DETERMINATION OF THE BEST MODELS

FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUTS AND TIES

AHMED M. SEGAYER AND ALI S. ZREGH
Department of Civil Engineering, Al-Fateh University
Sidi Al-Masri, Tripoli - Libya

INAS H. FARIS
Al-Fateh Post Office P.O Box 13171
Tripoli - Libya

ABSTRACT: The strut and tie model method is a powerful tool for design projects and structural
elements, which have no defined models that it makes possible the development of their formulae
and dimensionality. Also used to design of what is known as “discontinuity” or “disturbed”
regions in reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. In this paper a revision about strut and
tie models as well as the basic knowledge in linear programming is presented. A new procedure
will be developed depending on old models. This will be based on both stress solutions of a linear
finite element analysis and on the experience of the designer, as this one may be in doubt about
the best model to be used he may superimpose in the initial model all the available solutions he
may find, the aim of the procedure is to choose from those available solutions the more
economical (which corresponds to the less consumption of reinforcement). A linear programming
will be developed to obtain the optimum strut-and-tie model, and its results will be compared
with those available from previous literature.

INTRODUCTION

The concept of utilizing concrete to resist compression and steel reinforcement to carry tension
gave rise to the struts-and-ties model. This model, is a unified approach that considers all load
effects simultaneously. This approach evolves as one of the most useful design methods for shear
critical structures and for disturbed regions in concrete structures. The model provides a rational
approach by representing a complex structural member with an appropriate simplified truss
model.
In civil engineering projects, structural elements such as beams, columns, frames, etc., have
defined models that it makes possible the development of formulas for dimensionality. However,
there are structural elements that are not included in this category and have to be studied, such as
deep beams, tooth beams, beams with openings, etc. Ties and struts models are structural
elements that have no defined models, but they are a generalization of the classic "analogy of the
trusses" introduced at the turn of the 19 th century, by Ritter, and which was verified
experimentally by Mörsch in 1920, for the dimensioning of beams. This analogy was latter
refined and expanded by Leonhardt, Rusch, Kupfer and others.
Researchers did not pursue this line of study until the late 1960s and early 1970s, when
numerous researchers, (Nielsen, Marti, McGregor, Schlaich, etc), suggested some modifications
for improving the model which was proposed by Mörsch and Ritter. The results of the researches
suggested the adoption of the called “Generalized truss of Mörsch”, whose angle of inclination
of the compressed connecting rods with the horizontal, passed the to be adopted in a compatible
way, what made possible the development of appropriate models.

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 The strut-and-tie models first appearance in a design specification in the USA was in the
AASHTO LRFD specifications in 1994, recently included in the ACI 318-02 Appendix A. Also
both of The Canadian Norms (Canadian Standards Association (1984, 1995)) and the CEB-90
(Comité Euro-International du Béton) recommend the use of these models.
What we will show in this paper is that there is no single, unique strut and tie model for most
design situations encountered, there are however, some techniques and rules, which help the
designer, to develop an appropriate model.

THE STRUCTURE’S B AND D REGIONS

The first step In using strut-and-tie model approach, is to subdivide the structure into its B-and-D
regions. Those regions of a structure in which linear strain distribution (the Bernoulli hypothesis)
is appropriate, are referred to as B-regions, their internal forces or stresses can be obtained from
moment and shear diagrams, analyzed by means of the statically system of beams. For uncracked
B-regions, these stresses are calculated using bending theory for linear elastic material and for
cracked B-regions, the truss models or the standard methods of codes could be applied .
Whereas, the regions of a structure where the strain distribution is significantly nonlinear,
e.g., near corners, joints, corbels, deep beams, walls with openings, and other discontinuities and
on which the standard methods of codes fail to apply, are called D-regions (D stand for
discontinuity” or “disturbed ). The internal flow of forces in D-regions can be reasonably well
described by strut-and-tie models, examples of D regions are shown in Figure 1.

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 h

h1

h2

h h

h1 h2

h h

Figure 1. Examples of D-regions

In B-regions, the stresses and stress trajectories are quite smooth as compared to the
turbulent pattern near D-regions, as shown in Figure 2. Stress intensities decrease rapidly
with the distance from the location of the concentrated load. This behavior helps to identify
the separation of B-and-D regions in a structure.

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 Trajectories D regions
Figure 2. Stress trajectories in B-and-D regions.

GENERAL DESIGN PROCEDURE AND MODELING

Before starting the analysis of the structure it is recommended to subdivide the structure into its
B-and D-regions, because it isn’t reasonable to model the whole structure with struts and ties. In
Table 1 we can see when the strut-and-tie model is applied.
Table 1. Analysis leading to strut-and-tie forces
Structure consisting of :
Structure B- and D-regions D-regions only
Analysis e.g., linear structures, slabs and shells e.g., deep beams
B-regions D-regions D-regions
Boundary forces
Sectional effects
Overall structure analysis Sectiona Support
(M, N, V, T)
l effects reactions
State 1 Via sectional Linear elastic analysis
Analysis of inner (uncracked) values
forces or stresses
Strut-and-Tie Models
in individual State 2
and/or nonlinear stress analysis
regions (cracked)
Usually truss

Modeling a D-region is simplified if the elastic stresses and principal stresses directions are
available, this can be obtained easily by the wide variety of computer programs available
nowadays, however we can develop a strut-and-tie model even if no elastic analysis is available
and there is no time to prepare one, by using “load paths”

Load path Method

The load path approach is one of the most important methods, and can be used to systematically
develop a strut-and-tie model by tracing flow of forces through the structure.
In this method we should firstly check that there exists external load balance for the area to
be modeled. The path of the loads inside the structure happens through compression fields
(struts) and tension ones (ties).

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 The disturbed forces in the outline of the area should be substituted by equivalent
concentrated loads so that the loads on a side of the structure, after they travel a certain load path,
find on the other side loads that balance them. These paths of loads should be continues and the
shorter possible. After drawing all the load paths, they must be substituted by straight lines which
will represent the members of the model, an example of forming a strut-and-tie model using load
paths is shown in Figure 3 .
q q q

Load
Path C
C C

T T T

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3. The load path method (a) The structure and its loads. (b) The loads path
through the structure. (c) The corresponding strut-and-tie model.
As a summary we can say that the strut-and-tie procedure is relatively straightforward, and
involves three key steps:
1. Develop the strut-and-tie model as explained below. The struts and ties serve to condense or
replace the real stress fields by resultant straight lines and concentrate their curvatures in
nodes.
2. Calculate the strut and tie forces, which must satisfy equilibrium. These forces are the internal
forces.
3. Dimension the struts, ties, and nodes for the internal forces of 2 with due consideration of
crack widths.

LINEAR PROGRAMMING (LP)

Is an optimization approach that deals with meeting a desired objective such as maximizing
profit or minimizing cost in the presence of constraints such as limited resources. The term
linear connotes that the mathematical functions representing both the objective and the
constrains are linear. The term programming does not mean computer programming, but
rather, connotes “scheduling” or “setting an agenda”.
In this paper the techniques of both the simplex method and LP with excel was used.

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CASE OF STUDY

Simply supported deep beam with large hole

0.7
0.7
P=1500KN

0.4
P=3000KN

0.4 4.7
4.7

1.5 (b)
1.5 (a)
0.5
0.5
0.5 1.5 5.0 0.5
0.5 1.5 5.0 0.5

4.5 2.5
4.5 2.5

0.7
0.7
P=3000KN

4
0.
P=1500KN
0.4

4.7
4.7
1.5 (d)
1.5 (c)
0.5
0.5
0.5 1.5 5.0 0.5
0.5 1.5 5.0 0.5
4.5 2.5
4.5 2.5

Figure 4. (a) The structure’s dimensions and loads. (b) Strut-and-tie model 1 considering
50% of loading. (c) Strut-and-tie model 2 considering 50% of loading.
(d) Strut-and-tie best model , overlap models 1 and 2

DIMENSIONING THE STRUTS, TIED AND NODES

Dimensioning not only means sizing and reinforcing the individual struts and ties for the forces
they carry, but also ensuring the load transfer between them by checking the node regions. There
is a close relation between the detailing of the nodes and the strength of the struts bearing on
them and of the ties anchored in them because the detail of the node chosen by the design
engineer affects the flow of forces. Therefore it’s necessary to check whether the strut and tie
model initially chosen is still valid after detailing or needs correction. Thus modeling and
dimensioning is in principle an iterative process. There are basically three types of struts and ties
to be dimensioned:
 CC: Concrete struts in compression.
 TC: Concrete ties in tension without reinforcement.
 TS: Ties in tension with reinforcement.

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Struts and Ties
Whereas the TS are essentially linear or one dimensional elements between two nodes, the C C and
TC are two- (or three-) dimensional stress fields tend to spread between two adjacent nodes. The
struts in the model are resultants of the stress fields. Since by definition the curvatures or
deviations of the forces are concentrated in the nodes, the struts are straight. This is, of course an
idealization of reality. To cover all cases of compression fields including those of B-regions three
typical configurations are sufficient, see Figure 5:
1. The fan-shaped stress field is an idealized stress field with no (negligible) curvature and it
does not develop transverse stresses.
2. The bottle-shaped stress field with its bulging stress trajectories develops considerable
transverse stresses i.e., compression in the bottle neck and tension further away. The
transverse tension can initiate longitudinal cracks and cause an early failure. Therefore, its
essential to reinforce the stress fields in the transverse direction.
3. The prismatic stress field is a frequent special case of the two proceeding two stress fields in
which transverse stress and curvature is zero.

a) fan

b) bottle c) prism
Figure 5. The basic compression fields

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Nodes
The nodes of the model are derived as the intersection points of three or more straight struts or
ties, which themselves represent either straight or curved stress fields or reinforcement bars. In
actual reinforced concrete structure, a node is introduced to indicate an abrupt change of direction
of forces. In reality, the node usually occurs over a certain length and width.
The two types of nodes are (see Figure 6):
 The smeared nodes (node B-consisting of three compressive struts) represent the
intersection point where wide concrete stress fields join each other or with closely
distributed reinforcing bars. These types of nodes are normally not critical. When
sufficient anchorage of the reinforcing bars in the smeared node is ensured, and
sufficient reinforcement is provided to catch the outermost fibers of the deviated
compressive stress fields, then the node is considered SAFE.
 On the other hand, the singular nodes (node A-consisting of two struts and one tie)
where concentrated forces are applied and the deviation of the forces are locally
concentrated. These nodes have to be carefully detailed in order to prevent excessive
deformations to the structures.

Figure 6. Types of nodes

CONCLUSIONS

The work had for objective to develop a procedure for obtaining the optimum strut-and-tie
models. This objective was reached and the following was concluded:
(1) For some structural elements, as deep beams with holes, some researchers and international
codes, suggest the overlap of two simple models, carrying portions of the original applied
load, for better representation of the structure’s behavior. In our case, as we worked with
optimization techniques, the best model is always chosen among the overlapped models, as
shown for the deep beam with big hole.
(2) Strut-and-tie model is an optimum tool for the dimensioning and detailing of the structure,
and is very useful for some structural elements, as deep beams, which have not defined
criteria for dimensioning. When the optimum strut-and-tie model is obtained it will be, clear
where the reinforcement should be placed, also additional sight will be given for the
detailing.
(3) Sometimes the optimum model is not always the model, which can be performed. This is
because some models in spite of being the most economical, but in practice it is unviable due
to the difficulty of performing it.

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(4) In some examples, such as continuous beams, an economy of 20% was obtained, when the
model with all figures is completed. On the other hand it should be taken into account that
the hand workers are not always specialized, this may increase the cost since they need more
time to perform the model.
(5) It can also be observed that not always the models presented by the literature are the most
economical, but for constructive reasons, or for the execution easiness, are the viable.

REFERENCES

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