2.

2 Methods of Business Research:

1. Data collection/analysis

Entrepreneurs that are interested in a certain business endeavour are well served when they start
off researching their idea through existing secondary data such as government and trade association
data about the industry and market sector that they wish to enter.

Data collection normally consists of examining relevant data in the form of databases, reports,
financial records, newsletters, etc. to gain insight quickly. This can be a faster and cheaper way to
gather information. When combined with other research methods, data collection and analysis can
give you the information you need to make a business decision.

2. Surveys

Surveys are popular in business, and they are effective for business research. A survey can be one of
the more inexpensive research options, especially if it is done online. Succinct surveys that are more
likely to be completed can be launched for free on a survey website that can be linked to your own
website or social media post.

Telephone surveys can possibly be more in depth, but only if the person agrees to be questioned on
the phone. Mailed surveys still have a niche, especially if they are targeted to a very specific group,
but cost more to launch and administrate.

3. Interviews and focus groups

A typical company focus group consists of a small number of participants, usually about six to 12.
The moderator poses a series of questions to gain insight into the brand, a product, images, and
product concepts.

Interviews and focus groups take much more time to administer but offer a much deeper look at
consumer preference behaviours. Both individual interviews and focus groups are made up of
persons from the target audience of the company and offer the interviewer the chance to clarify
answers with follow up questions. While offering a larger sample in less time than interviews, focus
groups can be more subject to bias from participants or facilitators.

“Groupthink” can be a major drawback with focus groups. Influential group members tend to affect
the expressions of other members within a focus group.

4. Website Traffic data

In addition to placing an online survey on your website, you can also put traffic data from your
website to good use to spot trends in page views and keyword use. Analysis of who is visiting your
site can make you aware of consumer demographics that you have not yet focused on. There are
also research website resources that can help you keep an eye on what the competition is doing.

An important emerging trend to consider is mobile research if you maintain a responsive website or
e-commerce store. Mobile is the best way to gain insight into user mobile user behaviour to better
serve them. You can ask simple in-the-moment questions before they finish reading your content or
buy your product. Or you can use your website analytics to better understand how your users
interact with information on your website.

5. Case studies

A case study is one of the most time-intensive research propositions but can yield a depth of
information about your prospective product that you cannot get otherwise. In a case study, a
member of the target audience for the product is given a product sample and asked to use it at
home for a period of time.

Used for consumables as well as durable goods, case studies include surveys, interviews, and
observations of the person using the product. The goal of a case study is a total assessment of the
product that is complete as possible.

2.3 Research Problem:

A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty

to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice
that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In some social
science disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the form of a question. A research
problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value
question.

Types and Content

There are four general conceptualizations of a research problem in the social sciences:

Casuist Research Problem -- this type of problem relates to the determination of right and wrong in
questions of conduct or conscience by analyzing moral dilemmas through the application of general
rules and the careful distinction of special cases.

Difference Research Problem -- typically asks the question, “Is there a difference between two or
more groups or treatments?” This type of problem statement is used when the researcher compares
or contrasts two or more phenomena. This a common approach to defining a problem in the clinical
social sciences or behavioral sciences.

Descriptive Research Problem -- typically asks the question, "what is...?" with the underlying
purpose to describe the significance of a situation, state, or existence of a specific phenomenon. This
problem is often associated with revealing hidden or understudied issues.

Relational Research Problem -- suggests a relationship of some sort between two or more variables
to be investigated. The underlying purpose is to investigate specific qualities or characteristics that
may be connected in some way.

3.1 Identification of Problem:

Deductions from Theory

This relates to deductions made from social philosophy or generalizations embodied in life and in
society that the researcher is familiar with. These deductions from human behavior are then placed
within an empirical frame of reference through research. From a theory, the researcher can
formulate a research problem or hypothesis stating the expected findings in certain empirical
situations. The research asks the question: “What relationship between variables will be observed if
theory aptly summarizes the state of affairs?” One can then design and carry out a systematic
investigation to assess whether empirical data confirm or reject the hypothesis, and hence, the
theory.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Identifying a problem that forms the basis for a research study can come from academic movements
and scholarship originating in disciplines outside of your primary area of study. This can be an
intellectually stimulating exercise. A review of pertinent literature should include examining research
from related disciplines that can reveal new avenues of exploration and analysis. An interdisciplinary
approach to selecting a research problem offers an opportunity to construct a more comprehensive
understanding of a very complex issue that any single discipline may be able to provide.

Interviewing Practitioners

The identification of research problems about particular topics can arise from formal interviews or
informal discussions with practitioners who provide insight into new directions for future research
and how to make research findings more relevant to practice. Discussions with experts in the field,
such as, teachers, social workers, health care providers, lawyers, business leaders, etc., offers the
chance to identify practical, “real world” problems that may be understudied or ignored within
academic circles. This approach also provides some practical knowledge which may help in the
process of designing and conducting your study.

Personal Experience

Don't undervalue your everyday experiences or encounters as worthwhile problems for

investigation. Think critically about your own experiences and/or frustrations with an issue facing
society, your community, your neighborhood, your family, or your personal life. This can be derived,
for example, from deliberate observations of certain relationships for which there is no clear
explanation or witnessing an event that appears harmful to a person or group or that is out of the
ordinary.

Relevant Literature

The selection of a research problem can be derived from a thorough review of pertinent research
associated with your overall area of interest. This may reveal where gaps exist in understanding a
topic or where an issue has been understudied. Research may be conducted to: 1) fill such gaps in
knowledge; 2) evaluate if the methodologies employed in prior studies can be adapted to solve
other problems; or, 3) determine if a similar study could be conducted in a different subject area or
applied in a different context or to different study sample [i.e., different setting or different group of
people].Also, authors frequently conclude their studies by noting implications for further research;
read the conclusion of pertinent studies because statements about further research can be a
valuable source for identifying new problems to investigate. The fact that a researcher has identified
a topic worthy of further exploration validates the fact it is worth pursuing.
5 Steps To Formulate Your Research Problem

1. SPECIFY THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

A clear statement defining your objectives will help you develop effective research.

It will help the decision makers evaluate the research questions your project should answer as well
as the research methods your project will use to answer those questions. It’s critical that you have
manageable objectives. (Two or three clear goals will help to keep your research project focused and
relevant.)

2. REVIEW THE ENVIRONMENT OR CONTEXT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

As a marketing researcher, you must work closely with your team of researchers in defining and
testing environmental variables. This will help you determine whether the findings of your project
will produce enough information to be worth the cost.

In order to do this, you have to identify the environmental variables that will affect the research
project and begin formulating different methods to control these variables.

3. EXPLORE THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

Research problems range from simple to complex, depending on the number of variables and the
nature of their relationship. Sometimes the relationship between two variables is directly related to
a problem or questions, and other times the relationship is entirely unimportant.

If you understand the nature of the research problem as a researcher, you will be able to better
develop a solution to the problem.

To help you understand all dimensions, you might want to consider focus groups of consumers,
salespeople, managers, or professionals to provide what is sometimes much-needed insight into a
particular set of questions or problems.

4. DEFINE THE VARIABLE RELATIONSHIPS

Marketing plans often focus on creating a sequence of behaviors that occur over time, as in the
adoption of a new package design, or the introduction of a new product.

Such programs create a commitment to follow some behavioral pattern or method in the future.

Studying such a process involves:

 Determining which variables affect the solution to the research problem.

 Determining the degree to which each variable can be controlled and used for the purposes
of the company.
 Determining the functional relationships between the variables and which variables are
critical to the solution of the research problem.

During the problem formulation stage, you will want to generate and consider as many courses of
action and variable relationships as possible.
STEPS IN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH:

 1.PROBLEM STATEMENT, PURPOSES, BENEFITS

 2. THEORY, ASSUMPTIONS, BACKGROUND LITERATURE
 3. VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESES
 4. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS AND MEASUREMENT
 5. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
 6. SAMPLING
 7. INSTRUMENTATION
 8. DATA COLLECTION AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
 9. DATA ANALYSIS
 10. CONCLUSIONS, INTERPRETATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

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Unit NO.4

What is Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a possible answer to a research question. It is a presumption or a hunch on the basis

of which a study has to be conducted. This hypothesis is tested for possible rejection or approval. If
the hypothesis get accepted it shows that your hunch was right if it get rejected it still does not
mean that your research was not valid, but it means that it is the opposite way you thought and
perceived. Whether it is approved or not it gives you some conclusion and adds to the available body
of knowledge.

A hypothesis which has been tested again and again by various researchers can still be tested for
making it more valid but if the hypothesis has been approved in such a manner that it has become a
law that it is better to test something that adds to the available knowledge rather than approving
something which has been approved many times before.

Characteristics of a Well-formulated Research Hypothesis:

 Testable and Verifiable

 Simple and Clear
 Relevant
 Predictable
 Manageable

Importance of Hypothesis:

Clarity:
It gives clarity in research.
Direction:
It gives direction to the research

Focus:

It specifies the focus of the researchers.

Accuracy and Precision:

It ensures accuracy and precision.

Blindness:

It prevents from blind research.

Types of Hypothesis:

Simple Hypothesis

Simple hypothesis is that one in which there exists relationship between two variables one is called
independent variable or cause and other is dependent variable or effect.

E.g: Smoking leads to Cancer.

Complex Hypothesis

Complex hypothesis is that one in which as relationship among variables exists. I recommend you
should read characteristics of a good research hypothesis. In this type dependent as well as
independent variables are more than two. For example

E.g: Smoking and other drugs leads to cancer, tension chest infections etc.

Empirical Hypothesis

Working hypothesis is that one which is applied to a field. During the formulation it is an assumption
only but when it is pat to a test become an empirical or working hypothesis.

Null Hypothesis

Null hypothesis is contrary to the positive statement of a working hypothesis. According to null
hypothesis there is no relationship between dependent and independent variable. It is denoted by
‘HO”.

Alternative Hypothesis

Firstly many hypotheses are selected then among them select one which is more workable and most
efficient. That hypothesis is introduced latter on due to changes in the old formulated hypothesis. It
is denote by “HI”.

Logical Hypothesis

It is that type in which hypothesis is verified logically. J.S. Mill has given four cannons of these
hypothesis e.g. agreement, disagreement, difference and residue.

Statistical Hypothesis

A hypothesis which can be verified statistically called statistical hypothesis. The statement would be
logical or illogical but if statistic verifies it, it will be statistical hypothesis.
Sources of Hypothesis:

Culture

Culture is the accumulation of ways of behaving and adoption in a particular place and time. While
formulating a hypothesis for a problem, culture should be studied. If we want to study trends
towards female education in a particular area, for this purpose we will study, traditions, family
system, Norms, Values, region and education system of that area.

Analogies:

Sometimes a hypothesis is formed from the analogy. A similarity between two phenomena is
observed and a hypothesis is formed to test whether the two phenomena are similar in any other
respect.

The term analogies refer to parallelism. Though human system and animal system are different,
there is some parallelism. That is why medicines are tried first on rats or monkeys then used for
human consumption. So, hypothesis on animal behavior can be done based on proven behavior of
human and vice versa. Similarly, between thermodynamics and group dynamics, biological system
and social system, nervous system and central processing unit of a computer, parallelism can be
thought of and spring hypotheses there from.

Previous Study

Previous study is also a source of developing a concrete hypothesis. If a researcher uses previous
knowledge about a phenomenon for a particular place, then another researcher followed his
techniques and formulates his own.

Personal Experience

On the basis of his personal experience he uses his mind and suggests some points for the
eradication of a social problem through developing a good hypothesis. Greater the researcher
experience lead to higher degree of formation.

Scientific Theory:

The knowledge of theory leads us to form further generalizations from it. These generalizations form
the part of hypothesis.

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Unit No.5

5.1 Sampling: Definition

Sampling is defined as the process of selecting certain members or a subset of the population to
make statistical inferences from them and to estimate characteristics of the whole population.
Sampling is widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to research the
entire population to collect actionable insights. It is also a time-convenient and a cost-effective
method and hence forms the basis of any research design.
Types of Sampling: Sampling Methods

Any market research study requires two essential types of sampling. They are:

Probability Sampling:

Probability sampling is a sampling method that selects random members of a population by setting a
few selection criteria. These selection parameters allow every member to have the equal
opportunities to be a part of various samples.

Non-probability Sampling:

Non probability sampling method is reliant on a researcher’s ability to select members at random.
This sampling method is not a fixed or pre-defined selection process which makes it difficult for all
elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.

Types of Sampling: Probability Sampling Methods

There are 4 types of probability sampling technique:

Simple Random Sampling:

One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving time and resources, is the
Simple Random Sampling method. It is a trustworthy method of obtaining information where every
single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance and each individual has the
exact same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.

Cluster Sampling:

Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into sections or
clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample on the basis of
defining demographic parameters such as age, location, sex etc. which makes it extremely easy for a
survey creator to derive effective inference from the feedback.

Systematic Sampling:

Using systematic sampling method, members of a sample are chosen at regular intervals of a
population. It requires selection of a starting point for the sample and sample size that can be
repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined interval and hence this
sampling technique is the least time-consuming.

For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of
5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from 1-5000 and every 10th individual will
be chosen to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).

Stratified Random Sampling:

Stratified Random sampling is a method where the population can be divided into smaller groups,
that don’t overlap but represent the entire population together. While sampling, these groups can
be organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.
Types of Sampling: Non-probability Sampling Methods

There are 4 types of non-probability sampling which will explain the purpose of this sampling
method in a better manner:

Convenience sampling:

This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall or
passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling, as it’s carried out on the
basis of how easy is it for a researcher to get in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no
authority over selecting elements of the sample and it’s purely done on the basis of proximity and
not representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost
limitations in collecting feedback.

Judgmental or Purposive Sampling:

In judgemental or purposive sampling, the sample is formed by the discretion of the judge purely
considering the purpose of study along with the understanding of target audience. Also known as
deliberate sampling, the participants are selected solely on the basis of research requirements and
elements who do not suffice the purpose are kept out of the sample.

Snowball sampling:

Snowball sampling is a sampling method that is used in studies which need to be carried out to
understand subjects which are difficult to trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to
survey shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers
can track a few of that particular category to interview and results will be derived on that basis.

Quota sampling:

In Quota sampling, selection of members in this sampling technique happens on basis of a pre-set
standard. In this case, as a sample is formed on basis of specific attributes, the created sample will
have the same attributes that are found in the total population. It is an extremely quick method of
collecting samples.

5.1 Survey techniques:

Survey: Definition

A Survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from a pre-defined group of
respondents to gain information and insights on various topics of interest. Surveys have a variety of
purposes and can be carried out in many ways depending on the methodology chosen and the
objectives to be achieved.

METHODS OF SURVEY DATA COLLECTION:

Survey means ‘to look at in a comprehensive way’. There are numerous survey research methods,
including in-person and telephone interviews, mailed and online questionnaires.

IN-PERSON INTERVIEWS
Getting information in person may be the most personal approach and most effective way of gaining
trust and cooperation from the respondent. It is easier to react to puzzled facial expressions, answer
questions, probe for clarification, or redirect responses. Face to face contact is particularly useful to
detect respondent discomfort when discussing sensitive issues or attempts to respond in a socially
desirable way.

The in-person interview is usually more costly than any other data collection method. Interviewers
must be trained and flown to geographic areas or found and trained within the area of study.

TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS

Telephone interviews are less expensive than in-person interviews and may be more or less
expensive than mailings, depending on the numbers involved. Access to some people is easier by
telephone. However, not everyone has one.

Fewer interviewers are needed to conduct telephone than in-person interviews; if interviewers call
from the same location, they can clarify questions with each other, assuring greater standardization
and reliability.

MAILED QUESTIONNAIRES

More people may be reached by paper surveys than any other method, although up to date mailing
lists may be difficult to come by and postage can be expensive.

Mailed questionnaires give people time to think about their responses and to use resources at home
or at work when responding. There is, of course, no chance to ask probing questions or clarify
information.

Through sleet, rain, or snow, the mail can be delayed or lost. When a mailed questionnaire does
arrive, it may be discarded with the junk mail; mailed questionnaires are less personal than any
other survey method.

ONLINE QUESTIONNAIRES

The use of online questionnaires is very popular. Online questionnaires are the least expensive way
to reach the greatest number of people – globally. Although not everyone has a computer, tablet, or
smart phone, computers are available at public libraries and community agencies.

Online questionnaires may look easy to create, but in fact are just as difficult as mailed
questionnaires to do well. Email invitations, reminders, and the surveys themselves must be
designed to be “responsive” to whatever type of device the respondent uses to take the survey,
adjusting text sizes and graphics so that they are easily readable. Once designed, online
questionnaires can be easily stored and used from year to year, revising, as necessary.

Preparation or testing of questionnaires:

Main aspects of a questionnaire: Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey
operation. Hence it should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up, then the survey
is bound to fail. This fact requires us to study the main aspects of a questionnaire viz., the general
form, question sequence and question formulation and wording. Researcher should note the
following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire:

General form:

So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be structured or

unstructured questionnaire. Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are
definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same
wording and in the same order to all respondents. An unstructured questionnaire, the interviewer is
provided with a general guide on the type of information to be obtained, but the exact question
formulation is largely his own responsibility and the replies are to be taken down in the respondent’s
own words to the extent possible; in some situations tape recorders may be used to achieve this
goal.

Question sequence:

In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a
researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire. A proper
sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being
misunderstood. The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning thereby that
the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent, with
questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning.

Question formulation and wording:

With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should note that each question must be
very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey. Question should
also be impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true state of affairs. Questions should be
constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan. In
general, all questions should meet the following standards—

 should be easily understood;

 should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;
 should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way of
thinking.

5.2 Research Design:

Research design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to

combine various components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that the research
problem is efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct research using a
particular methodology. Every researcher has a list of research questions which need to be assessed
– this can be done with research design.

The sketch of how research should be conducted can be prepared using research design. Hence, the
market research study will be carried out on the basis of research design.
Research Design Characteristics

There are four key characteristics of research design:

Neutrality: The results projected in research design should be free from bias and neutral.
Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple individuals and
consider those who agree with the derived results.

Reliability: If a research is conducted on a regular basis, the researcher involved expects similar
results to be calculated every time. Research design should indicate how the research questions can
be formed to ensure the standard of obtained results and this can happen only when the research
design is reliable.

Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available for research design but valid measuring tools
are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of research and
nothing else. The questionnaire developed from this research design will be then valid.

Generalization: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a population and not just a
restricted sample. Generalization is one of the key characteristics of research design.

Types of Research Design

Qualitative Research Design:

Quantitative Research Design:

Further, research design can be divided into five types –

1. Descriptive Research Design:

In a descriptive research design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case
under his/her research study. It is a theory-based research design which is created by gather,
analyze and presents collected data. By implementing an in-depth research design such as this, a
researcher can provide insights into the why and how of research.

2. Experimental Research Design:

Experimental research design is used to establish a relationship between the cause and effect of a
situation. It is a causal research design where the effect caused by the independent variable on the
dependent variable is observed. For example, the effect of an independent variable such as price on
a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty is monitored. It is a highly
practical research design method as it contributes towards solving a problem at hand. The
independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It is
often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups – affect of one
group on the other.

3. Correlational Research Design:

Correlational research is a non-experimental research design technique which helps researchers to

establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. Two different groups are required
to conduct this research design method. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship
between two different variables and statistical analysis techniques are used to calculate the
relationship between them.

Correlation between two variables is concluded using a correlation coefficient, whose value ranges
between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship
between the variables and -1 indicates a negative relationship between the two variables.

4. Diagnostic Research Design:

In the diagnostic research design, a researcher is inclined towards evaluating the root cause of a
specific topic. Elements that contribute towards a troublesome situation are evaluated in this
research design method.

There are three parts of diagnostic research design:

 Inception of the issue

 Diagnosis of the issue
 Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory Research Design:

In exploratory research design, the researcher’s ideas and thoughts are key as it is primarily
dependent on their personal inclination about a particular topic. Explanation about unexplored
aspects of a subject is provided along with details about what, how and why related to the research
questions.

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Unit No.6

6.2 Measurement:

Measurement is the process observing and recording the observations that are collected as part of a
research effort.

Measurement scales:

Nominal Scale of Measurement:

Nominal scale of measurement is used to classify the categorical variables, i.e, the variables that
define categories and names etc which cannot be ranked. This scale of measurement just satisfies
the identity property of measurement. It is used to represent the variables that assign values in the
form of descriptive category and do not have any numerical value or magnitude.

Ordinal Scale of Measurement:

The ordinal scale of measurement includes the variables that have the property of rank or order.
Ordinal scale is actually more precise that the nominal one. The variables coming under this scale
must have set of rankings. This scale of measurement possesses the properties related to identity as
well as magnitude. Every value evaluated on ordinal scale has a unique meaning.

Interval Scale of Measurement:

Interval scale of measurement includes categories in which the distances or intervals between the
categories are to be compared. Interval scale keeps the rank characteristic just as ordinal scale.
Along with that, the interval scale also shows the differences between the given data points. This
scale of measurement states that the interval must be same.

For Example: A variable explaining that the difference between the heights 5.5 feet and 6 feet is
same as the difference between heights 4 feet and 4.5 feet.

Ratio Scale of Measurement:

Ratio scale of measurement is almost same as interval-scale variable. Ratio-scale variable also
includes a non-arbitrary zero value in it. It is the most powerful and precise of all the scales of
measurement. The ratio scale has all the properties of interval scale, but it has a the most
meaningful, zero point. Thus, one cannot have any negative value on the ratio scale. Here, along
with the property of same intervals, we may be able to compare the scores by means of ratios.
Therefore, we can say that ratio scale of measurement has all the four properties of measurement
which are - identity, magnitude, equal intervals, and minimum value of zero.

For Example: A variable containing the score of 30 is 30 times bigger than 1. This may be expressed
as 30:1.

6.4 Characteristics of good measuring instrument:

Reliability:

Reliability is the consistency of your measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures
the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the
repeatability of your measurement. A measure is considered reliable if a person's score on the same
test given twice is similar. It is important to remember that reliability is not measured, it is
estimated. A good instrument will produce consistent scores. An instrument’s reliability is estimated
using a correlation coefficient of one type or another.

Validity:

Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be
valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted. Validity isn’t determined by a
single statistic, but by a body of research that demonstrates the relationship between the test and
the behavior it is intended to measure. There are three types of validity: It is the strength of our
conclusions, inferences or propositions. More formally, Cook and Campbell (1979) define it as the
"best available approximation to the truth or falsity of a given inference, proposition or conclusion."
In short, were we right? Let's look at a simple example. Say we are studying the effect of strict
attendance policies on class participation. In our case, we saw that class participation did increase
after the policy was established. Each type of validity would highlight a different aspect of the
relationship between our treatment (strict attendance policy) and our observed outcome (increased
class participation).

Practicability:

It should be feasible & usable. Quality of being usable in context to the objective to be achieved.
USABILITY(practicality) ease in administration, scoring, interpretation and application, low cost,
proper mechanical make – up

Measurability:

It should measure the objective to be achieved.

6.5 Technique of Developing Measurement Tools:

a) Concept development:

This is the first step. In this case, the researcher should have a complete understanding of all the
important concepts relevant to his study. This step is more applicable to theoretical studies
compared to practical studies where the basic concepts are already established beforehand.

b) Specification of concept dimensions:

Here, the researcher is required to specify the dimensions of the concepts, which were developed in
the first stage. This is achieved either by adopting an intuitive approach or by an empirical
correlation of the individual dimensions with that concept and/or other concepts.

c) Indicator selection:

In this step, the researcher has to develop the indicators that help in measuring the elements of the
concept. These indicators include questionnaires, scales, and other devices, which help to measure
the respondents opinion, mindset, knowledge, etc. Using more than one indicator lands stability and
improves the validity of the scores.

Index formation:

Here, the researcher combines the different indicators into an index. In case, there are several
dimensions of a concept the researcher needs to combine them.