UNIVERSITI TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN

Faculty of Engineering and Green Technology

Bachelor of Engineering (HONS) Petrochemical Engineering

UGPA1223 Materials Science and Engineering

EXPERIMENT 1: ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Student(s) detail(s):
Name ID. No. Year / Average peer Report Individual
Trimester evaluation (%) mark marks
LEE WEI HERN 1503476 Y1S1
SEOW KING WEI 1503477 Y1S1
ANG CHIN WEI 1503765 Y1S1
LOO GAIK ENG 1503906 Y1S1

Lecturer’s name: Dr Mathialagan a/l Muniyadi

Date of Submission: 4/8/16
 UGPA1223 / UGPA2233 Materials Science and Engineering
Group : Group T
Practical Date : 21/7/16
Submission Date : 2/8/16
Category
Introduction
Briefly on principles /
theoretical of experiment.
(choose one type of point from
the preceding column)
Objective
(choose one type of point from
the preceding column
Experimental
(choose one type of point from
the preceding column)
Results and Discussion
(stated in the preceding column
is the total points for this
category)
Conclusion
(choose one type of point from
the preceding column)
Merchanics
(stated in the preceding column
is the total points for this
category)
Practical Report Marking Rubric
CONTENT
Points Marking Description Marks
0 No introduction
Introduction present but inadequate or unoriginal with no
1-5
reference or acknowledgement to sources cited
Well written introduction with original composition and
6-10
reference or acknowledgement to sources cited
Total = 10%
0 No objective
1-2 Incomplete objective
3-5 Complete objective
Total = 5%
0 No experimental details
1-5 Incomplete experimental details
6-10 Complete experimental details
Total = 10%
10 Communication of experimental results
20 Interpretation of experimental results
Ability of presenting and discussing experimental results in
20
an effective way, i.e. easy to understand
Total = 50%
0 No conclusion
Conclusion present but with inadequate highlights of results
1-5
and their significance.
Well written conclusion with adequate highlights of results
6-10
and their significance.
Total = 10%
5 Description as in writing characteristics
 Total = 5%
Appearance / Organization /
Format
(stated in the preceding 10 Description as in writing characteristics
column is the total points for
this category)
Total = 10%
Total = 100%
EXPERIMENT 3: ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

OBJECTIVES:

1. To understand the principle of hardness testing

2. To learn and conduct Rockwell hardness tester of different materials
3. To study the effect of different types of heat treatment on the hardness of different
materials

INTRODUCTION:

A measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation is known as

hardness. There are some reasons that hardness tests are preferred than any other mechanical
test. Firstly, hardness test are simple and inexpensive, ordinarily no special specimen need to
prepared, and the testing apparatus is inexpensive. Secondly, the test is non-destructive. The
specimen is not fractured not excessively deformed; small indentation is the only
deformation. Other mechanical properties, such as tensile strength can be interpreted by the
data from hardness test. Figure 1 shows the relationships between hardness and tensile
strength for steel, brass and cast iron. (Callister, 2003)

Figure 1: Relationships between hardness and tensile strength for steel, brass, and cast iron.
Data taken from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Irons and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th
edition, B. Bardes (Editor), American Society for Metals, 1978, pp. 36 and 461; and Metals
Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th edition,
H. Baker (Managing Editor), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 327. (Callister, 2003)
 The most common method that used to measure the hardness of material is the
Rockwell Hardness tests because this test is simple to do and does not required special skills.
A hardness number is determined by the difference in depth of penetration resulting from the
application of initial minor load followed by a larger major load, application of a minor load
improves test accuracy. In general, the minor load is 10kgf, and the major load is 60, 100 or
150kgf are used in Rockwell hardness testing. Either a diamond cone (Brale) or steel ball are
used as indenter by depend principally on the characteristics of material being tested.

Table 1 shows the different hardness-testing techniques. (Callister, 2003)

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:

1. Digital Rockwell type hardness tester

2. Standard metal specimens

PROCEDURES:

1. The machine and DC power adapter is connected with a coaxial connector to

laboratory 240V AC single phase power supply.
2. The gauge is switched on by pushing the red power button and “Ready” is shown on
the display board.
3. “Scale” button is pressed and an appropriate scale is selected by using the “Up” and
“Down” buttons.
4. “OK” button is pressed to set the selected scale and the measuring code is restored.
5. An indenture and an anvil suitable for the hardness and shape of specimen is selected
and attached.
6. The specimen is positioned under the indenter of the instrument.
7. A specific load is applied depending on the material and indenter.
8. The elevating handle is rotated to bring the specimen close to the indenture. The
preload is applied in a single, smooth and unidirectional movement as soon as they
were brought into contact. There is a progress bar which as a guideline. The bar is
brought from its starting point at the left to the stopping zone at the right.
9. The main load is applied immediately by pressing “Start” button. The text,
“DWELLING” is shown on the display bar and wait until the text changed to
“REMOVE MAINLOAD”.
10. The main load is removed and the progress bar ended between two lines on the
progress bar for a valid test result.
11. The text “PLEASE WAIT…” appeared after removal of the main loads, if the test
result is valid. The test is flagged “INVALID” if the main load is not removed within
6seconds or the result does not fall in the range of the selected scale.
12. The result is displayed by the gauge and the data is recorded.
13. The preload is removed.
RESULTS:

Table 1: Hardness value for brass and aluminium

1 (HRB) 2 (HRB) 3 (HRB) Average (HRB)

(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Carbon 85.0 88.0 85.0 86
Steel
Pure 34.0 35.9 34.2 34.7
Aluminium

DISCUSSION:

The average hardness values obtained for carbon steel specimen is 86kg. However,
the average hardness values obtained for pure aluminium specimen is 34.7kg. By comparing
the hardness values of both metal specimens, it shows that the carbon steel specimen is harder
than pure aluminium specimen. This is due to the presence of carbon in the structure of
carbon steel. The carbon is small enough to go into the interstices between the iron atoms by
interstitial solid solution strengthening. The carbon atom is greater than the space available
for it to fit in. It results in strain fields and make the dislocation movement slowing down.
Besides, the interstitial site is occupied by carbon atoms, so the it prevents the motion of Fe
atoms when they are applied force. The addition of carbon atom into the carbon steel
structure increases the hardness of the carbon steel. It distorts the regular arrangement of the
atoms and hardly to slide pass each other. Pure aluminium is soft because only one element is
existing in the aluminium structure. All atoms are the same size. They have orderly
arrangement. The atoms slide past each other easily when force applied on it. Dislocation in
pure metal is relatively easy. Therefore, alloy (carbon steel) is hard and strong while pure
aluminium is soft and ductile due to factor of impurities which affect the structure of them.
 Figure 1: Continuous cooling transformation curve of steel

As shown in the Figure 1, the transformation starts after a time period corresponding
to the intersection of the cooling curve with the beginning reaction curve and ends upon
crossing the completion transformation curve. Generally, bainite does not form when an alloy
is continuously cooled to room temperature, austenite transforms to pearlite before bainite
has become possible. The austenite-pearlite region terminates just below the nose. Continued
cooling Mstart (Ms) of austenite will form martensite.

Austenite is stable when above 727℃. The transformation of austenite to pearlite

starts at temperature (<727℃) to the lower transformation temperature of pearlite. The
transformation of austenite to pearlite occurs at around 540 − 727℃. The transformation is a
diffusion process. The cooling rate for the transformation of austenite to pearlite must be
slow (annealing). The 100% pearlite is formed at transformation end as shown in Figure 1.
The pearlite is a lamellar structure of two phases: ferrite and cementite. As a result, pearlite
has intermediate properties between soft, ductile ferrite and hard, brittle cementite.

The transformation of austenite to bainite occurs at about 215 − 540℃. The

transformation is diffusion process. Bainite is formed when it is cooling from eutectoid
temperature (727℃) to transformation temperature of bainite around 215 − 540℃.
However, the cooling rate for this transformation must be moderate. Cementite is much
harder than ferrite but more brittle. The more cementite, the harder and the strong the steel
would be. So, the bainite has fine structure hence generally stronger and harder than pearlite.

Austenite to martensite transformation occurs when austenite is quenched (fast

cooling rate). Martensite is formed when it is cooling from eutectoid temperature (727℃) to
the transformation temperature of martensite around 0 − 215℃. The cooling rate is around
140℃/𝑚𝑖𝑛. The transformation to martensite is diffusion-less. The martensite is the hardest
and strongest with negligible compared by pearlite and bainite. The hardness of martensite
due to interstitial carbon content hindering dislocation motion. As for quenching and
tempering, the microstructure will be affected by having ferrite and very fine cementite
particles. The material will be very hard but not as brittle of the quenched material.

The hardness of aluminium can be affected by the heat treatment. Aluminium will
obtain a lowest hardness value when were characterized by high ageing temperature (325℃)
during 8 hours. The highest hardness value of aluminium can be obtained by solution the test
piece at temperature of 485-500℃ for 1 to 3 hours and then quenched in water and aged at
temperature 175℃ during 2 to 6 hours. Ageing at temperature above 250℃ has adverse effect
on the changes of the hardness value. Microstructure of the alloy before the heat treatment is
characterized by Al+Si eutectic with fine, fibrous precipitations of Si and rounded contours
of plastic phase Al. After heat treatment, the microstructure of the aluminium have
precipitation of Si present within interdendritic spaces of pahse Al (on boundaries of grain)
feature rounded shapes and shape of fine spheroidal precipitation.

The other type of hardness testing that can be used as an alternative to Rockwell
hardness testing is Vickers method. The feasibility of the Vickers method is consisting only
one scale that can range from the lowest to the highest hardness. Vickers method is
fundamental for researching laboratories. Structure characteristics of the test material can be
revealed by any deformation of the indentation. When compared to Rockwell, Vickers
hardness number has a proper meaning, as it represents a specific load on an indentation
having always the same shape. Low speed of operation is one of the limitation of the Vickers
method, as the measurement of indentation has to be made optically so the test area must be
polished and prepared carefully. An irregular indentation will be occurred if there is any
inclination. So, perpendicularity of the indenter axis is very important.
PRELAB QUESTION:

1. There are some consideration need to be made during sample preparation. First, the
surface of the sample should be prepared by grinding, milling or polishing so that the
subsequent indent is clearly showed. So, an accurate measurement can be obtained. Besides,
oxide scale or decarburised layers must be removed as they are unrepresentative material. A
sample should have a cylindrical shape which have a minimal thickness that is at least ten
times the indentation depth expected to be attained. A tubular sample should have sufficient
hardness and thickness to prevent the tube from springing or crushing during the test.

2. Thermo-mechanical treatment is a surface quenching process by making use of the

rolling heat. Microstructure of thermo-mechanical treatment bars consist of surface layer
which is tempered martensite and core which is ferrite, pearlite and or bainite. The yield
strength level of the martensite layer depends on the chemical composition and on the
tempering temperature. Lower tempering temperature result in high yield strength and low
ductility. Tempering temperature is the maximum surface temperature achieved at the end of
self -tempering stage and it is directly depending on the water quenching procedure adopted
in the first stage. The core of the steel depends on the chemical composition of the steel and
the process condition.

Reference:

1. William F.Smith & Javad Hashemi. 2006. Foundations of Materials Science and
Engineering.
2. William D. Callister. 2007. Materials Science and Engineering.
3. J.Pedza. 2014. Effect of Shortened Heat Treatment on the Hardness and
Microstructure of 320.0 Aluminium Alloy. Available from:
http://www.afe.polsl.pl/index.php/pl/3874/effect-of-shortened-heat-treatment-on-the-
hardness-and-microstructure-of-320-0-aluminium-alloy.pdf [Accessed: 31/7/2016]
4. George Langford. 2005. Microstructure. Available from :
http://www.georgesbasement.com/Microstructures/LowAlloySteels/Introduction.htm
[Accessed: 31/7/2016]
5. Medlab. 2007. Metal hardening, quenching and tempering. Available from:
http://www.metlabheattreat.com/metal-hardening-metal-quenching-metal-
tempering.html [Accessed: 1/8/2016]
6. Jock Dempsey. 2001. Heat treating. Available from:
http://www.anvilfire.com/article.php?bodyName=/FAQs/heattreating.htm [Accessed:
1/8/2016]
7. Lamar Stonecypher. 2011. What is heat treatment? Available from:
http://www.brighthubengineering.com/manufacturing-technology/30476-what-is-heat-
treatment/ [Accessed: 1/8/2016]
8. Bodycote. 2014. Hardening and tempering. Available from:
http://www.bodycote.com/en/services/heat-treatment/harden-and-temper.aspx [Accessed:
1/8/2016]