosity is grooved and a narrow semicircular notch (extensor groove)

separates it from the lateral condyle.
2. Facet for the fibula is on the caudal border of the lateral condyle.
3. Grooves on the cochlea almost sagittal.
4. Tibia and fibula separated by wide interosseus space.
5. Muscular lines on the caudal surface of tibia are seldom seen or absent.
 56

Rabbit:
1. Distal end of fibula is completely fused with the middle third of tibia.
2. Tibial crest is prominent and sharp.
3. Tibial spines are blunt.
4. Popliteal line is usually single.
5. Fibula is thin and there is an elongated interosseous space between the two bones.
Fowl:
Tibia fuses below with the upper row of tarsal bones and called as tibiotarsus, which is
the longest bone in the body.
1. Proximal extremity is large and irregular and presents a small lateral and a large
medial condyle for the femur.
 57

2. Proximal extremity is characterized by large cnemial crests which give origin to certain
extensor muscles.
3. Distal extremity presents a trochlea caudally and two condyles cranially, representing
the fused bones of the upper row of tarsus.
FIBULA (=pin) or calf bone
In ox, it is a rudimentary bone consisting of two extremities only. The degree of
reduction of fibula varies considerably not only in different ruminants but also amongst
individuals. The shaft is completely developed in man, carnivores and pigs. In horse,
only proximal half is developed. In ruminants, it is replaced by a ligament. In ox, head
(proximal extremity) is fused with the lateral condyle of the tibia and is continued by a
small, but blunt-pointed prolongation distally. In other specis, it is a movable joint. In ox,
the distal end remains separate and forms the lateral malleolus (os malleolare). Its
proximal border is having three processes.
Lateral malleolus is quadrilateral in outline and compressed from side to side.
The proximal surface articulates with the distal end of the tibia and bears three
processes which are directed towards the tibia. The cranial and caudal processes are
blunt and the middle one is pointed (spine) which fits into the groove on the tibia. The
distal surface has a concave articular area for fibular tarsal and the medial articular
groove for the tibial tarsal. The lateral surface is rough and irregular.
Sheep & Goat:
1. The fibula has no shaft and proximal end

Horse:
1. Fibula is better developed and placed along the lateral border of the tibia.
2. Shaft is a slender rod, extends down to about the middle of the tibia with which it
forms the interosseous space (tibio-fibular arch)
3. Proximal extremity is large and flattened from side to side.
4. Medial face has a facet for the lateral condyle of the tibia.
5. Lateral face is slightly convex and rough.
6. Cranial and caudal borders are rounded.
7. Distal extremity is fused with the tibia constituting the lateral malleolus.
Dog:
1. Fibula is very thin and extends the entire length of the region, slender, somewhat
twisted and enlarged at either ends.
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2. Proximal part is separated from the tibia by an interossoeus space, but the distal part
is flattened and closely applied to the tibia.
3. Distal end is thicker and forms the lateral malleolus and bears two tubercles laterally.
Pig:
1. Fibula is stouter than the other domestic species and extends the entire length of the
region and is separated from the tibia by a wide interosseous space.
2. Body is flattened from side to side.
3. Proximal part is wide and deeply grooved laterally.
4. Proximal extremity is a thickenened four sided plate and articulates medially with the
lateral condyle of the tibia.
5. Distal extremity (lateral malleolus) is grooved laterally ie. the malleolar groove.
Rabbit:
1. Fibula is a thin, blade like bone and the distal end is completely fused with the tibia
and there is an elongated interosseus space between the two bones.
2. Medial and lateral malleolus are in the form of small projections on the sides of
articular surfaces.
Fowl:
1. Fibula is thick proximally and tapers to a point distally reaching the lower third of the
tibia.
2. Head is massive, articulates with the lateral condyle of the tibia and also presents a
facet on the medial aspect for the lateral condyle of the femur.

SKELETON OF THE PES (Skeleton pedis)

The bones of the pes of the domestic animals corresponds to those of the
human foot. It consists of tarsus, metatarsus and digits. The cranial surface is as
dorsum pedis and caudal surface as plantar pedis. Dorsal aspect of the tarsus can be
termed as the flexor surface and plantar face as the extensor surface. The situation is
reverse in the carpus where dorsal surface is the extensor surface and palmar face is
the flexor surface.
TARSUS or HOCK
Skeleton of the tarsus – Tarsal bones are arranged in three rows
Proximal or crural row: Tibial tarsal (medial) and fibular tarsal (lateral)
Intertarsal or middle row: Central tarsal
 59

Distal or metatarsal row– First tarsal (medial), second tarsal, third tarsal and fourth tarsal
(lateral).

Tarsal bone Ox, Goat Horse Pig Dog Rabbit

& Sheep
Tibial     
Fibular     
Central Central &    
4th fused
First    Absent
Second    
Third     
Fourth Central &    
4th fused
Total 5 6 7 7 6

TARSAL BONES OF OX
Tarsus (Hock region) consists of five short bones arranged in 3 rows.
Proximal row: Tibial tarsal and Fibular tarsal
Intertarsal (Central): Fused central and fourth tarsal
Distal row: First; fused 2nd and 3rd tarsal
TIBIAL TARSAL (Talus or Astragalus): Consists of six surfaces. Proximal and dorsal
surfaces are continuous and form a trochlea with vertical ridges for the tibia and lateral
malleolus. Distal face consists of two condyles divided by a groove and articulates with
the fused central and fourth tarsal. Plantar face bears a large oval facet for fibular tarsal.
A narrow elongated area on the medial aspect of the lower part of this face is for the
plantar prolongation of the fused central and fourth tarsal. Plantar face bears a large
oval facet for fibular tarsal. A narrow elongated area on the medial aspect of the lower
part of this face is for the plantar prolongation of the fused central and 4th tarsal. Lateral
face consists of two facets for fibular tarsal. Medial face presents a tuberoisty at its
proximal part for ligamentous attachment.
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FIBULAR TARSAL (Calcaneus or Os calcis): Largest tarsal bone. It has a body and a
medial process, the sustentaculum tali which projects medially and presents a facet
dorsally for the tibial tarsal. Sustentaculum tali supports the deep digital flexor tendon.
Lateral face is flat. Medial face presents two facets for the tibial tarsal. The body is
enlarged at its proximal end to form the calcaneal tuber (Tuber calcis) which forms the
point of hock and gives attachment to the gastrocnemius and soleus muscle (Achille’s
tendon). Proximally the dorsal border projects towards the tibial tarsal as coracoid
process.
FUSED CENTRAL AND IVTH TARSAL or Centroquartal bone (Scapho-cuboid): It
extends across the entire width of the tarsus and articulates with all of the other tarsal
bones. Proximal face presents two concave areas for the tibial tarsal; a hook like
projection caudomedially (plantaromedially) for the narrow medial facet on the distal face
of the tibial tarsal and a narrow facet on its lateral aspect for the fibular tarsal. Distal
face is uneven; medial half is higher in level and presents a large facet cranially for 2 nd
and 3rd and a small facet on its plantar aspect for the 1st tarsal. Internal half presents
two facets separated by a transverse groove and articulates with the large metacarpal
bone.
FIRST TARSAL (Cuneiform parvum): smallest tarsal. Small irregular (quadrilateral)
bone about the size of a hazelnut (nut of the Birch tree found in America). It articulates
with the fused central and IVth tarsal proximally, metatarsus distally and fused 2nd and
3rd tarsal dorsally.
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SECOND AND THIRD FUSED TARSAL (Cuneiform magnum): Placed beneath the
fused central and 4th tarsal on its medial aspect. Proximal surface is concavo-convex
and articulates with the centroquartal bone. Distal surface articulates with the large
metatarsal. Plantar surface has a facet for the 1st tarsal.
Sheep & Goat: Similar to that of ox.
Horse: Six bones. First and second tarsals fused.
Proximal row: Tibial tarsal Fibular tarsal
Intertarsal row: Central tarsal IVth tarsal
Distal row: Fused 1st and 2nd tarsal; 3rd tarsal
Tibial tarsal: Ridges of the proximal trochlea curve obliquely downward and outward.
Lateral face has no facet for the fibular tarsal.

Fibular tarsal: Short and thick. No articulation with the lateral malleolus. Medial process
is larger (Sustentaculum tali). Tuber calcis is massiveand transversely grooved. The
coracoid process takes the form of a dorsally directed pointed hook.
Central tarsal: Irregularly quadrilateral and situated between the tibial tarsal proximally
and 3rd tarsal distally. The proximal face is concave and articulates with the tibial tarsal.
Medial face is convex and articulates with the 3rd tarsal and fused 1st and 2nd tarsal.
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Dorsal and medial borders are continuous and rough. Lateral border is oblique and has
two factes for the 4th tarsal. Plantar border presents two prominences separated by a
notch.
Fused first & second tarsal: Irregular in shape and smallest of the tarsal bones. It
consists of 4 surfaces and 2 extremities. Proximal surface is concave and has two
facets for the central tarsal. Distal surface articulates with the large and the medial small
metatarsal bones. Medial surface is convex and lateral surface is concave. Dorsal
extremity bears a ridge or tubercle. Plantar extremity is prolonged distally into a nodular
projection.
Third tarsal: It resembles the central but triangular in outline. Proximal surface is
concave and articulates with the central tarsal. Distal surface is convex and articulates
with the large metatarsal. Medial border has one facet for fused 1st and 2nd tarsal.
Lateral boreder has two facets for 4th tarsal.
Fourth tarsal (or cuboid): Lateral bone of the distal row and is equal in height to the
central and third tarsal together. Cuboid in shape and has six surfaces. Proximal
surface is convex transversely and is for fibular tarsal and tibial tarsal. Distal surface
presents two facets for large and lateral small metatarsal bones. Medial surface has 4
factes for central and 3rd tarsals. Dorsal, lateral and plantar surfaces are continuous and
rough.
Pig & Dog: All the seven bones present.
Proximal row : Tibial tarsal Fibular tarsal
Intertarsal row : Central tarsal
Distal row : 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th tarsal
Rabbit: Six bones present
Proximal row : Tibial tarsal Fibular tarsal
Intertarsal row : Central tarsal
Distal row : 2nd, 3rd and 4th tarsal
Fowl: Absent in adult bird.
Proximal row is fused with the tibia and the distal row with the metatarsus.
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SKELETON OF THE METATARSUS

Metatarsal bones are originally five in number and show the same kind of
reduction in number met with the metacarpal bones. They are also numbered as
metatarsal 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5.
In carnivores and rabbit: 5 bones; Mt1 shortest, Mt 3 & 4 longest, Mt 2 & 5 shorter.
In pigs: 4 bones; Mt1 absent, Mt 3 & 4 longest, Mt 2 & 5 shortest
In ruminants: 2 bones; Mt1 & 5 absent, Mt 3 & 4 fused to form large metatarsal, Mt 2 is
the rudimentary medial small Mt.
In horse: 3 bones; Mt 3 fully developed large Mt, Mt 2 & 4 small metatarsals, Mt 1 & 5
absent.
OX
Two metatarsal bones – Large metatarsal (fused 3rd and 4th) and medial small
metatarsal bone
Medial small metatarsal bone (2nd Mt): is a quadrilateral disc shaped piece of bone
situated at the plantaro-medial aspect of the proximal extremity of the large metatarsal
bone.
 64

Large metatarsal bone (Fused 3rd & 4th): Resembles the large metacarpal except for
the following differences.
1. Metatarsal is longer than the metacarpal (20% longer than metacarpal).
2. The shaft is four sided ie. almost square in cut section (metacarpal is almost oval).
3. The dorsal longitudinal sulcus is deep and wide while the plantar surface presents a
shallow groove.
4. The proximal foramen on the plantar face does not perforate the shaft, but passes
obliquely through the extremity, opening on the plantar part of its proximal surface.
5. The medioplantar angle of the proximal part bears a facet for articulation with the
small metatarsal bone.
6. Proximal extremity presents a flattened facet laterally for the fused central and IVth
tarsal and a large facet on the medial aspect for the fused 2nd and 3rd tarsal; behind a
small facet for the 1st tarsal. At its plantaromedial aspect, this extremity presents a facet
for the small metatarsal bone. The craniomedial aspect presents a metatarsal tuberosity
for the attachment of the fibularis tertius.
The distal extremity resembles that of the large metacarpal bone.

Sheep & Goat: Similar to that of ox.

Horse:
Three bones. One large metatarsal – 3rd; Two small metatarsals – 2nd & 4th
Large metatarsal bone: Resembles large metacarpal bone.
1. The vertical groove present in the ox is absent.
2. The proximal extremity presents facets for the 3rd, 4th tarsal and sometimes the 2nd
tarsal.
3. The bone is longer and the shaft is cylindrical – cut section almost circular.
4. The dorsal surface presents a rough ridge for the insertion of tibialis cranialis.
Small metatarsal bones: Longer than small metacarpals. The lateral small metatarsal
(IV) is relatively massive, especially in its upper part. Proximal extremity is large and
bears one facet proximally for the 4th tarsal and two facets dorsomedially for the large
metatarsal. The medial (2nd) small metatarsal is much more slender than the 4th. It has
two facets proximally for the fused 1st and 2nd tarsal and dorsolaterally two facets for the
large metatarsal bone.
 65

Dog: Five bones. 1st – small; 2nd to 5th – well developed and resemble metacarpals.

Pig: Four bones. Longer than the metacarpals. Proximal ends of 3rd and 4th have plantar
projections. The 3rd has a facet on the plantar projection of the proximal extremity for the
metatarsal sesamoid bone which is discoid in shape. 2nd and 5th are placed more
towards the plantar aspect of the large metatarsal bones than in the forelimb.
Rabbit: Four in number and are very narrow rod shaped structures.
Fowl: Tarso-metatarsus is a single bone formed by the fusion of the distal row of the
tarsals with the 2nd, 3rd and 4th metatarsals. The proximal extremity presents two glenoid
cavities for the distal end of tibiotarsus. On the plantar aspect of the proximal extremity
there are a series of calcaneal ridges which form tendinous canals for the tendons of
toes. This area is often referred to as the hypotarsus. The shaft is two-sided. In the
male there is a bony spur core or calcar which is a curved pointed projection arising
from the medial side of the distal third of the shaft of the tarsometatarsus. Distal
extremity consists of three large trochleae for articulation with the digits 2nd, 3rd & 4th. The
first metatarsal articulates at the plantaromedial aspect of the disatal end of the
tarsometatarsus (not fused to the metatarsus).
DIGITS OF THE PES

Ox: Resembles those of the forelimb though proximal and middle phalanges are
somewhat narrower and shorter than those of the forelimb.
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Horse: Narrower than the corresponding phalanges of the forelimb. Proximal phalanx is
little shorter, wider proximally and narrower distally. Middle phalanx is narrower and
slightly longer. Distal phalanx is narrower, the angle of inclination of the parietal surface
is little greater. The solar surface is more concave. Outline of the hind third phalanx is
oval rather than round as in the forelimb. Proximal sesamoids are little smaller. Distal
sesamoid is narrower and shorter.
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Dog: Of the five digits the 1st is often absent, ie. Four digits resemble those of the
forelimb.

Pig: Four digits. Proximal and middle are little longer and narrower than those of
forelimb.
Rabbit: Four digits, three phalanges each.
Fowl: Four digits. Fifth is absent.
The number of phalanges in each digit is more than the serial number of the digit.
1st = two phalanges. First digit is known as hallux which is short and posteriorly directed
consisting of two phalanges. It is attached to the medial side of distal extremity of
metatarsus by fibrous tissue.

2nd = three phalanges

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3rd = four phalanges (longest)

4th = five phalanges.
The distal phalanx of each digit is a claw which in life is covered by a horny claw
exteriorly.
AXIAL SKELETON
Axial skeleton consists of the vertebral column, ribs, sternum and the skull.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The fundamental part of the axial skeleton is the vertebral column (back bone). It
consists of a flexible chain of median, unpaird, irregular bones, the vertebrae which
extend from the skull to the end of the tail. Certain bones remain free throughout life and
are termed as movable (true) vertebrae and certain others get fused together with the
adjacent ones and are termed as fixed (false) vertebrae.
The column is subdivided for description into five regions, which are named
according to the part of the body in which the vertebrae are situated. The vertebrae are
named as Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral and Caudal (Coccygeal) vertebrae
accordingly as they form the skeleton of the neck, back, loins, croup and tail,
respectively. The number of vertebrae is fairly constant in each region except the last,
so that the vertebral formula may be expressed as follows:
OX – C7 T13 L6 S5 Ca(Cy)15-21

All the bones of the column which are constructed on the same general plan are
termed as typical vetebrae. Those that deviate from the general plan are atypical
vertebrae.
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Parts of a Typical Vertebra

A typical vertebra consists of a body (centrum), arch (neural arch) and
processes. The body (corpus vertebra) is the fundamental part of the vertebra, more or
less cylindrical mass on which the other parts are constructed. Cranial end is more or
less convex and the caudal end is concave. The cranial and caudal extremities are
attached to the adjacent vertebrae by intervertebral fibrocartilaginous discs. The dorsal
surface is flattened and enters into the formation of the vertebral canals. Ventral face
presents centrally the ventral spinous process for muscular and ligamentous
attachments.
The arch is situated on the dorsal aspect of the body. It consists of two lateral
halves, each of which consists of a vertical ventral pedicle and a horizontal dorsal lamina
ie. the plate going towards medial side and from both sides they fuse to form the neural
arch. The pedicle presents cranially and caudally the vertebral notches. The notches of
two adjacent vertebrae form intervertebral foramina for the passage of the spinal nerves
and vessels; in some vertebrae there are complete foramina instead of notches (in atlas
and axis, these are named as the lateral vertebral foramina). The laminae are plates
which complete the arch dorsally by uniting with each other medially. Their borders are
rough for the attachment of the ligaments.

The body and the arch form a bony ring (neural/vertebral ring) which encloses
the vertebral foramen, the series of vertebral rings together with the ligaments which
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unite them, enclose the vertebral canal for the lodgement of the spinal cord and its
coverings and vessels.
The processes of the vertebrae are inconstant and most variable in size,
development and shape in the different regions.
1. The articular (oblique) processes: Two cranial and two caudal processes. They
project from the borders of the arch. These are connected by a continuous plate of bone.
The articular surfaces of the cranial articular processes face upwards and the caudal
downwards. The remaining surface is roughened for muscular and ligamentous
attachments.
2. The spinous process (neural/ superior spinous process/ dorsal spine/ spine): Single
and projects dorsally from the middle of the arch. It varies greatly in form, size and
direction in different vertebrae and furnish attachment to muscles and ligaments.
3. Transverse process: Two in number and projects laterally from the sides of the arch or
from the junction of the arch and the body or from upper part of side of the body. They
vary in shape and size in different regions. It may have foramen passing through it
called the foramen transversarium. Canal formed by the union of foramen
transversarium of individual vertebra is termed as canalis transversarium or transverse
canal.
4. Ventral spinous process: Single and situated in the ventral aspect of the bodies of the
vertebrae. In some vertebrae, it represents as ventral crest/ Ventral tubercle/ Haemal
arch.
5. Mammillary processes: Found in most animals on the caudal thoracic and cranial
lumbar vertebrae, between the transverse and cranial articular processes or on the
cranial articular process.
6. Accessory processes: Situated in between the transverse and caudal articular
processes. eg. Caudal thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of dog, Caudal thoracic vertebrae
of pig.
Vertebral formulae:
1. Ox - C7 T13 L6 S5 Ca(Cy)15-21
2. Goat - C7 T13 L6-7 S5 Ca(Cy)16-18
3. Sheep - C7 T13 L6-7 S4 Ca(Cy)16-18
4. Horse - C7 T18 L6 S5 Ca(Cy)15-21
5. Pig - C7 T14-15 L6-7 S4 Ca(Cy)20-23
6. Dog - C7 T13 L7 S3 Ca(Cy) 20-23
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7. Rabbit - C7 T12-13 L6-7 S4 Ca(Cy)14-18

8. Elephant - C7 T19 L4 S4 Ca(Cy) 30
9. Fowl – C14 T7 (L-S)14 Ca(Cy)6-7

CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
Number of cervical vertebrae is seven in all mammals except in sea cow (6
cervical vertebrae) and three-toed slothe (8 or 9 cervical vertebrae).
Ox: Seven numbers. Form the skeleton of the neck. 1st and 2nd – highly modified – Atlas
and Axis. 3rd, 4th and 5th similar in structure. 6th and 7th – some special characters but do
not deviate much from the general plan.
3rd, 4th & 5th cervical vertebrae: 1. Bodies are very long; longest in the 3rd and
decreases to the 5th. 2. Ventral spinous process (ventral crest) is prominent and thick in
their caudal part. 3. Lateral surface is concave; dorsal and ventral surfaces flat for
ligamentous attachment. 4. Marked convexity and concavity of the ends of the bodies.
5. Vertebral notches are deep. 6. A continuous plate of bone connects the cranial and
caudal articular processes of the same side in a vertebra. 7. Transverse process is
perforated by the foramen transversarium. Aggregate of these forms the canalis
transversarium for the passage of vertebral vessels and nerves (ie. vertebral artery,
vertebral vein and nervous transversarius). 8. Each transverse process divides into
dorsal and ventral parts which are rough for the muscular attachment. 9. Spinous
process is in the form of a low, thick rod, increases in height cranio-caudally and directed
forward.
6th cervical vertebra: 1. Body is shorter and wider. 2. Lower division of transverse
process is more developed and is plate like which extends considerably below and
behind the level of the body. This is known as lamina ventralis. 3. Spine longer than
the 5th. 4. Ventral crest is absent.
7th cervical vertebra: 1. Body is the shortest of all the cervical vertebrae. 2.
Transverse process is single, undivided and foramen transversarium is absent. 3.
Dorsal spine is very well developed and straight and is termed as vertebra prominence.
4. Either side of the caudal end of the body presents semicircular concave facets, costal
/ capitular facets for the head of the first rib. 5. Ventral spine is absent.
Atlas - (Carrier of the head)- (Atlas is a giant in Greek mythology who carried the earth
on his shoulders). Takes the form of a bony ring composed of a dorsal arch and a
ventral arch.
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The dorsal arch carries a modified spinous process – dorsal tubercle. The transverse
processes arise where the two arches meet and they are the wings –ala atlantis. The
ventral surface of the wings is excavated to form the fossa atlantis. The root of each
wing is pierced by the alar foramen which leads into the atlantal fossa. The vertebral
canal has a similair exit from the alar foramen through the lateral vertebral foramen.
Caudally and on the external surface the ventral arch presents the ventral tubercle for
the tendon of longus colli muscle. Its internal surface presents the fovea dentis for
articulation with the dens of axis. Articular processes are absent. Articular facets are
found on both dorsal and ventral arches. The cranial articular surface articulates with
occipital condyles. Caudal articular surfaces are continuous with the fovea dentis and
articulates with the cranial process – dens of the axis. Alar foramen is connected to the
lateral vertebral foramen by the alar groove. Foramen transversarium is absent in the
atlas of ruminants.
Axis (Epistropheus): is a pivot around which the atlas rotates. It is atypical vertebra –
longest vertebra characterized by the presence of dens. 2. Body is longest. 3. Axis is
also called vertebra dendata due to a tooth like process on the cranial extremity of the
body called the dens (Odontoid process) which represents the body of the atlas fused
with the axis. It presents the convex articular surface ventrally for the articulation with
the atlas. Dorsal face is concave and rough for odontoid ligament (ligamentum dentis).
4. The cranial end of the body presents a flat articular surface which is continuous with
the ventral face of the dens and articulates with the caudal face of the atlas. Caudal
extremity presents the usual concavity for the 3rd cervical vertebra. 5. The pedicles
present the caudal notches but the cranial ones are large oval foramina for the passage
of 2nd pair of cervical spinal nerves. Cranial articular processes are absent. Caudal pair
resembles the succeeding vertebra. 6. Transverse process is small, undivided and
projects caudally. 7. Foramen transversarium when present is in the form of an
osseous canal. 8. Spine is very large and strong. Its summit is narrow cranially but
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thick and wide caudally and serves for the attachment of ligamentum nuchae and
muscles. Ventral spine resembles those of succeeding vertebrae.
Sheep and Goat:
3rd, 4th , 5th , 6th and 7th cervical vertebrae: 1. The cervical vertebrae are relatively longer
than those of the ox. 2. A central ridge separates the anterior articular processes. 3.
The ventral spines are rudimentary.
Atlas: 1. The prominence on the arch is much less developed.
Axis: 1. The spinous process of the axis is not enlarged posteriorly.

Horse: - C7 T18 L6 S5 Ca(Cy)15-21

3rd, 4th & 5th cervical vertebrae: 1. Body of the vertebra is longer. 2. A continuous plate
of bone unites the cranial and caudal articular processes in the 5th; ¾ th in the 4th and ½
in the 3rd. 3. Dorsal spine – less developed. 4. Transverse processes are bifid showing
cranial and caudal divisions.
6th Cervical: Transverse process is trifid, the third part is plate like and extends below the
body.
7th Cervical: Spine is a flattened triangular process and smaller than ox.
Atlas: 1. Wings slops ventrolaterally and caudally. 2. Wings present transverse foramen
at the caudal part of the wing. 3. Caudal articular surfaces are saddle shaped. 4.
Dorsal tubercle is less distinct.
Axis: 1. Dens – longer, narrower and pointed. 2. Cranial articular processes are saddle
shaped. 3. Spine more massive and divides caudally into two ridges which terminate on
the caudal articular processes. 4. Body is the longest. 5. Transverse process is divided,
cranial division is thin and the caudal one is thick and tuberculate at its free end.
Dog: C7 T13 L7 S3 Ca(Cy) 20-23
3rd, 4th and 5th cervical: Compressed dorsoventrally.
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Atlas: 1. Wings are wide, horizontal and atlantal fossa is shallow. 2. Alar notch instead of
alar foramen. 3. Transverse foramen is present. 4. Dorsal arch is strongly convex. 5.
Ventral arch is narrower from before backwards. 5. Dorsal tubercle is absent.
Axis: 1. Dens-rounded, very long and reaches almost the occipital bone. 2. Cranial
articular surface is condyloid and oblique. 3. Spine is great size and overhangs the
dorsal arch of the atlas. 4. Transverse process is single and pointed; directed caudally
and laterally and has a transverse foramen.
Pig: C 7T 14-15L 6-7S 4Ca 20-23
Body of the cervical vertebrae are elliptical in cross section; the long diameter
being transverse. 2. Ventral spine is absent. 3. The pedicles are perforated by a lateral
vertebral foramen in addition to the usual intervertebral foramen. 4. Transverse
processes divide into two branches; the dorsal branch short and project laterally and
caudally; ventral branch is a quadrilateral plate directed ventrally and overlaps the
succeeding one to a small extent.
Atlas: 1. Dorsal tubercle is large. 2. Ventral tubercle is long and project back under the
axis. 3. Transverse process / wing bears a tuberosity caudally. 4. Transverse foramen
is at the caudal border of the wing. 5. Vertebral foramen is partially divided into a larger
dorsal part and a narrow ventral part by lateral projections. In fresh state, it is connected
by a transverse atlantal ligament. The ventral narrow part receives the dens.
Axis: 1. Large spinous process directed dorsally and caudally. 2. Axis is taller than long.
3. Dens is a thick, cylindrical rod. 4. Transverse process is very small and transverse
foramen is large and often incomplete.
Rabbit:
Cervical vertebrae are comparatively short.
Fowl: C14 T7L-S 14Ca 6-7.
1. Bodies are rod like. Cranial extremity is concave from side to side and convex from
above downward and caudal extremity presents the reverse condition, convex from
side to side and concave from above downward, which admits greater degree of
movement in this region.
2. Small dorsal spine and ventral spine present.
3. Cranial articular processes are connected with the transverse processes.
4. Transverse processes are large and present slender processes directed backwards
and termed cervical ribs or the styloid processes.
5. Foramen transversarium is present.
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6. On the body of the fourteenth vertebra there are no facets for the head of the first rib
Atlas: Ring like. Cranial articular area concave for the single occipital condyle. Caudally
presents three facets for axis.

Axis: Cranial articular area is in the form of three faces for atlas. Dens articulates with
the occipital condyle.
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
Characteristic features of the thoracic vertebrae in general are:
1.Costal or capitular facets for ribs: Bodies are shorter; on the sides of the articulator
ends of the body both before and behind are concave articular facets – costal/capitular
facets which with those of the adjacent vertebrae and the intervertebral disc form the
costal cavities for articulation with the head of ribs.

2. Tubercular facet: It is the facet on the transverse process which articulates with the
tubercle of the corresponding rib.
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3. Greater development of the spines: Spinous process is very long flattened plate for
muscular and ligamentous attachments. The thoracic vertebra with vertical spine is
known as vertebrae anticlinales or anticlinal vertebra. Usually it is the 13th in ox, 16th in
horse, 11th in dog and 10th in pig. All spines cranial to this vertebra are inclined caudally
and all the caudal ones inclined cranially.
4. Transverse processes are short, thick, single and tuberous at their ends. They
present a tubercular facet for the articulation with the tubercle of the corresponding rib.
5. First few vertebrae in the series bear rounded mamillary processes.
6. The cranial notches of the pedicles are shallower. Caudal ones are converted into
foramina in the caudal series.
7. Cranial articular processes are small oval facets on the cranial part of the arch except
in the first one where they are on the transverse processes. Caudal ones spring from
the base of the dorsal spinous process.
8. Last thoracic vertebra has no caudal costal facet.
9. In pig and dog, some of the caudal thoracic vertebrae show the accessory process.

Ox: 13 in number.
1. Spine of the first is very long and is usually pointed. The spines of the next two are
the longest and behind they gradually diminish in height. Backward slope increases to
10th, last has a vertical spine. 2. Tubercular facets gradually decrease in size. 3. Last
thoracic has no caudal costal facets.
Sheep and Goat: 13 in number. 1. The bodies are relatively wider and less constricted
than those of ox. 2. The intervertebral foramina are relatively larger in correlation with
the absence of foramen, which usually occur in the arches of these vertebrae in ox.
Horse: 18 in number. 1. The bodies are shorter. 2. Spine of the first shorter and curved
backwards. 3. Spines increase in height to the 3rd or 4th, then gradually diminish to the
15th, beyond which they are about the same height. 4. Backward direction of the spine
is most pronounced in the 2nd, the 16th is vertical and the last two are directed slightly
forwards. 5. The last four or five show a distinct mamillary process.
Dog: 13 in number. 1. Bodies are wider and compressed dorsoventrally.
2. Transverse processes in the caudal series bear mamillary processes and in the last
three accessory processes also. 3. The posterior facets on the bodies for the heads of
the ribs are absent on the last two or three, so that the head of each of the last three ribs
articulates with only one corresponding centrum.
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Pig: 14 or 15 in number. 1. Bodies are long and constricted in the middle. 2. The arch is
perforated by a foramen on each side. 3. Mamillary process is present except the first
two. 4. Small accessory processes occur in the caudal part of the region. 5. The ventral
spine is absent. 6. The last transverse process is lumbar in character.
Rabbit: 12 in number.
Fowl: 7 in number. First and 6th are free. 2nd to 5th are fused into a piece known as
notarium or os dorsale in which transverse processes and dorsal and ventral spinous
processes are fused and is plate like. 7th is fused with the lumbosacral segment. Each
vertebra presents a complete costal facet for the corresponding rib. Spinous process
and ventral spine are well developed.

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
Characteristic features:
1. Great size of the transverse processes
2. Strongly curved articular processes.
3. Show mamillary processes
4. Show accessory processes in dog.
5. Dorsal spine is plate-like.
6. Ventral spine is absent.
7. Body is constricted in the middle.
Lumbar vertebrae are six in nuber in ox and horse, six/seven in pig, sheep, goat
and rabbit and seven in dog. Transverse processes are horizontal in ox and horse. In
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dog and to some extent in pig, they are directed downwards and forwards. 5th carries
the longest transverse process in ox whereas in horse, it is the 3rd/4th.

Ox: 1. Body is constricted in the middle and expanded at the extremities. Cranial
extremity is less convex; caudal less concave. 2. Neural arches of the first three are
about equal in size and similar to the last dorsal but they increase in size from 4 th
vertebra onwards. 3. Intervertebral foramina are often double in the cranial ones. 4.
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Cranial articular processes are concave and show the mammillary processes on the
lateral aspect. 5. Caudal articular processes are convex and project from the arch at the
base of the superior spine. 6. Transverse processes are elongated plates flattened from
above downwards and project outwards at right angles to the body.
All are directed forwards and gradually increase the length to the fifth and 6 th shorter
than 5th. Inter transverse spaces are filled up in life by the intertansversales lumborum
muscles. 7. Spines are broad flattened plates, resemble the last thoracic and are of
the same height as the last dorsal. That of the last is the narrowest of all. 8. Ventral
spines are rudimentary.
Sheep and Goat: 1. Six or seven in number. In some cases there is an ambiguous
vertebra at the junction of the thoracic and lumbar region. 2. The anterior articular
processes are strongly curved and overlap the posterior ones. 3. The transverse
processes curve forward and have expanded ends.
Horse: Six in number. 1. Transverse processes increase in length from 1st to 3rd/4th and
then diminish. First one or two curve backwards, 3rd straight and rest curve forward. 2.
Caudal border of transverse process of 5th at its medial part has an oval concave facet
which articulates with the convex facet on the cranial border of 6th transverse process;
sometimes 5th also has facet for the 4th. 3. Transverse process of 6th curves forwards
and the large concave facet on its caudal border articulates with the corresponding facet
of the sacrum. 4. First three have a distinct ventral spine which subsides thereafter.
Dog: 7 in number. 1. Transverse processes are plate like, directed forward and
downward. 2. Mammillary and accessory processes are present. 3. Spinous processes
incline a little forward. 4. Their bodies increase in width from first to last.
Pig: 6 or 7 in number. 1. Transverse processes are bent ventrally. 2. Spines are broad
and incline cranially; last one narrow and vertical. 3. Mammillary processes are present
and they project outward and backward. 4. The bodies are longer and bear ventral
crest. 5. The arches are deeply notched and are separated by an increasing space
dorsally. Posterior edge of the roof of the transverse process is marked by a notch in
the anterior series and a foramen in the posterior part.
Rabbit: Seven in number. 1. The transverse processes are long, projected anteriorly.
Fowl: Lumbosacrals 1. 14 in number and these with the 7th dorsal and 1st caudal
(total16) are fused into a mass, Synsacrum. This forms a rhomboid mass included
between the two pelvic bones. 2. Spines form a crest in the cranial third but are absent
caudally. 3. Transverse ridges on the ventral face indicate the positions of the transverse
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processes. The extremities of all the transverse processes fuse with the medial border
of the ilium.
SACRUM
The sacral vertebral region is completely immobile. Ossification of the
intervertebral discs and union of other parts of the vertebrae have led to complete fusion
and formation of the os sacrum. Fusion of the sacral vertebrae occurs at 3-4 years of
age in ox, 4-5 years in horse, 1½ years in pig and dog and 16-30 years in man. The
number of fused vertebrae forming sacrum varies in different species. In ox and horse –
5, in pig and rabbit – 4 and in dog – 3.
Ox: Sacrum is formed by the fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae. It is triangular in form and is
wedged in between the ilia with which it articulates on each side. The long axis is
strongly curved and presents 2 surfaces, 2 borders, a base and an apex.
Surfaces: Dorsal surface is wide in front and shows along its median line a crest, the
median sacral crest, formed by the fusion of the spinous processes of the 5 sacral
vertebrae. On either side of this crest is the lateral sacral crest which is formed by the
fusion of the articular processes. Dorsal surface shows 4 pairs of dorsal sacral foramina
for the passage of the dorsal primary branches of the sacral spinal nerves. Ventral
surface is arched and forms the roof of the pelvis. It is marked centrally by a longitudinal
groove for the middle sacral artery and by 4 transverse lines which indicate the lines of
fusion of the bodies of the sacral vertebrae. This surface presents 4 large ventral sacral
foramina on either side for the ventral primary branches of sacral spinal nerves.
Borders: The two lateral borders are thin for the attachment of sacrotuberal ligament.
Base: or the cranial extremity is the cranial end of the 1st sacral vertebra, and its body is
wide and elongated transversely. The ventral rim of the 1st sacral vertebral body projects
forward and downward as the promontorium, which is much less distinct in the domestic
animals than in man. Sacral canal is triangular. The lateral parts (transverse process of
the 1st sacral vertebra) of the base are the alae (sacral wings), which are quadrilateral
plates directed downwards and forwards. Cranial face is non articular. Caudal face
presents a triangular articular surface for the ilium.
Apex: or caudal extremity is the caudal end of the 5th sacral vertebra. Centrally it
presents a small triangular neural ring and caudal notches.
Sheep and Goat: 1. Consists of four segments ordinarily but the last vertebra may
remain separate or undergo partial fusion. 2. There is no vascular groove on the ventral
 81

surface. 3. The dorsal spines are not fused with the exception of the first two. 4. The
transverse process of the last segment is distinct.
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Horse: 1. Five separate dorsal spines; bases of which are fused in old animals. 2. On
either side of the bases of the spines is a groove in which are the 4 dorsal sacral
foramina. 3. Wings are prismatic with pointed ends. Each has a large oval convex facet
in front which articulates with the caudal border of the transverse process of the last
lumbar vertebrae. Dorsal surface articulates with the ilium. 3. Ventral surface is straight.
Dog: 1. Three segments. Short, wide and rectangular. 2. Articular processes are
vestigial and are represented as a pair of tubercles on either side of the median crest.
3. Two dorsal and two ventral sacral foramina. 4. Wings, prismatic and very high. The
articular surface is directed laterally. The wings also include the 2nd sacral vertebra. 5.
Sacral canal is compressed dorso-ventrally.
Pig: 4 or 5 segments. 1. Less curved ventral surface (almost straight). 2. Except for
the first, spinous processes are little developed. 3. 1st and 2nd participate in the
formation of wing and the articular surfaces are directed laterally. 4. Middle of the
dorsal surface presents openings into the sacral canal between adjacent arches.
Rabbit: 1. It is single bone in the adult animal formed by the fusion of four vertebrae.
2. Articulation with the pelvic girdle is primarily on the transverse process of the first
sacral vertebra.
Fowl: Lumbosacral mass
CAUDAL (COCCYGEAL) VERTEBRAE
Ox: Vary considerably in number. 15-21 in number. They gradually diminish in size from
1st to last. First 5 or 6 are typical vertebrae but the processes and the arches get
gradually reduced. The spinous processes are divided by virtue of the fact that the two
halves of the neural arches no longer meet. This leaves the spinal canal open dorsally,
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before it too disappears. Caudal ones are made of bodies only, which gradually become
smaller towards the tip of the tail. 2. Transverse processes are large. Articular
processes have no facets. 3. Coccygeal vertebrae of carnivores and cattle have
characteristic haemal processes (ventral surface presents a pair of processes) and
between these has a groove, the sulcus vasculosus for middle caudal artery.

Sheep and Goat: No haemal processes on the ventral surface.

Horse: 15 -21 numbers. Neural arch is incomplete after 4th as the lamina fails to meet.
Dog: 20-23 numbers. Haemal arches (or chevron bones) in the form of V or Y
ventrally at the intercentral junction of the 3rd, 4th and 5th coccygeal vertebrae which are
formed by the fusion of haemal processes. They transmit middle coccygeal artery which
passes further back between the haemal processes.
Pig: It is characterized by functional articular processes of 1st four or five beyond which
they become non-articular.
Fowl: 1st fused with the lumbosacral mass. Last 3 sided pyramidal shaped bone called
pygostyle formed by the fusion of last 3 or 4 vertebrae in the embryo and form the
foundation for the tail feathers. Pygostyle is a ploughshare- or sickle-shaped bony
plate. It is known as plowshare bone or rump post to which are attached several caudal
muscles and facia. Movement of pygostyle plays an important role in fligt. Pygostyle
also partitions a pair of oil glands (uropygeal gland or preen gland) which is very
important in water birdsin water proofing.

RIBS / COSTAE
These are elongated curved bones forming the skeleton of the thoracic wall.
Each articulates with two vertebrae, continued ventrally by a costal cartilage. The
number of ribs corresponds to the number of thoracic vertebrae. There are 13 pairs of
ribs in ox, sheep and goat, dog; 18 pairs in horse, 12 – 13 pairs in rabbit, 14 – 15 pairs in
 84

pig, 12 pairs in man and 19 pairs in elephant. There are ribs along the entire vertebral
column in lower vertebrates.

Sternal rib or True ribs or Bearing Ribs: are those which articulate with the sternum
by their costal cartilages. They are slightly curved and provide necessary firm basis for
the fibromuscular attachment of the scapula and forelimb. They are termed as bearing
ribs as they suspend the trunk between the forelimbs. There are 8 pairs of sternal ribs in
ox.
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Asternal ribs or False ribs or Respiratory ribs – 5 pairs. They do not form a direct
connection with the sternum, but their cartilages unite with one another, forming the
costal arch. They are strongly curved, highly mobile allowing free movement during
respiration and are termed as respiratory ribs.
Ratio of sternal to asternal ribs in different animals: Ox – 8:5, Horse – 8:10, Dog and
Cat – 9:4, Pig – 7:7/8, Elephant – 6:13
Floating ribs: Their ventral ends are free and not attached to an adjacent cartilage. eg.
Last pair of ribs in dog and cat, last 2 pairs in man, last 3 pairs in rabbit, last 4 pairs in
elephant and first 2 pairs in fowl. Absent in cattle and horse.
Intercostal space: Space between the ribs.
Costal cartilage: The bars of hyaline cartilage either connecting the bony rib to the
sternum or to the costal arch or ending freely. Cranially both the arches form an angle
into which xiphoid is placed. Cartilages of asternal ribs are longer than sternal ribs.
Costal arch: It is the curved structure formed by the costal cartilages of false ribs. The
costal cartilages of asternal ribs overlap and are connected to each other by elastic
tissue to form a curved structure known as costal arch.
Ox: 6th to 8th ribs are the broadest ribs and 7th to 10th are the longest.
Rib consists of a shaft and two extremities. Shaft is more curved at its upper
part; lower part is twisted and inclines inwards. Lateral surface is convex and presents
wide groove cranially. A point at which a rib is most curved is the angle (usually it will be
on the upper third) and presents a rough area at the angle for the longissimus dorsi
muscle. Medial surface is smooth, concave and caudal border is convex for intercostal
muscles.
Proximal / Vertebral extremity consists of a head, neck and a tubercle. Head
presents an articular area with two convex facets separated by a non-articular groove.
Facets are for the costal facets of two adjacent dorsal vertebrae and the groove is for
conjugal / intra-articular ligament. Neck joins the head to the shaft. Tubercle is situated
above and behind the head. Dorsally it presents a transversely placed concave facet for
tubercular facet of the vertebrae.
Lower (sternal) extremity is rough and articulates with the costal cartilage. Costal
cartilages are bars of hyaline cartilage. Those of sternal ribs articulates with the
sternum. Those of asternal ribs overlap and are attached to each other to form the
costal arch.
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First rib: Shortest and least curved. Sternal end widens. Lateral surface and the
anterior border present a rough area about its middle for the scalenus ventralis. At the
lower part of anterior border is a smooth impression left by the dorsal roots of the
brachial plexus. The costal groove is absent. The head is divided by an oblique ridge
into two facets. The tubercle is larger than that of any other rib. The first costal cartilage
is the shortest. In horse and pig, costal cartilages of first ribs of both sides unite each
other and with th sternum. In ox and dog, they articulate only with the sternum.
Sheep and Goat: 1. There are 13 pairs of ribs but the occurrence of 14 pair is common.
2. The 13th pair is often floating. 14th rib when present is floating 3. The ribs are
narrower and strongly curved in the anterior part of the series.
Horse: 18 pairs. Sternal -8; Asternal – 10. Ribs are narrower and more curved. The
neck is shorter. Length of the ribs increases upto the tenth and then diminishes.
Dog: 13 pairs. 9 sternal and 4 asternal, last one is floating rib. Strongly curved, narrow
and thick. 2. The heads of last 2 or 3 ribs articulate with only one vertebra. 3. The
costal cartilages are long and curve ventrally and forward.
Pig: 14-15 pairs; 7 sternal; 7 or 8 asternal ribs. 1. They are strongly curved with a
distinct angle. 2. The first rib is prismatic, has a large sternal end and a very short
cartilage. 3. The tubercle fuses with the head on the last 5 or 6.
Rabbit: 12-13 pairs, last pair is floating.
Fowl: 7 pairs. Each rib is made up of two parts, an upper vertebral rib and lower sternal
rib. So there are on costal cartilages in fowl. 1st, 2nd and sometimes 7th do not have
sternal ribs, therefore floating ribs. Caudal border of the vertebral ribs in its middle
presents uncinate process (except 1st and 7th) which overlap the succeeding ones.
They provide rigidity to te thorax. Sternal ribs represent mammalian costal cartilages.
 87

STERNUM (BREAST BONE):

It is an osseocartilaginous bone.
Ox: Medially placed segmented bone forming the floor of the thorax. It consists of 7
segments (Sternebrae) which are elongated and are connected by intervening cartilages
(which ossify and fuse in adults) forming synchondrosis. It is compressed laterally till
about the middle and thereafter it is flattened dorsoventrally. It is directed obliquely
downward and backward, having 2 surfaces, 2 borders and 2 extremities. Dorsal
surface is narrow in front, gradually wider behind forming the floor of the thorax. Ventral
surface is strongly convex in front, but more or less concave behind the 2nd sternebrae.
It gives attachments for pectoral muscles and rectus abdominis. Borders have 8
articular cavities or costal notches for costal cartilages.
Cranial extremity (1st segment) – Manubrium sterni / Presternum is thin and attaches
sternocephalicus and sternothyrohyoideus muscles. First pair of ribs are attached to
nd
the presternum; 2 to 6 to the intersternal junction; 7th and 8th to the metasternum.
th

Presternum carries cartilage in horse, pig and dog which is known as cartilage of the
manubrium. It is a blunt cone in pig and dog but laterally flattened in horse and is known
as sternal crest which is in the form of a keel of ship.
Caudal extremity – Metasternum is formed by 7th segment with xiphoid process and
xiphoid cartilage which is a thin flexible, circular cartilage. Xiphoid cartilage is narrow in
pig and dog but broad and leaf –like in ruminants and horse. In horse, the xiphoid
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process (ie the bony portion) is absent. Only the xiphoid cartilage is present.
Metasternum attaches diaphragm
Mesosternum (2nd to 6th) or body forms between presternum and metasternum.
Sheep and Goat: resembles that of ox. The number of segments may be reduced to
six. The first segment is cylindrical with enlarged ends. The second and third are wide
and flat. The last is long and narrow.
Horse: 7 sternebrae. Boat shaped consisting of 3 surfaces (dorsal and two lateral
surfaces), 3 borders (ventral and two dorsolateral borders) and 2 extremities.
Manubrium has a laterally flattened process with cariniform cartilage which presents a
deep notch superiorly for articulation with the first two costal cartilages
. The fist sternebra is fused with the second.
Dog: 8 sternebrae; fused only in old dogs. Cranial end presents a short blunt conical
cartilage – presternal cartilage. Xiphoid cartilage is narrow.
Pig: 6 sternebrae; resembles that of ox. 1st segment is long, flattened laterally and bears
a blunt pointed cartilage cranially. Xiphoid cartilage is narrow.
Rabbit: 6 sternebrae. Body of the sternum extends from 2nd to 5th sternebra.
Xiphisternum is the last sternebra formed from the bony xiphoid process and the xiphoid
cartilage.
Fowl: Sternum or keel bone differs from the corresponding structure of domestic
mammals since it is formed entirely of bone in the adult. Five segments fuse and form
the bony sternum. Cranially the rostrum/ manubrium has a single bony projection, the
manubrial spine. The middle part the body has facets (sulcus) on the cranial border for
the coracoid. Lateral border presents 4 depressions for 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th ribs. Caudally the
metasternum carries ventrally the keel (sternal crest)/ Carina which serves as the bony
surfaces for the origin of the flight muscles (pectorals). On the dorsal surface of the
sternum there are foramina through which air sacs communicates with the interior of the
bone. Craniolateral part of the body projects as sternochoracoidal process (smaller) and
caudolateral part as caudolateral processes with medial and lateral divisions. The
caudomedial division is parallel to metasternum and lateral is smaller and called the
thoracic process. In life the notches between these processes and metasternum are
closed by tough membranes.
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THORAX
Thoracic cavity is the cranial visceral cavity compressed laterally, narrow in front and
wide behind

Sheep and Goat: similar to that of ox

Horse: Very much compressed laterally and longer.
Dog: Barrel shaped
Pig: Long and more barrel shaped
Fowl: Base incomplete as the diaphragm is rudimentary.
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SKULL
Skull forms the bony framework of the head, lodges the brain, sense organs and
part of the respiratory and digestive systems. It also provides attachment for the facial
muscles and muscles of mastication. The immovable joints located between most of the
bones of the skull are termed sutures. Small irregular bones situated in the sutures of
the cranial bones are called as Sutural or Wormian bones. They are present at the
junction between lacrimal and zygomatic bones, fronto-nasal, internasal, lacrimo-nasal,
zygomatico-maxillary and maxillo-nasal incisive sutures. Bones of the skull are finally
united after ossification of their sutures to form the upper part of the skull, while the
mandible and hyoid are attached by means of movable joints.

Bones of the skull are grouped as cranial and facial bones. Cranial bones
surround the brain and known as Neurocranium. Facial bones enclose the nasal and
oral cavities and known as Splanchnocranium. The sense organs with the exception of
the gustatory organs are situated in special bony compartments.
The shape of the skull differs from species to species depending on the
development of the brain, formation of frontal sinus after birth and growth of cornual
processes. The splanchnocranium of the domestic animals is larger than the
neurocranium, the reverse being in man. In horse, ruminants and pigs, the
splanchnocranium is large to provide attachment for the muscles of mastication while
cats and some breeds of dogs have a larger neurocranium. Different breeds of dogs
display great variations in the form and size of the skull. Those which have long narrow
skull (eg. Greyhound, Collie) are designated as dolichocephalic, some have very short,
broad skull are termed brachycephalic (eg. Bull dog, small spaniels, Pugs) and those
with an intermediate conformation are termed as mesaticephalic (eg. Fox Terrier,
Daschund). The spalnchnocranium of domestic animals lies in front of the neurocranium
while that of man is below it. Thus it provides ample space for the attachment of muscles
of mastication as well as adequate space to accomodate the teeth. Thus the skull can
be likened to a pyramid, the base is caudal and the apex is rostral.
The bones of the skull are flat and consist of a compact lamina externa and
interna between which lies the spongy middle layer called diploe. Some of the bones of
the skull are invaded during embryonic development by mucous membrane from the
nasal cavity (lined by respiratory mucous membrane) and contain air (pneumatic bones).
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The pneumatic spaces are connected to the nasal cavity and hence they are known as
paranasal sinuses.

CRANIUM
Number of bones in the bovine skull is 35 (including ear ossicles and hyoid bone).
Cranial bones (Total = 10): Occipital, Sphenoid, Ethmoid and Interparietal (single),
Parietal, Temporal and Frontal bones (paired). Bones of the cranium form the margins
of the cavity of the skull, which lodges the brain and meninges.
Facial bones (Total = 19): Nasal, premaxilla, maxilla, palatine, pterygoid, lacrimal,
malar and turbinates (paired); vomer, mandible and hyoid (unpaired).
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OCCIPITAL BONE
Ox: Unpaired bone situated on the ventral part of the caudal face of the skull enclosing
the foramen magnum, which links the cranial cavity with the vertebral canal. It consists
of (1) Squamous part or Supraoccipital (2) Lateral parts or Ex-occipital and (3) Basilar
part or Basioccipital or Body.
Supraoccipital or Squamous part: is a quadrilateral plate of bone lying between the
lateral parts, squamous temporal, parietal and interparietal bones. Externally it presents
the external occipital protuberance for the attachment of funicular part of ligamentum
nuchae except in pig and cat in which the ligamentum nuchae is absent. In adult, it is
excavated to form a part of the frontal sinus. Supraoccipital presents nuchal crest in
horse, pig and dog. The mastoid foramen is situated on each side at the junction of the
occipital and squamous temporal bones. It communicates with the temporal and
condyloid canals at their junction. The cerebral surface of the squamous part presents a
shallow median fossa for the vermis of the cerebellum. Above this is a small eminence,
the internal occipital protuberance. A groove on either side (lodging in life the transverse
sinus) leads into the temporal canal.
Ex-occipital or Lateral parts: form the lateral limits of the foramen magnum. In the
upper border of foramen magnum, there are nuchal tubercles in dog and pig. Lateral part
consists of a condyle and a jugular or paracondylar or paramastoid process for muscular
attachment. The condyle articulates with the atlas. Jugular processes are wide and
bent medially. It is absent in man, short in carnivores, long in ruminants and horses and
longest in pig. Between the paracondylar process and the condyle is the condyloid
fossa, which presents the hypoglossal foramen for the passage of hypoglossal (XIIth
cranial) nerve. Above this is another (often double) foramen, which conducts a vein from
the condyloid canal. The condyloid canal passes upward from this foramen on the
medial side of the condyle and opens into temporal canal. The canal lodges a vein,
which connects the transverse sinus of dura mater and basilar plexus of veins.
Basioccipital or Body: forms the caudal part of the base of the skull. It is wide, thick
bar and lodges the pons and medulla oblongata on its internal face. At the rostral end
(at the junction with the basisphenoid) it presents two tubercles, the basilar tubercles for
muscular attachment (longus capitis muscle). Lateral border forms the medial margins of
the jugular foramen which is for the passage of IXth, Xth and XIth cranial nerves. Caudal
border forms the cranial margin of the foramen magnum. Foramen lacerum is absent in
ruminants and carnivores. Petro-occipital fissure is small in ruminants.
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Horse: Placed at the extreme caudal part of the skull. The condyles are obliquely
placed. Only the hypoglossal foramen is present in the condyloid fossa. Jugular
process is longer and narrower. External surface of the squamous part is crossed by a
prominent ridge, the nuchal crest, transverse in direction and forms the highest point of
the skull. Basilar part is longer and the basilar tubercles are smaller. Its lateral wall
forms the boundary of jugular foramen, petro-occipital fissure and foramen lacerum. (In
all animals, the most caudally situated opening is the jugular foramen, which transmits
IXth, Xth and XIth cranial nerves. In pigs, horses and man, there is a foramen lacerum,
which is situated rostrally. This foramen is absent in carnivores and ruminants. Jugular
foramen and foramen lacerum are connected by the petro-occipital fissure, which is
narrow in ruminants and absent in carnivores).
Dog: Similar to that of horse. Situated at the extreme caudal part of the skull and the
nuchal crest is prominent and directed backwards. Jugular process is short. There is
only one foramen in the condyloid fossa. The basilar part is wide and joins the bulla
tympanica on either side. The basilar tubercles are at the junction with the bulla.

Pig: Situated at the caudal part of the skull. Paracondylar process is longer. Extensive
squamous part is concave, thick and rough above forming a broad and prominent nuchal
crest (highest part of the skull). Two ridges diverge upward from the foramen magnum
and enclose the nuchal surface, which is concave and smooth to form the squamous
occipital fossa. Occipital condyles converge with each other ventrally.
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Fowl: Bones of the cranium in fowl loose their identity early after hatching as the sutures
are ossified and fused together. Occipital condyle is single and articulates with the atlas
and axis.
SPHENOID BONE
Unpaired bone that forms the rostral part of the base of the skull and it takes the
form of a wedge, which lies between the occipital bone and the ethmoid. It has two
parts, basisphenoid (postsphenoid) and presphenoid. At birth the two are united by
synchondrosis.
Basisphenoid: lies next to the basilar part of occipital. It has a body, two temporal
wings and two pterygoid (subsphenoidal) processes. On the floor of the cranial cavity
(internal surface), the body of the basisphenoid has the sella turcica (hypophyseal
fossa) for the lodgment of the pituitary or hypophysis cerebri. Behind this fossa, there is
a transverse projection, dorsum sellae. The external surface of the body presents
close to its junction with the pterygoid, a videan groove for the nerve of the pterygoid
canal, the videan nerve.
Temporal wings diverge outwards and perforated by foramen ovale for
mandibular nerve and middle meningeal artery. Rostral margin forms the upper
boundary of the foramen orbitorotundum for the IIIrd, IVth and VIth cranial nerves and
maxillary and ophthalmic divisions of the Vth cranial nerve. It is free anterolaterally to
form the pterygoid crest. The posterior border forms the anterior margin of the foramen
lacerum.
The pterygoid or subsphenoidal processes spring from the anterior part of the
wing and is directed downward and forward. Its medial face is covered by the pterygoid
and palatine bones.
Presphenoid: Consists of a body and two orbital wings. Externally the body is
concealed by vomer and laterally by the pterygoid bones. The videan groove is
continued by the videan canal at the junction of the wing with the body and opens into
the pterygopalatine fossa. Internal surface of the body presents anteriorly a median
ethmoidal spine, which joins the crista galli of the ethmoid bone. In the adult, the body of
the presphenoid is slightly excavated to form the sphenoidal sinus.
The orbital wings are larger than the temporal wings. External surface forms a
part of the orbital wall. It is overlapped by the frontal in such a manner that it appears to
divide into two branches. Orbital wings are pierced by optic grooves leading to optic
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foramen for optic nerve. Caudal border forms the lower margin of foramen
orbitorotundum.
Horse: Caudal margin of the postsphenoid which forms the rostral margin of the
foramen lacerum has three notches, medial carotid, middle oval and lateral spinosal
notches. Foramen lacerum is a large triangular gap in the dry skull and is largely closed
in life by dense fibrous tissue with a posterior opening, the foramen lacerum posterius or
jugular foramen for the IXth, Xth and XIth cranial nerves and anteriorly the three notches
are converted into foramina for the passage of carotid artery, mandibular nerve and
middle meningeal artery, respectively. The foramen ovale is absent. Root of the
pterygoid process contains alar canal, which begins as caudal alar foramen and ends as
rostral alar foramen and transmits internal maxillary artery. Foramen orbitale and
foramen rotundum are separate. Foramen rotundum opens into the rostral alar foramen
but its actual opening can be seen at caudal alar foramen and it opens into cranial
cavity. Foramen orbitale is for IIIrd, and VIth cranial nerves and ophthalmic division of the
Vth cranial nerve and external ophthalmic vein. Foramen rotundum is for maxillary
division of Vth cranial nerve. Trochlear foramen in horse is located on the caudolateral
aspect of optic and orbitale foramina on the basisphenoid through which the trochlear
nerve passes. In ox, this nerve passes through foramen orbitorotundum. Anteriorly, the
orbital wings of the presphenoid meet the cribriform plate of ethmoid and orbital plates of
frontal to form the ethmoidal foramen. The sphenoidal sinus in the body of presphenoid
communicates with the palatine sinus in the vertical part of palatine bone.
Dog: Caudal border of the wing of postsphenoid has three foramina instead of notches
namely canalis caroticus, foramen ovale and foramen spinosum. Alar canal is present.
Foramen orbitale and foramen rotundum are separate. Sphenoidal sinus is absent.
Pig: Three notches are present as in the case of horse. Foramen ovale is absent. Alar
canal is also absent.
Fowl: The sphenoid is concealed largely by a large triangular basitemporal or
subsphenoid bone.

ETHMOID

It is an unpaired bone situated in front of presphenoid. Consists of (1) Cribriform

plate or lamina cribrosa, (2) Perpendicular plate or lamina perpendicularis and (3) Two
lateral masses or ethmoidal labyrinths (labyrinth = complicated network of winding
passages).
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Cribriform plate is a sieve like partition between cranial and nasal cavities.
Cerebral surface is divided by a median ridge, the crista galli or ethmiodal crest. Each
half has an ethmiodal fossa for olfactory bulb and the cribriform plate is perforated by
numerous foramina for olfactory nerve filaments.
Lamina perpendicularis is a median septum, which divides the nasal cavity into
two and runs directly forwards on to the cartilaginous nasal septum. It forms an arch-like
crista galli, which projects into the cranial cavity. Ventral border is received into vomer.
Ethmoidal labyrinths (lateral masses) are situated in the caudal part of the nasal
cavity and is attached to the nasal part of the cribriform plate. These are separated by
the lamina perpendicularis. It consists of scroll-like plates of bone, the ethmoturbinates.
In fresh state, the ethmoturbinates are covered with olfactory mucous membrane.
Dog: Poorly developed crista galli and only one ethmoidal fossa.
Fowl: The lateral masses and the horizontal part are absent. The perpendicular plates
form the interorbital septum with the sphenoid.
INTERPARIETAL BONE

Single between the parietal above and supraoccipital below. The two parts of the
bone fuse early in life forming a single caudally directed bone that forms part of the
nuchal surface in ox.

Horse: It is located on the dorsal aspect of the cranium. Outer surface bears part of the
external parietal crest. The internal aspect presents a three-sided process – the internal
occipital protuberance or the ossific tentorium.

Pig: It does not extend as far as the surface of the cranium but either fuses internally
with the squamous occipital or absent.

Dog: Outer surface bears part of the external parietal crest.

PARIETAL BONE

Forms the caudal wall and lateral part of the cranium in ox. It is made up of
horizontal parietal plate and lateral temporal plate. The two regions are separated by
parietal crest, which is continuous with the temporal crest below. Parietal plate is also
known as nuchal plate in ox.

In horse, pig and dog, parietal forms the dorsal part of the skull, the roof of the cranium.
It is marked by the parietal crest or external sagittal crest in the median line, which
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diverges and is continued as temporal lines in the frontal bone in dog (ie frontal crest)
and temporal bone in horse.

FRONTAL BONE
Situated on the upper part of the skull, and forms the roof of the cranium. The
two frontal bones meet at interfrontal suture. It is the largest cranial bone and the
characteristic appearance of the skull is largely due to the shape of the frontal bones. It
consists of a body (frontal part), orbital plate and temporal part.
Body presents supraorbital groove externally with supraorbital foramen (upper
opening of the supraorbital canal). The supraorbital foramen is absent in pig and dog,
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located more laterally on the supraorbital process in horse and often double in ox. The
bone consists of two tables between which is a large frontal sinus. Internal surface
forms part of cranial and nasal cavities. Caudomedial angle joins with the parietal bone
and at the junction forms the large central frontal eminence – torus frontalis or poll,
which is the highest point of the skull. Caudolateral angle has a large conical process,
the horn core. Rostrally it forms a notch with its fellow to receive the 2 nasal bones.
This naso-frontal suture often presents wormian bones.
Orbital plate forms the medial wall of the orbit and presents the orbital opening of
the supraorbital canal. It presents the ethmoidal foramen. Temporal plate is very small
and forms the upper part of the temporal fossa. It is separated from the frontal part by
frontal crest or temporal line.

Supraorbital (zygomatic) process of the frontal forms the caudal part of the orbit.
It meets the frontal process of the zygomatic bone, thus completing the caudal wall of
the orbit.

Horse: Situated rostrally on the limit of the cranium and face. Supraorbital process joins
with the zygomatic process of the temporal and its root is perforated by the supraorbital
foramen. Horn core is absent.

Dog: Location exactly resembles to that of horse. External surface is crossed by a

frontal crest. Supraorbital process is very short and supraorbital foramen is absent.
Supraorbital margin or the caudal part of the orbit is incomplete. Ethmoidal foramen is in
the frontal bone and is often double. In cats and some breeds of dogs, middle part of
the frontal bone is depressed to form the frontal fossa.

Pig: Supraorbital process is short and is not connected with the zygomatic arch. It is
connected by orbital ligament; thus completes the caudal margin of the orbit.
Supraorbital foramen is absent.

Fowl: It is the largest bone of the cranium. It consists of a body and orbital plate.

TEMPORAL

Paired and form part of the lateral wall of the cranium. It is situated between the
occipital behind, parietal and frontal dorsally and sphenoid ventrally. It consists of
squamous and petrous divisions.
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Squamous temporal: has a body and zygomatic process. Body is divided by the
temporal crest (it is the continuation of the parietal crest) into two parts; a larger area in
the temporal fossa and a small area behind the crest that meets the occipital bone.
Zygomatic process is wide behind and narrow in front, forming part of the temporal
fossa. It articulates with the temporal process of the zygomatic bone with which it forms
the zygomatic arch. It presents a condyle, a glenoid cavity – (fossa mandibularis) and
post-glenoid process (retroarticular process) for articulation with the mandible. Behind
this process is the chief opening of the temporal canal, the postglenoid foramen.

Petrous temporal (the word came from St. Peter’s rock): situated between occipital and
squamous temporal. It is the hardest bone in the skull and consists of petrous part and
tympanic part. Petrous part contains the internal ear. Medial face presents the internal
acoustic meatus for VIIth and VIIIth cranial nerves. Tympanic part consists of external
acoustic process and meatus. From it a plate projects rostroventrally and helps to
enclose the deep depression in which the styloid process is placed. Caudal to this plate
is the stylomastoid foramen. Styloid (hyoid) process articulates with the hyoid bone.
Tympanic part also presents bulla tympanica, which encloses the middle ear. Thus
tympanic part lying at the base of the temporal bone presents bulla tympanica, which
encloses the middle ear; external auditory process, which surrounds the external
auditory meatus; hyoid process (below the external auditory process); stylomastoid
foramen (between the hyoid and paramastoid process); and muscular process, which
projects from the bulla in a downward and forward direction. Mastoid process projects
between postglenoid process and root of paramastoid process. In ox, it is in the form of
a crest behind the external auditory process. It is crossed by a groove, which leads to
mastoid foramen. Mastoid foramen is on the nuchal surface above the foramen
magnum ie. between occipital and temporal bones.

Facial canal or aqueductus Fallopius is the canal connecting the internal

acoustic meatus and the stylomastoid foramen and lodges the facial nerve. Temporal
canal is the continuation of the transverse groove from the base of the internal occipital
protuberance and opens externally at the postglenoid foramen and contains dorsal
cerebral vein, the continuation of the transverse sinus of the dura mater.

Horse: Prominent osseous external acoustic meatus and poorly developed tympanic
bulla. Mastoid process is a round process cranial to and at the base of paramastoid
process. The squamous part is relatively larger and presents a zygomatic and posterior
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triangular process. The zygomatic process meets not only the malar but also the
supraorbital process of the frontal. The posterior process springs from the posterior
aspect of the body and presents a temporal crest on its lateral face. Its medial surface
forms the outer boundary of the temporal canal.

Dog: Styloid process is absent and hyoid articulates with the mastoid process of petrous
temporal. The parts of the temporal bone fuse early. Zygomatic process is strongly
curved. Its anterior part is beveled ventrally and articulates extensively with the
corresponding process of malar. The articular area is represented by a transverse
groove and it extends upon the front of the large postglenoid process. The external
acoutic meatus is very short and wide so that in the dry skull one can see into the
tympanum. The bulla tympanica is very large, rounded and smooth and its medial side
is united to the basilar part of the occipital bone. The muscular process is very
rudimentary.

Pig: Styloid process is absent and hyoid articulates with the nuchal process of
squamous temporal. It is a projection of squamous temporal, which is placed between
external acoustic meatus and paracondylar process of occipital.

Fowl: The squamous temporal lies on the lateral aspect of the cranium. It presents
supraorbital and zygomatic processes. The supraorbital process is fused to that of the
frontal and furnishes a facet for the quadrate bone. The petrous temporal is concealed
by the adjacent bones. It forms the floor of the tympanic cavity and a part of the facet for
the quadrate bone.

CRANIAL CAVITY

Boundaries of cranial cavity in ox:

Roof – Frontal bones.
Lateral walls – Temporals
Floor – Basioccipital, Presphenoid and Postsphenoid
Nuchal wall or Caudal wall – Parietal, Interparietal and Squamous and lateral parts of
occipital.
Nasal or rostral wall – Ethmoid.
Boundaries of cranial cavity in horse, pig and dog:
Roof – Frontal, parietal and interparietal bones.
Lateral walls – Temporals
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Floor – Basioccipital, Presphenoid and Postsphenoid

Nuchal wall or Caudal wall – Squamous and lateral parts of occipital.
Nasal or rostral wall – Ethmoid.

The cranial cavity encloses the brain with its coverings and blood vessels. The
cavity can be divided into three compartments. (1) The olfactory compartment lies at
the anterior end and it is divided by the crista galli of ethmoid bone into two oval olfactory
or ethmoidal fossae, which accommodate the olfactory bulbs. (2) The cerebral
compartment greatly exceeds the other two in size. Its floor is formed by the
sphenoids, the roof by the frontal and the lateral wall by temporal. The internal occipital
protuberance above and the petrosal crests laterally indicate the demarcation between
the cerebral and cerebellar compartments (to which the tentorium cerebelli is attached).
(3) The cerebellar compartment is enclosed by the basioccipital below and the
squamous part of occipital above and behind.

FACIAL BONES
Bones of the face articulate around the nasal cavity. The lower surface of the
nasal cavity provides the roof of the oral cavity, the lateral walls and incomplete floor of
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which are formed by the movable mandible. Hyoid bone is lying in between the
mandible and articulates with the temporal bone.
MAXILLA
It is the largest facial bone on the upper jaw and the other facial bones are
arranged around it. It forms the largest part of lateral wall of the face and the bony basis
of the hard palate. It consists of a body and two processes – zygomatic and palatine
processes.
The body lies on the upper outer wall of the face (lateral face) and has the
infraorbital foramen at the level of the 1st upper cheek tooth in ox for the passage of
infraorbital artery and nerve. Infraorbital foramen is at the level of upper 2nd cheek tooth
in small ruminants and cat, upper 3rd cheek tooth in dog and horse and upper 3rd or 4th
cheek teeth in pig. The infraorbital foramen has clinical significance when the sensory
infraorbital nerve which traverses the infraorbital canal has to be anaesthetized. At the
level of the 3rd of 4th cheek tooth in ox is the facial tuberosity, extending caudally from
which is the facial crest. Facial crest is present in horse and pig, it is in the form of a
tuberosity in ox and is absent in dog. Ventral or alveolar border shows six alveoli for
cheek teeth caudally. Caudal extremity forms the maxillary tuberosity, which bears a
small pointed process. Infraorbital canal extends from the maxillary foramen to the
infraorbital foramen horizontally.
Zygomatic process projects from the caudal extremity and is overlapped by the
zygomatic bone. Palatine process forms the rostral part of the bony palate. It projects
medially as a horizontal plate, and unites with its fellow of the other side at the palatine
suture. Caudally it fuses with the horizontal plate of the palatine bone and in front, it
forms the palatine fissure with parts of the incisive bone. The composite bony palate
forms both the roof of the oral cavity and floor of the nasal cavity. The nasal surface of
the palatine process carries the nasal crest for the attachment of vomer. Maxillary bone
has the maxillary sinus in the body and the palatine process of maxilla. Sutural
(wormian) bones are present at the junction with the lacrimal and zygomatic bones.
Horse: Infraorbital foramen is at the level of the upper 3rd cheek tooth. Facial crest is
prominent and extends to the zygomatic bone.
Dog: Infraorbital foramen is at the level of upper 3rd cheek tooth. Facial crest is absent.
Pig: Infraorbital foramen is at the level of upper 3rd or 4th cheek teeth. Facial crest is
present. Canine fossa or fossa canina is the concavity on the lateral surface of the
face in front of the orbit, which is extended in maxilla, lacrimal and zygomatic bones. In
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deer and sheep similar fossa can be seen on the lacrimal bone, which is known as
external lacrimal fossa. Enlargement of the maxilla caused by the root of the upper
canine tooth in pig is known as eminentia canina.
PREMAXILLA/ INCISIVE BONE
Forms the cranial or rostral part of the upper jaw. It helps to determine the shape
of the nasal orifice and bony palate. It consists of a body and two processes. The body
is a horizontal plate and forms the basis for dental pad (upper incisors are absent in
ruminants). Nasal process projects obliquely towards the roof of the nasal cavity and
joins with the maxilla. Palatine process lies rostrally on the bony palate in the space
formed by the maxilla. It is joined caudally to the palatine process of the maxilla.
Palatine fissure is seen between the nasal and palatine processes. Incisive fissure is
seen between the bodies of the two incisive bones.

Horse: Body presents alveoli for upper incisors. Nasal process reaches to the nasal
bone. Incisive foramen is present instead of incisive fissure.
Dog: Body presents alveoli for incisors. Incisive foramen is present instead of incisive
fissure in dog but absent in cat.
Pig: Body presents alveoli for incisors. Rostral bone or os rostrale is present in the
snout of pig and in the upper lip, lying dorsal to the incisive bone and attached to the
rostral end of nasal bone.
PALATINE BONE
It is situated on either side of the caudal nares. It consists of a horizontal part
and a perpendicular part. Horizontal part contributes to the formation of caudal ¼ th of
the bony palate and fuses with the palatine process of maxilla. Thus the bony palate is
formed by palatine process of maxilla, palatine process of premaxilla and horizontal part
of palatine bone. Nasal surface presents a crest for the attachment of vomer. It
contains palatine sinus, along with the palatine process of maxilla. Perpendicular part is
a quadrilateral thin plate, which forms the caudal part of the nasal cavity. Horizontal
plate is perforated by the rostral or greater palatine foramen (sometimes paired) in
continuation with which is the faint palatine groove in front. Greater palatine foramen
varies in position in different species of animals. It is seen in the palatine process of
maxilla in pig, in horizontal part of palatine bone in ox and cat and at the junction
between the two in horse, dog and small ruminants. Perpendicular part is perforated by
caudal or lesser palatine foramen. Perpendicular part presents a notch along its dorsal
border, which with the ethmoid and sphenoid forms the sphenopalatine foramen.
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Pterygopalatine fossa is limited laterally by the maxillary tuberosity and medially by

perpendicular plate of palatine bone. It contains three foramina (1) maxillary foramen,
which leads to infraorbital canal (for infraorbital nerve and vessels), (2) sphenopalatine
foramen that opens into nasal cavity (for the posterior nasal branch of maxillary nerve)
and (3) caudal palatine foramen which leads to the palatine canal (greater or anterior
palatine nerve and caudal palatine artery). Choanae or caudal nares or caudal opening
of nasal cavity is formed by pterygoid processes of postsphenoid, pterygoid bone and
perpendicular part of palatine bone.
Horse: Horizontal part is narrow and not excavated to form the palatine sinus. Rostral
palatine foramen is between the horizontal part and the palatine process of maxilla.
Perpendicular part is excavated to form the sphenopalatine sinus.
Dog: Horizontal and perpendicular parts are extensive. Rostral palatine foramen is
between palatine process of maxilla and palatine.
Pig: Rostral palatine foramen is in the palatine process of maxilla.
PTERYGOID BONE
These plates of bone are situated on either side of the caudal nares. Lateral
surface is almost entirely united to the palatine bone and pterygoid process of sphenoid.
Ventral extremity is free and forms a hook-like process, hamulus pterygoideus around
which the tendon of the tensor palati muscle is reflected.
Horse: Shorter and narrower
Dog: Wide and short.
NASAL BONE
Elongated curved (side to side) plates situated in front of the frontals and form the
greater part of the roof of the nasal cavity. It does not fuse laterally even in old age. The
dorsal facial surface is convex; ventral nasal surface concave; medial half forms the
dorsal nasal meatus. The rostral most part of the lateral border is free to form the
nasoincisive notch with the incisive bone. The rostral end is divided into two parts by a
deep notch and the rostral ends of two bones together present a trifid appearance (in the
form of ’W’). The caudal end is pointed and is received into the notch formed by frontals.
Nasal bone is straight in its length in most of the domestic mammals but in cat, sheep
and “Roman-nosed” breeds of horses, it is slightly convex in longitudinal plane.

Horse: Caudal ends of two bones together form a notch into which the pointed rostral
ends of frontals are received. The rostral end is pointed.
Dog: Rostral ends form a semicircular notch. Caudal end is pointed.
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Pig: Both the rostral and caudal ends are pointed.

LACRIMAL BONE (lacrima = tear)

Situated at the rostral part of the orbit. The lateral surface is divided into facial
and orbital parts by the orbito-facial crest. The orbital part forms the rostral and part of
the medial wall and floor of the orbit. Behind the crest is the lacrimal gland fossa at the
bottom of which is the caudal opening of the lacrimal canal, which conveys nasolacrimal
duct. On the floor of the orbit is a large, thin walled protruberance – the lacrimal bulla –
into which the maxillary sinus extends. This is seen only in ruminants. Facial part is
extensive. The nasal (internal) face presents the osseous naso-lacrimal canal (duct).
Horse: Lacrimal bulla is absent.
Dog: Facial part is small or absent.
Pig: Facial part participates in the formation of fossa canina. Instead of the lacrimal
gland fossa, two lacrimal foramina are seen on the facial surface of lacrimal bone.
ZYGOMATIC (MALAR) BONE (mala = cheek)

Ventrolateral to the lacrimal bone. It is irregularly triangular between the lacrimal

and maxilla. It consists of a body and two processes, temporal and frontal processes.
Body forms the orbital margin of maxillary sinus along with the lacrimal and maxilla
internally. Temporal process articulates with the zygomatic arch. Frontal process
articulates with the supraorbital (zygomatic) process of frontal and forms the caudal
margin of orbit. Facial and orbital surfaces are separated by a ridge.

Horse: Caudal extremity is not divided and the temporal process is overlapped by the
zygomatic process of temporal. The frontal process is absent and the temporal bone
also participate in the formation of caudal wall of orbit.
Dog: Body has a dorsal lacrimal process and ventral maxillary process. Temporal
process meets with the zygomatic process of temporal and frontal process is for the
attachment of orbital ligament. Caudal wall of the bony orbit is open.
Pig: Frontal process for orbital ligament. Temporal process is for the temporal bone.
Caudal wall of the bony orbit is open as in dog.
TURBINATES (NASAL CONCHAE)
Delicate scroll like bones, two on either side attached to the lateral walls of the
nasal cavity. Each is a thin cribriform lamina, covered on both side by mucus membrane
in fresh state. The two bones are the dorsal turbinate (small) and ventral turbinate
(large). Medial face is separated from the septum nasi by a narrow space, the common
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nasal meatus and lateral face is attached to the nasal bone. Caudal part joins the
cribriform plate and lateral masses of ethmoid. Between the roof of the nasal cavity and
the dorsal turbinate is the dorsal nasal meatus. Between the dorsal and ventral
turbinates is the middle meatus. Ventral turbinate is larger and attached to the maxilla
by a basal lamina, which divides into plates rolling in opposite direction to enclose the
cavities. The upper cavity opens into the middle meatus and lower to the ventral
meatus. Ethmoturbinate is attached to the ethmoid.
VOMER
It is a median unpaired bone forming the ventral part of the septum nasi. Rostral
ends rests in a groove formed by palatine process of premaxilla. Rostral third of the
ventral edge fits into the nasal crest of maxilla and behind is free.
MANDIBLE (mandere = to masticate)
It is a single bone (lower jaw bone) and is the largest bone of the face. It is made
up of two halves, which do not fuse completely so that a symphysis mandibulae is
present (unlike that of horse and pig, where they unite by synchondrosis which ossify
later). Mandible consists of a body and two rami - horizontal and vertical rami.
Body forms the rostral part and consists of (a) lingual surface, which is covered
by mucous membrane and the tip of the tongue rests on it (b) mental (external) surface,
which is related to the lower lip and (c) the symphyseal surface, which is rough and
irregular. The alveolar (upper) border carries six alveoli for lower incisors. Horizontal
rami diverge backwards from the body and enclose the mandibular space. Each half of
the manbible is bent to form the horizontal and vertical rami and the junction of two rami
forms the angle of the jaw. The alveolar border presents the inter-alveolar space in front
and six alveoli for cheek teeth behind. Horizontal part at its junction with the body
presents externally the mental foramen (cranial opening of the inferior dental canal /
mandibular canal). Mental foramen is single in ox and horse, 2 to 3 in dog and 4 to 5 in
number in pig. Ventral border of horizontal part is convex and presents impression for
facial vessels and parotid duct; concave and thin in the vertical part. Vertical ramus in
the middle of the lingual or medial surface presents the madibular foramen (caudal
opening of the mandibular canal). Vertical part serves for muscular attachment. The
caudal extremity presents a coronoid process in front, condylar process behind and a
mandibular notch in between to separate the two processes. The coronoid process is
long, curves backwards into the temporal fossa and gives attachment to the temporalis
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muscle. The condylar process elongates transversely and articulates with the zygomatic
process of the squamous temporal through the medium of articular disc.

Horse: The two halves of the mandible fuse together after birth, hence described as a
single bone. Alveolar border of the body presents six alveoli for the lower incisors and
two for the canines. The coronoid process is more or less straight.
Dog: Two halves do not fuse. Six alveoli are there for incisors and two for canines. The
condylar process is placed very low; coronoid process is extensive and is bent slightly
outward and backward. Lateral surface of the vertical ramus shows a deep masseteric
fossa. Angular process projects backwards from the angle between the two rami.
Pig: Single as in horse. Coronoid process is small and thin edged. Horizontal rami
diverge at a greater angle. Alveoli for incisors and canines as in horse and dog.
Fowl: Single bone; each half is made up of five pieces in the embryo. The two halves
fuse rostrally.
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HYOID BONE
It is situated between the vertical rami of the mandible and extends obliquely
downwards and forwards from the temporals above to the root of the tongue below. It
consists of a body, a lingual process and four pairs of cornua.
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The body or basihyoid is a short rod of bone placed transversely. The rostral
border in its middle carries the short blunt lingual process (glossohyoid), which is
embedded in the root of the tongue. It is small in ox, long in horse and absent in dog
and pig. Caudo-laterally the body is attached to the thyroid cornu, the thyrohyoid which
projects backwards from the body towards thyroid cartilage of the larynx. Ceratohyoid
(small cornu) is paired and is united to the body by a movable joint. Its upper ends
articulate with the epihyoid or middle cornu. Epihyoid is a small rod, which articulates
with the small cornu ventrally and great cornu or stylohyoid dorsally. Stylohyoid is the
largest piece and is directed upward and backward. Its upper end resembles a human
foot and has a heel-like part, the muscular angle for muscular attachment and toe-like
part, the articular angle, which is connected to the hyoid process of the petrous
temporal.

Horse: Lingual process is longer with its free end pointed. The body, thyrohoid and
glossohyoid (lingual process) are fused and resemble a spur of fork. Epihyoid is small
and fuses with stylohyoid.

Dog: Lingual process is absent. Epihyoid is longer; stylohyoid is bent and twisted
dorsally and presents a bar of cartilage, the tympanohyoid.
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Pig: Lingual process is very short or absent. Thyrohyoid is wide and curved; stylohyoid
is slender rod and dorsal extremity presents the tympanohyoid for articulation with
temporal.
Fowl: Seven bony segments – three median and two lateral processes. Rostral is
entoglossal (embedded in the tongue), second is basihyal (body) and the third is
urohyal. Lateral process consists of a rostral basi-branchial and caudal cerato-branchial
connected by cartilage. The lateral processes extend caudally and dorsally towards the
occipital bone.

NASAL CAVITY
The nasal cavity occupies the entire facial part of the skull. The nasal septum
divides the cavity into right and left halves extending towards the nasal cavity in the
perpendicular plate of ethmoid. It is continued rostrally by the cartilaginous nasal
septum. Ventrally the septum is supported in a groove, the sulcus septalis, which is
formed by the vomer. Each of the osseous nasal cavities contains the conchal bones.
The caudal blind dorsal part is termed the fundus nasi and is occupied by the
ethmoturbinates.
The roof of the bony nasal cavity is formed by the nasal bone and to a lesser
degree by the nasal part of the frontal bone. The lateral wall comprises the maxilla,
lacrmal, zygomatic and incisive bones. The maxilla, the incisive and palatine bones are
involved in the formation of the floor of the nasal cavity, which at the same time,
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constitutes the roof of the mouth cavity. The caudal wall, which demarcates the
boundary between the nasal and cranial cavities, is formed by the cribriform plate of
ethmoid bone. The bony nasal orifice is bounded by the incisive and nasal bones.

SKULL OF FOWL

Skull bones consist of two parts- neurocranium and splanchnocranium; and are
separated by very large orbital cavities. Except where the movable articulations persist,
the individual bones of both parts fuse together leaving only little traces of original
sutures. Pneumatization of skull bones may occur by epithelial extension of air sacs,
thus producing a greatly lightened structure.
All birds possess a kinetic skull in which the upper jaw is movable upward and
downward and articulates with the neurocranium by a movable joint, nasal – frontal joint.
As a part of the kinetic mechanism the quadrate is movable at its articulation with the
braincase and is connected indirectly with the upper jaw by palatal bones, the pterygoid
and palatine. It also articulate with the articular part of mandible below. It is irregularly
four sided. Its anterio-medial angle projects into the orbit as a muscular process. The
quadrate is a homologue of the mammalian incus. Its presence and the great mobility of
the bones of the face permit extensive opening of the mouth. Birds are having large
orbits in the skull. Teeth and paranasal sinuses are absent in birds.

SKULL OF RABBIT

1. The orbit is very wide and spacious

2. Maxilla is fenestrated
3. Nasal bone is well developed
4. Premaxilla bears two large chisel-shaped incisors in front and two small incisors
behind.
5. External auditory meatus is wide
6. Supraorbital foramen is large and elongated
7. Occipital condyles are small and foramen magnum is large.
8. Mandible is massive. Condylar process and coronoid process are fused
together. A little above the angle of jaw, the mandible presents a notch and a
backward projection. Masseteric fossa is shallow.
SINUSES OF THE SKULL OR PARANASAL SINUSES
Sinuses are cavities within the bones of skull, which develop in the foetus as
diverticula of the nasal cavity. Sinuses are lined by mucous membrane and
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communicate with nasal cavity. This pneumatisation of the bones of the skull reduces
the weight of the head, which requires a large surface area for the attachment of
muscles and for the accommodation of teeth. The paranasal sinuses are paired cavities
and are frontal; maxillary, palatine and sphenoidal sinuses.

Frontal sinus: is the largest in ox and is excavated in frontal, parietal, interparietal and
supraoccipital bones. It extends from the caudal wall of the cranium down to the level of
the rostral margins of the orbits; laterally to the frontal crests and supraorbital processes
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and medially separated from its fellow by an imperforate bony septum. It also extends
into the cornual process of the frontal bone. The cavity is subdivided into one major and
one to four minor compartments on each side by partial bony plates and communicates
with the middle meatus. Major compartment comprises that portion lying posterior to the
orbit. It has three diverticuli (1) nuchal diverticulum in front of frontal eminence (2)
postorbital diverticulum behind the orbit and (3) cornual diverticulum which occupies the
horn core. The minor compartments lie in front of the major compartment and between
orbits.
Maxillary sinus: is formed in the body of the maxilla, lacrimal and zygomatic bones. It
extends forward to the facial tuberosity and upwards to a line joining the infraorbital
foramen to the dorsal margin of the orbit. It extends caudally into the maxillary
protruberance and lacrimal bulla. The roots of the last 3 or 4 cheek teeth project into the
sinus, covered by a plate of bone. The floor of the sinus is irregular and communicates
with the palatine sinus over the infra-orbital canal. Dorsally it communicates with the
middle meatus.

Palatine sinus: formed in the palatine bones. It is separated from its fellow by a bony
septum. It extends from the caudal border of the palatine to about 2.5 to 3 cm rostral to
the first cheek tooth. It communicates laterally with the maxillary sinus over the
infraorbital canal and is separated from the ventral meatus medially by mucous
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membrane in life. The palatine canal passes obliquely through the caudal part of the
sinus.
Sphenoidal sinus: is excavated in the body of pre-sphenoid and extends into the orbital
wing. It is the smallest of the four sinuses and communicates with the ventral ethmoidal
meatus.
Lacrimal sinus: is an excavation of the lacrimal bone; producing a cavity, which
communicates with the caudal dorsal portion of the maxillary sinus.
Horse: Maxillary, frontal, sphenopalatine and ethmoidal sinuses.
Maxillary sinus: Largest sinus in horse and formed by maxilla, lacrimal and zygomatic
bones. It extends from the level of the supraorbital process behind to the level of a line
joining the infraorbital foramen and the facial crest. Its dorsal boundary is a line drawn
from the infraorbital foramen backward parallel to the facial crest. The ventral wall or
floor is the alveolar part of the maxilla. It is divided into anterior and posterior parts by
an oblique septum directed inward, backward and upward from about two inches behind
the anterior end of the facial crest. The posterior end of the ventral turbinate forms the
upper part of the septum.

The anterior compartment (inferior maxillary sinus) is partially divided by the

infraorbital canal into lateral and medial parts. The former is formed entirely in the
maxillary bone and the root of the fourth cheek tooth and parts of third and fifth cheek
teeth project into it, covered by a plate of bone. The medial or turbinate part
communicates with the outer compartment and with the middle meatus.

The posterior compartment (superior maxillary sinus) is also divided into two
parts by the infraorbital canal over which it freely communicates with sphenopalatine
sinus. Dorsally it communicates with the frontal sinus through a large oval fronto-
maxillary opening. In front of this, covered by a plate of bone is a narrow naso-maxillary
opening by which the sinus opens into the posterior part of the middle meatus.

Frontal or fronto-turbinate sinus: is formed in the frontal, lacrimal, ethmoid and dorsal
turbinate bones. It consists of frontal and turbinate parts. The frontal part extends
forward to the anterior margins of the orbits, backwards to the temporal condyles and
outwards into the roots of the supra orbital processes. A median septum is present as in
the ox. The turbinate part is situated in the posterior part of the dorsal turbinate bone
roofed in by the nasal and lacrimal bones. It extends forward to a transverse plane
about half way between the anterior margin of the orbit and the infraorbital foramen. It is
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in free communication behind with the frontal part over the lateral mass of ethmoid. It is
separated from the nasal cavity by a thin turbinate plate.

Sphenopalatine sinus: formed in the body of presphenoid and perpendicular plate of

palatine bone.
Ethmoidal sinus: (Ventral conchal sinus) in the ethmoturbinate (caudal part of the
ventral nasal conchal bone) and connected laterally with the rostral maxillary sinus.
Dog: Frontal sinus- confined to the frontal bone.
Maxillary recess: instead of maxillary sinus (no cavities within the maxilla); bounded
laterally by maxilla, lacrimal and palatine and medially by ethmoid.
Pig: Frontal sinus: largest formed by frontal; parietal, occipital and temporal.
Maxillary sinus: mainly within the maxilla and to a variable extend in the zygomatic,
lacrimal and ethmoid.
Sphenoidal sinus: Body of presphenoid and basisphenoid and extend into the squamous
temporal. Very extensive sinus.

Ethmoidal (ventral conchal) sinus: located in the caudal part of the ventral nasal conchal
bone.
Lacrimal sinus: (in some pigs) in the lateral wall of the ethmoid bone, and connected to
the nasal cavity.
Dorsal conchal sinus: in the dorsal nasal conchal bone.
Frontal sinus is present in ox, horse, pig and dog. Maxillary sinus is there in all
but is in the form of maxillary recess in dog. Palatine sinus is absent in pig and dog.
Sphenoidal sinus is absent in dog and small ruminants. Lacrimal sinus is present only in
ruminants and pig. Frontal is the largest sinus in ox, dog and pig. In horse, maxillary
sinus is largest.