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3. Recall that a positive value of r means that the point is away from the pole
in the direction of the positive x-axis (taking into account the rotation by
). But r can also have a negative value. A negative value of r means
that the point is away from the pole in the direction of the negative x-axis.
Thus (r; ) and ( r; + ) represent the same point.
4. The pole has in…nitely many polar coordinates. They are of the form (0; )
where can be anything.
x = r cos (1.16)
y = r sin
and by:
x2 + y 2 = r2 (1.17)
y
tan =
x
We now look at some examples of converting points between polar and Carte-
sian coordinates.
2
Example 81 Convert 4; in Cartesian coordinates.
3
Using formulas 1.16 we have:
2 1
x = 4 cos = 4 =2
3 2
p !
2 3 p
y = 4
4 sin = = 2 3
3
2
p
So, in Cartesian coordinates, the point is 2; 2 3 .
Example 82 Convert (1; 0) in polar coordinates.
We don’t need a formula here. This point is on the x-axis, one unit from the
origin. Its polar coordinates are (1; 0)
p p !
2 2
Example 83 Convert ; in polar coordinates.
2 2
Using formulas 1.17, we have:
p !2 p !2
2 2 2
r = + =1
2 2
This gives us
r= 1
and
x
tan =
y
p
2
= p2
2
2
= 1
Thus
=
4
With a choice of = , we see that we must have r = 1. So, in polar coordi-
4
nates, the point is 1; .
4
1.7. CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES 59
We now look at how to convert the equation of known shapes between Carte-
sian and polar coordinates. Recall that when we write the equation of a shape,
we are writing conditions that the coordinates of a point must satisfy in order
to belong to that shape. In Cartesian coordinates, this relation is between x
and y. In polar coordinates, the relation will be between r and . Of course, the
equations of the shapes you know in Cartesian coordinates will look very di¤er-
ent in polar coordinates. To perform this, we will use the relations in equations
1.16 and 1.17.
r sin = 2r cos + 5
Example 85 What is the equation of the horizontal line through (1; 2) in polar
coordinates?
In Cartesian coordinates, it is y = 2. This gives us
r sin = 2
Example 86 What is the equation of the circle of radius 2 centered at the origin
in polar coordinates?
In Cartesian coordinates, this equation is x2 + y 2 = 4. This gives us
r2 cos2 + r2 sin2 = 4
2 2 2
r sin + cos = 2
2
r = 4
or r = 2.
r2 = x2 + y 2
2 p !2
1 3
= +
2 2
= 1
and
y
tan =
x
p
= 3
1.7. CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES 61
has the same meaning as in polar and cylindrical coordinates. There are
no restrictions on .
' is the angle between the positive z-axis and the line from the origin to
P . We restrict ' to 0 ' .
x = r cos (1.21)
y = r sin
and also
x2 + y 2 = r 2 (1.22)
62 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 2
Make sure you can do the above before attempting the problems.
1.7.4 Problems
Do odd # 3- 23 at the end of 9.7 in your book.