RESEARCH ON TOPOGRAPHY AND CONTOUR

I. Objectives, purposes and utilization

An objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more

generally any point in terms of both a horizontal coordinate system such as

latitude, longitude, and altitude. Identifying (naming) features, and recognizing

typical landform patterns are also part of the field A topographic study may be

made for a variety of reasons: military planning and geological exploration have

been primary motivators to start survey programs, but detailed information

about terrain and surface features is essential for the planning and construction

of any major civil engineering, public works, or reclamation projects.

II. Characteristics of contours

The principal characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading a

contour map are as follows:

1. Contour lines must close, not necessarily in the limits of the plan.

2. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount

of slope and varies inversely on the amount of slope.

3. Widely spaced contour indicates flat surface.

4. Closely spaced contour indicates steep slope ground.

5. Equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope.

6. Irregular contours indicate uneven surface.

7. Approximately concentric closed contours with decreasing values towards

centre indicate a pond.

 8. Approximately concentric closed contours with increasing values towards

centre indicate hills.

9. Contour lines with U-shape with convexity towards lower ground indicate

ridge.

10. Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground indicate

valley.

11. Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other. If contour lines

are meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical cliff.

12. Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other. If contour lines

cross each other, it shows existence of overhanging cliffs or a cave.

13. The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along

the normal of the contour at that point.

14. Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings.

15. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits

of the map.

III. Terminologies

a. Spot height

Spot height is the number in the topographic maps representing the

height above sea level of a determined geographic point. In building,

planning or construction plans it represents the height of a point or

element.

b. Hachures
 A line on a map indicating the steepness of a slope. Unlike contour lines,

hachures are drawn in the direction of the slope and their thickness and

closeness is used to represent the relief with shading. They are no

longer used on most modern maps.

c. Form Lines

Lines resembling contours, but representing no actual elevations, which

have been sketched from visual observation or from inadequate or

unreliable map sources, to show collectively the configuration of the

terrain.

d. Contour lines

Contour line is a line on a map representing an imaginary line on the

land surface, all points of which are at the same elevation above a datum

plane, usually mean sea level.

e. Shading

Shading refers to depicting depth perception in 3D models or illustrations

by varying levels of darkness.

IV. Types of ground formation

a. Depression

A depression in geology is a landform sunken or depressed below the

surrounding area. Depressions form by various mechanisms.

b. Summit of hill

The term "summit" is generally used only for a mountain peak with some

significant amount of topographic prominence (height above the lowest

 point en route to the nearest higher peak) or topographic isolation

(distance from the nearest point of higher elevation); for example, a

boulder next to the main summit of a mountain is not considered a

summit. Summits near a higher peak, with some prominence or isolation,

but not reaching a certain cutoff value for the quantities, are often

considered subsummits (or subpeaks) of the higher peak, and are

considered as part of the same mountain

c. Ridge

A ridge or mountain ridge is a geological feature consisting of a chain of

mountains or hills that form a continuous elevated crest for some

distance. Ridges are usually termed hills or mountains as well,

depending on size.

d. Valley

A valley in its broadest geographic sense is also known as a dale. A

valley through which a river runs may also be referred to as a vale. A

small, secluded, and often wooded valley is known as a dell or in

Scotland as a glen. A wide, flat valley through which a river runs is known

in Scotland as a strath. A mountain cove is a small valley, closed at one

or both ends, in the central or southern Appalachian Mountains which

sometimes results from the erosion of a geologic window. A small valley

surrounded by mountains or ridges is sometimes known as a hollow. A

deep, narrow valley is known as a cwm (also spelled combe or coombe).

Similar geological structures, such as canyons, ravines, gorges, gullies,

 chines and kloofs, are not usually referred to as valleys. A valley formed

by erosion is called an erosional valley; a valley formed by geologic

events such as drop faults or the rise of highlands is called a structural

valley.

e. Saddle

The saddle between two hills (or mountains) is the region surrounding

the highest point of the lowest point on the line tracing the drainage

divide (the col) connecting the peaks. When, and if, the saddle is

navigable, even if only on foot, the saddle of a (optimal) pass between

the two massifs, is the area generally found around the lowest route on

which one could pass between the two summits, which includes that

point which is a mathematically when graphed a relative high along one

axis, and a relative low in the athwart axis, simultaneously; that point

being by definition the col of the saddle

f. Spur

A spur is a lateral ridge or tongue of land descending from a hill,

mountain or main crest of a ridge. Sometimes the term is used in sense

of sub peak.

g. Sink hole

A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form

of collapse of the surface layer. Most are caused by karst processes—

for example, the chemical dissolution of carbonate rocks or suffosion

processes. Sinkholes vary in size from 1 to 600 m (3.3 to 2,000 ft.) both
 in diameter and depth, and vary in form from soil-lined bowls to bedrock-

edged chasms. Sinkholes may form gradually or suddenly, and are

found worldwide.

V. Types of contours

a. Index

A bolder/wider brown line that has the elevation value marked at various

intervals as a part of the line. These contours typically occur every fifth

line. Use an index contour near the point for which you are trying to find

the elevation as a first step to determining the elevation of that point

b. Intermediate

This is the basic symbol that you will use to determine the elevation of a

feature or location. It is a brown line on a topographic map and

represents a line of equal elevation. All locations that a contour lines

crosses have the same elevation at that point. Contour lines basically

follow the curves of Earth's natural land surface features

c. Supplementary

A dotted or dashed line that represents half the interval between the

other contour lines. Supplemental contours are used to produce a more

complete picture of relief in a relatively flat area, particularly in flat areas.

When supplemental contours are used, an explanatory note is placed in

the marginal information.

d. Depression
 A contour that indicates a hole and is represented by a "hachured"

brown line. A depression is a point inside a contour that is lower than the

contour; a point outside the depression contour is higher than the

contour.

e. Approximate

A contour line that is approximately determined. It is created because

map makers did not obtain data on the real height of certain areas. This

is probably because an aerial image which is used for crafting the

geographic map is clouded. As a result, the dashed line is used in that

area to represent the estimated height in continuation of index contour

or regularly spaced contours

f. Contour intervals

Vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is known as

the contour interval. It depends upon the scale of the map, nature of the

ground and availability of the fund and time.

VI. Methods of obtaining contour

a. Direct

In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the

ground. Points which happen to fall on a desired contour are only

surveyed, plotted and finally joined to obtain the particular contour. This

method is slow and tedious and thus used for large scale maps, small

contour interval and at high degree of precision.

b. Indirect
Indirect methods are less expensive, less time consuming and less

tedious as compared with the direct methods. These methods are

commonly employed in small scale survey of large areas.

1. Coordinate

A system for tracing contour to prepare contour coordinates by

tracing contour lines of a figure from an image that consists of a

set of a plurality of lines, comprising a memory stored in advance

from a basic pattern related to figure contour lines of positions of

image transition points between the neighboring two lines. An

image transition point of a line is detected and another image

transition point of a line that precedes the above line is detected,

too. A pattern of image transition points of the above two lines is

extracted based upon the basic pattern. The thus extracted basic

patterns are then integrated and are converted into contour

coordinates.

2. Cross profile

In this method, suitable spaced cross-sections are projected on

either side of the centre line of the area. Several points are

chosen at reasonable distances on either sides. The

observations are made in the usual manner with a level. The

cross-section lines are marked and reduced levels are entered.

The contours of desired values are then located by interpolation.

This method is suitable for road, railway and canal survey.

3. Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements from

photographs, especially for recovering the exact positions of

surface points. Photogrammetry is as old as modern photography,

dating to the mid-19th century and in the simplest example, the

distance between two points that lie on a plane parallel to the

photographic image plane, can be determined by measuring their

distance on the image, if the scale (s) of the image is known.

4. Tachometry

In this method, a number of radial lines are set out at known

angular interval at each station. The point are selected on a line

depend on the nature of the ground surface. Instead of the sea

level, a tachometer may be used. The observations are taken on

the staff stations and elevations and distances are then

calculated. A traverse and radial lines are plotted to the scale RLs

of the point entered. The contour of desired values are then

located by interpolation. This method is convenient in hilly area.

5. Digital

Is the practice of creating a digital representation of ground

topography and terrain. Although maps depicting topographical

information have been produced for hundreds of years, it is only

recently that such elevation data has been collected in such a

 precise digital form as to allow the creation of digital models of

the topography of the land.

6. Control points

Control points utilized in photogrammetry are commonly referred

to as “panel points” and are designated by an “x,” “v,” or open

center cross with approximately 5 feet legs. The legs of the cross

are made of cloth, plastic, or paint. The panels are usually white

in order to contrast with the ground; however, on concrete

pavements and extremely colored barren soils, it is best to use

dark gray or black materials. Control points should be paneled in

advance of flying to ensure visibility in the acquired photography.

7. Trace

Tracing contours method is used when exact location of a

particular contour line is needed.

Reference/s:

 http://surveying2012.blogspot.com/2013/08/contours-characteristics-and-

uses.html

 http://www.diccionariodelaconstruccion.com/en/planning-and-project-

management/productive-process-of-topography/spot-height

 https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hachure

 https://www.thefreedictionary.com/form+lines

 https://www.britannica.com/topic/contour-line

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shading
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinkhole