Derivation Booklet Physics 12 Part 1

Physics is not only studying about

Derivations and Numerical.
We should all feel amazed at how much
our forefathers have learned from what is
around us and we should contribute it in
too.
Himanshu Bhandari
(IITian and Physics Teacher by passion,
Ex Researcher at ARIES Observatory and
NTHU, Taiwan
Ex-Manager at L&T)

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 Electric field at a point on the axial position of an electric dipole

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 Electric field at a point on the equatorial position of an electric dipole

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 Energy stored in a capacitor and Energy stored per unit volume

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 Effective capacitance when capacitors are connected in series

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 Effective capacitance when capacitors are connected in parallel

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 Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor

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 Electric Field due to Linear Charge

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 Electric Field due to Plane Sheet

For an infinite sheet of charge, the electric field will be perpendicular to

the surface. Therefore only the ends of a cylindrical Gaussian surface will
contribute to the electric flux . In this case a cylindrical Gaussian surface
perpendicular to the charge sheet is used. The resulting field is half that of a
conductor at equilibrium with this surface charge density.

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 Electric field between two parallel plates

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 Electric field due to thin Spherical Shell

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 Electric field inside a Charged Sphere

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 Torque on an electric dipole in a uniform electric field

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 Potential Energy of Dipole

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 Electric Field and Potential Relation

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 Potential Energy between two point charges

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 Potential due to multiple charges

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 Capacitor with a Dielectric Slab

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 Capacitor with a Metallic Sheet

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 Drift Velocity Derivation

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 Relation between Drift velocity and Current

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 Relation between Current Density and Electric Field

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 Derivation of Cells in Series

Consider the points A, B and C and let V (A), V (B) and V (C) be the potentials of these points respectively.

V (A) - V (B) will be the potential difference between the positive and negative terminals for the first cell.

So VAB = V (A) - V (B) = ε1- Ir1.

VBC = V (B) - V (C) = ε2 – Ir2.

Now the potential difference between the terminals A and C is

VAC = V (A) – V(C) = [V (A) - V (B)] + V (B) - V (C)]
= ε1- Ir1 + ε2 – Ir2
= ( ε1 + ε2) – I(r1+r2).

In case if we replace this combination of cells by a single cell between the points A and C with emf εeq and internal
resistance req, VAC = εeq - req. and thus we found out that εeq = ε1 + ε2 and req = r1+r2

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 Derivation of Cells in Parallel

V = V (B1) - V (B2) = ε1- I1 r1. The point B1 and B2 are connected similar to the second cell.
V = V (B1) - V (B2) = ε2 – I2 r2. By ohm’s law we know that I = V / R. Now substitute these values in the
equation

If we replace the cells by a single cell lying

between the point B1 and B2 with emf εeq and internal resistance req, then
V = εeq - Ireq.
It is the same as when we connect the resistors in parallel connection. For n number of cells
connected in parallel with emf ε1, ε2…… εn and internal resistance r1, r2…. rn

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 Heat Produced in a Resistor

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 Wheatstone Bridge and Meter Bridge

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 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in Magnetic Field

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 Time Period of Magnetic Dipole

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 Force between two current carrying conductors

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 Definition of 1 Ampere

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 Magnetic Field due to Circular Current Carrying Loop-1

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 Magnetic Field due to Circular Current Carrying Loop-2

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 Magnetic Field due to Circular Current Carrying Loop-2

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 Magnetic Field due to Solenoid

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 Magnetic Field due to Toroid

Between Toroid

Outside Toroid: Total Current going inside is

equal to total current coming outside so net
current is zero

Inside Toroid: Total Current enclosed is zero so

Magnetic Field is Zero
Outside and Inside
Toroid
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 Torque experiences by a Current Loop

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 Torque experienced by Current Carrying Coil

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 Moving Coil Galvanometer - Derivation

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 Properties of Moving Coil Galvanometer

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 Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter & Voltmeter

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 Difference between Ammeter & Voltmeter

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 Cyclotron - 1

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 Cyclotron -2

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 Cyclotron -3

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 Potential energy of Magnetic Dipole

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 Induced Emf, Induced Current and Induced Charge

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 Motional EMF Derivation

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 Maximum EMF in AC Generator

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 AC Generator -2

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 Eddy Currents

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 Self Inductance of a Solenoid

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 Mutual Inductance between two solenoids

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 Magnetic Energy per Unit Volume

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 EMF in a rotating Bar

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Alternating emf:
Alternating emf is that emf which continuously changes in magnitude and
periodically reverses its direction.
Alternating Current:
Alternating current is that current which continuously changes in magnitude
and periodically reverses its direction.

E = E0 sin ωt E = E0 cos ωt
E ,I I = I0 sin ωt E ,I I = I0 cos ωt
E0 E0
I0 I0
0 0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t t

E, I – Instantaneous value of emf and current Symbol of

E0, I0 – Peak or maximum value or amplitude of emf AC Source
and current
ω – Angular frequency t – Instantaneous time
ωt – Phase
Average or Mean Value of Alternating Current:
Average or Mean value of alternating current over half cycle is that steady
current which will send the same amount of charge in a circuit in the time of
half cycle as is sent by the given alternating current in the same circuit in
the same time.
dq = I dt = I0 sin ωt dt
T/2

q = ∫ I0 sin ωt dt
0

q = 2 I0 / ω = 2 I0 T / 2π = I0 T / π

Mean Value of AC, Im = Iav = q / (T/2)

Im = Iav = 2 I0 / π = 0.637 I0 = 63.7 % I0

Average or Mean Value of Alternating emf:

Em = Eav = 2 E0 / π = 0.637 E0 = 63.7 % E0

Note: Average or Mean value of alternating current or emf is zero over a

cycle as the + ve and – ve values get cancelled.
Root Mean Square or Virtual or Effective Value of
Alternating Current:
Root Mean Square (rms) value of alternating current is that steady current
which would produce the same heat in a given resistance in a given time as
is produced by the given alternating current in the same resistance in the
same time.
dH = I2R dt = I02 R sin2 ωt dt
T

H = ∫ I02 R sin2 ωt dt
0

H = I02 RT / 2 (After integration, ω is replaced with 2 π / T)

If Iv be the virtual value of AC, then
H = Iv 2 RT Iv = Irms = Ieff = I0 / √2 = 0.707 I0 = 70.7 % I0

Root Mean Square or Virtual or Effective Value of

Alternating emf: Ev = Erms = Eeff = E0 / √2 = 0.707 E0 = 70.7 % E0
Note: 1.
Root Mean Square value of alternating current or emf can be calculated over any period
of the cycle since it is based on the heat energy produced.
2. Do not use the above formulae if the time interval under the consideration is less than
one period.
Relative Values Peak,
Virtual and Mean Values of
E
Alternating emf: Ev 0
Em
Em = Eav = 0.637 E0 0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt

T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T

t
Ev = Erms = Eeff = 0.707 E0

Tips:
1. The given values of alternating emf and current are virtual values unless
otherwise specified.
i.e. 230 V AC means Ev = Erms = Eeff = 230 V
2. AC Ammeter and AC Voltmeter read the rms values of alternating current
and voltage respectively.
They are called as ‘hot wire meters’.
3. The scale of DC meters is linearly graduated where as the scale of AC
meters is not evenly graduated because H α I2
AC Circuit with a Pure Resistor: R
E = E0 sin ωt

I=E/R
= (E0 / R) sin ωt E = E0 sin ωt

I = I0 sin ωt (where I0 = E0 / R and R = E0 / I0)

Emf and current are in same phase.

E = E0 sin ωt y
E ,I I = I0 sin ωt
E0 E0
I0
I0
0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt

T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T

t 0 ωt
x
 AC Circuit with a Pure Inductor:
E = E0 sin ωt
Induced emf in the inductor is - L (dI / dt) L

In order to maintain the flow of current, the

applied emf must be equal and opposite to
E = E0 sin ωt
the induced emf.
I = ∫ (E0 / L) sin ωt dt
E = L (dI / dt)
E0 sin ωt = L (dI / dt) I = (E0 / ωL) ( - cos ωt )

dI = (E0 / L) sin ωt dt I = I0 sin (ωt - π / 2)

(where I0 = E0 / ωL and XL = ωL = E0 / I0) Current lags behind emf by π/2 rad.

XL is
Inductive Reactance. Its SI unit is ohm. y E0
E = E0 sin ωt
E ,I I = I0 sin (ωt - π / 2)
E0
I0
ωt
0 0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt π/2 x
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t I0
AC Circuit with a Capacitor:
E = E0 sin ωt C

q = CE = CE0 sin ωt
E = E0 sin ωt
I = dq / dt
= (d / dt) [CE0 sin ωt] (where I0 = E0 / (1 / ωC) and

I = [E0 / (1 / ωC)] ( cos ωt )

XC = 1 / ωC = E0 / I0)
I = I0 sin (ωt + π / 2)
XC is Capacitive
Current leads the emf by π/2 radians.
Reactance.
y E0
E = E0 sin ωtIts SI unit is ohm.
E ,I I = I0 sin (ωt + π / 2)
I0
E0
I0
π/2
0 ωt
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt
0 x
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t
Variation of XL with Frequency:
XL
I0 = E0 / ωL and XL = ωL
XL is Inductive Reactance and ω = 2π f

XL = 2π f L i.e. XL α f
0 f

Variation of XC with Frequency:

XC
I0 = E0 / (1/ωC) and XC = 1 / ωC
XC is Inductive Reactance and ω = 2π f

XC = 1 / 2π f C i.e. XC α 1 / f
0 f

TIPS:
1) Inductance (L) can not decrease Direct Current. It can only decrease
Alternating Current.
2) Capacitance (C) allows AC to flow through it but blocks DC.
 L R
AC Circuit with L, C, R in Series C
Combination: VR
VL
The applied emf appears as VC
Voltage drops VR, VL and VC across
R, L and C respectively.
1) In R, current and voltage are in E = E0 sin ωt
phase. VL VL
2) In L, current lags behind voltage by
- VC
π/2
π/2 π/2
3) In C, current leads the voltage by 0
π/2 π/2 I VR I VR
E = √ [VR2 + (VL – VC)2] VC VC
E
I= E
√ [R2 + (XL – XC)2] VL - V C Φ

Z = √ [R2 + (XL – XC)2] I VR

E = √ [VR2 + (VL – VC)2]
Z = √ [R + (ω L – 1/ωC) ]
2 2

XL – X C ω L – 1/ωC
tan Φ = or tan Φ =
R R
 XL – X C ω L – 1/ωC
tan Φ = or tan Φ =
R R

Special Cases:
Case I: When XL > XC i.e. ω L > 1/ωC,
tan Φ = +ve or Φ is +ve
The current lags behind the emf by phase angle Φ and the LCR
circuit is inductance - dominated circuit.

Case II: When XL < XC i.e. ω L < 1/ωC,

tan Φ = -ve or Φ is -ve
The current leads the emf by phase angle Φ and the LCR circuit is
capacitance - dominated circuit.
Case III: When XL = XC i.e. ω L = 1/ωC,
tan Φ = 0 or Φ is 0°
The current and the emf are in same phase. The impedance does
not depend on the frequency of the applied emf. LCR circuit
behaves like a purely resistive circuit.
Resonance in AC Circuit with L, C, R:
When XL = XC i.e. ω L = 1/ωC, tan Φ = 0 or Φ is 0° and
Z = √ [R2 + (ω L – 1/ωC)2] becomes Zmin = R and I0max = E / R
i.e. The impedance offered by the circuit is minimum and the
current is maximum. This condition is called resonant condition
of LCR circuit and the frequency is called resonant frequency.
At resonant angular frequency ωr, R1 < R 2 < R3
I0
ωr L = 1/ωrC or ωr = 1 / √LC or fr = 1 / (2π √LC)
Resonant Curve & Q - Factor: I0max
Band width = 2 ∆ ω
Quality factor (Q – factor) is defined as the R1
I0max / √2
ratio of resonant frequency to band width.
Q = ωr / 2 ∆ ω
It can also be defined as the ratio of potential R2
drop across either the inductance or the
R3
capacitance to the potential drop across the
resistance. 0 ωr ω
Q = VL / VR or Q = VC / VR ωr - ∆ ω ωr + ∆ ω
or Q = ωr L / R or Q = 1 / ωrCR
Power in AC Circuit with L, C, R:
E = E0 sin ωt
I = I0 sin (ωt + Φ) (where Φ is the phase angle between emf and current)
Instantaneous Power = E I
= E0 I0 sin ωt sin (ωt + Φ)
= E0 I0 [sin2 ωt cosΦ + sin ωt cosωt cosΦ]
If the instantaneous power is assumed to be constant for an
infinitesimally small time dt, then the work done is
dW = E0 I0 [sin2 ωt cosΦ + sin ωt cosωt cosΦ]
Work done over a complete cycle is
T

W = ∫ E0 I0 [sin2 ωt cosΦ + sin ωt cosωt cosΦ] dt

0
W = E0I0 cos Φ x T / 2

Average Power over a cycle is Pav = W / T

Pav = (E0I0/ 2) cos Φ (where cos Φ = R / Z

Pav = (E0/√2) (I0/ √2) cos Φ = R /√ [R2 + (ω L – 1/ωC)2]
is called Power Factor)
Pav = Ev Iv cos Φ
 Pav = Ev Iv cos Φ Wattless Current or Idle
Current:
Power in AC Circuit with R: Ev
In R, current and emf are in phase.
Iv cos Φ Iv
Φ = 0° Φ
Pav = Ev Iv cos Φ = Ev Iv cos 0° = Ev Iv 90°

Power in AC Circuit with L: Iv sin Φ

In L, current lags behind emf by π/2. The component Iv cos Φ

Φ = - π/2 generates power with Ev.

Pav = Ev Iv cos (-π/2) = Ev Iv (0) = 0 However, the component

Iv sin Φ does not
Power in AC Circuit with C: contribute to power along
In C, current leads emf by π/2. Ev and hence power
generated is zero. This
Φ = + π/2
component of current is
Pav = Ev Iv cos (π/2) = Ev Iv (0) = 0 called wattless or idle
current.
Note:
P = Ev Iv sin Φ cos 90° = 0
Power (Energy) is not dissipated in Inductor and Capacitor and hence they
find a lot of practical applications and in devices using alternating current.
L C Oscillations:
L L
+++++ + + +
L C C C
- - - - - - - -

At t = 0, UE=Max. & UB=0 At t = T/8, UE = UB At t = 2T/8, UE=0 & UB=Max.

L L L
- - - - - - - - - - -
C C C
+ + + +++++ + + +

At t =3T/8, UE = UB At t = 4T/8, UE=Max. & UB=0 At t =5T/8, UE = UB

L L
+ + + +++++
L
C C
- - - - - - - -C

At t = 6T/8, UE=0 & UB=Max. At t =7T/8, UE = UB At t =T, UE=Max. & UB=0

q0 q0

q
q
0 0
t t

Undamped Oscillations Damped Oscillations

If q be the charge on the capacitor at any time t and dI / dt the rate of

change of current, then

L dI / dt + q / C = 0 The final equation represents Simple

or L (d2q / dt2) + q / C = 0 Harmonic Electrical Oscillation with
ω as angular frequency.
or d2q / dt2 + q / (LC) = 0
So, ω = 1 / √LC
Putting 1 / LC = ω 2
1
or f=
d2q / dt2 + ω2 q = 0 2π √LC
Transformer:
Transformer is a device which converts lower alternating voltage at higher
current into higher alternating voltage at lower current.
Principle:
Transformer is based on
Mutual Induction.
It is the phenomenon of
inducing emf in the P
S Load
secondary coil due to
change in current in the
primary coil and hence the
change in magnetic flux in
the secondary coil.
Theory:
EP = - NP dΦ / dt For an ideal transformer, Efficiency (η):
Output Power = Input Power η = E S IS / E P IP
ES = - NS dΦ / dt
ESIS = EPIP For an ideal
E S / E P = NS / NP = K
transformer η
ES / EP = I P / IS is 100%
(where K is called
Transformation Ratio E S / E P = I P / I S = NS / NP
or Turns Ratio)
 Step - up Transformer: Step - down Transformer:

P S Load P S

Load

NS > NP i.e. K > 1 NS < NP i.e. K < 1

E S > E P & IS < I P ES < EP & I S > IP

Energy Losses in a Transformer:

1. Copper Loss: Heat is produced due to the resistance of the copper

windings of Primary and Secondary coils when current flows through
them.
This can be avoided by using thick wires for winding.
2. Flux Loss: In actual transformer coupling between Primary and Secondary
coil is not perfect. So, a certain amount of magnetic flux is wasted.
Linking can be maximised by winding the coils over one another.
3. Iron Losses:
a) Eddy Currents Losses:
When a changing magnetic flux is linked with the iron core, eddy
currents are set up which in turn produce heat and energy is wasted.
Eddy currents are reduced by using laminated core instead of a solid iron
block because in laminated core the eddy currents are confined with in
the lamination and they do not get added up to produce larger current.
In other words their paths are broken instead of continuous ones.
b) Hysteresis Loss:
When alternating current is
passed, the iron core is
magnetised and demagnetised
repeatedly over the cycles and
some energy is being lost in the
process. Solid Core Laminated Core

This can be minimised by using suitable material with thin hysteresis loop.

4. Losses due to vibration of core: Some electrical energy is lost in the

form of mechanical energy due to vibration of the core and humming
noise due to magnetostriction effect.
A.C. Generator:

Q R
S S
R Q
N N
P S

R1 S P
R1
B1 B1
R2 R2
B2 B2
Load Load

A.C. Generator or A.C. Dynamo or Alternator is a device which converts

mechanical energy into alternating current (electrical energy).
 Principle:
A.C. Generator is based on the principle of Electromagnetic Induction.
Construction:
(i) Field Magnet with poles N and S
(ii) Armature (Coil) PQRS
(iii) Slip Rings (R1 and R2)
(iv) Brushes (B1 and B2)
(v) Load
Working:
Let the armature be rotated in such a way that the arm PQ goes down and
RS comes up from the plane of the diagram. Induced emf and hence
current is set up in the coil. By Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, the direction
of the current is PQRSR2B2B1R1P.
After half the rotation of the coil, the arm PQ comes up and RS goes down
into the plane of the diagram. By Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, the direction
of the current is PR1B1B2R2SRQP.
If one way of current is taken +ve, then the reverse current is taken –ve.
Therefore the current is said to be alternating and the corresponding wave
is sinusoidal.
Theory:
Φ = N B A cos θ
ω
At time t, with angular velocity ω, R
θ = ωt (at t = 0, loop is assumed to
be perpendicular to the magnetic field
and θ = 0°) Q θ B
Φ = N B A cos ωt n
Differentiating w.r.t. t,
dΦ / dt = - NBAω sin ωt
S
E = - dΦ / dt
E = NBAω sin ωt
E = E0 sin ωt (where E0 = NBAω) P

E0

0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt

T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T End of Alternating Currents

t
Electromagnetic Waves:

For a region where there are no charges and conduction current, Faraday’s
and Ampere’s laws take the symmetrical form:

dΦB dΦE
E . dl = - and B . dl = - μ0ε0
l dt l dt
It can also be shown that time – varying electric field produces space –
varying magnetic field and time – varying magnetic field produces space –
varying electric field with the equations:

jEy jBz jBz jEy

=- and = - μ0ε0
jx jt jx jt
Electric and magnetic fields are sources to each other.

Electromagnetic wave is a wave in which electric and magnetic fields are

perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave.
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves:

Y
E0

0
X
B0
Z

1. Variations in both electric and magnetic fields occur simultaneously.

Therefore, they attain their maxima and minima at the same place and at
the same time.
2. The direction of electric and magnetic fields are mutually perpendicular
to each other and as well as to the direction of propagation of wave.
3. The electric field vector E and magnetic field vector B are related by c
= E0 / B0 where E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of the respective fields and c
is speed of light.
4. The velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space, c = 1 / √μ0ε0

5. The velocity of electromagnetic waves in a material medium = 1 / √με

where μ and ε are absolute permeability and absolute permitivity of the
material medium.

6. Electromagnetic waves obey the principle of superposition.

7. Electromagnetic waves carry energy as they propagate through space. This

energy is divided equally between electric and magnetic fields.

8. Electromagnetic waves can transfer energy as well as momentum to objects

placed on their paths.
9. For discussion of optical effects of EM wave, more significance is given to
Electric Field, E. Therefore, electric field is called ‘light vector’.
10. Electromagnetic waves do not require material medium to travel.
11. An oscillating charge which has non-zero acceleration can produce
electromagnetic waves.
Hertz Experiment:
The copper or zinc
plates are kept Copper or
parallel separated by Zinc Plate
60 cm. The metal
spheres are slided Metal Rod
over the metal rods to P S S1
have a gap of 2 to 3 S1’
cm. Induction coil S2’
P S S2 EM
supplies high voltage
Wave
of several thousand
volts. Induction Coil Metal Rod Ring

The plates and the Metal

Spheres Copper or
rods (with spheres)
Zinc Plate
constitute an LC
combination.

An open metallic ring of diameter 0.70 m having small metallic spheres acts as
a detector.
This constitutes another LC combination whose frequency can be varied by
varying its diameter.
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
S. EM Wave Range of λ Range of ν Source Use
No.
1 Radio A few km to A few Hz to Oscillating Radio and TV
Wave 0.3 m 109 Hz electronic broadcasting
circuits
2 Microwave 0.3 m to 109 Hz to Oscillating Radar, analysis of
10-3 m 3 x 1011 Hz electronic fine details of atomic
circuits and molecular
structures &
Microwave oven
3 Infra Red 10-3 m to 7.8 3 x 1011 Hz Molecules Industry, medicine,
wave x 10-7 m to and hot astronomy, night
4 x 1014 Hz bodies vision device, green
house, revealing
secret writings on
ancient walls, etc.

4 Light or 7.8 x 10-7 m to 4 x 1014 Hz Atoms and Optics and Optical

Visible 3.8 x to molecules Instruments, Vision,
Spectrum 10-7 m 8 x 1014 Hz when photography, etc.
electrons
are excited
S. EM Range of λ Range Source Use
No. Wave of ν
5 Ultra 3.8 x 10-7 m to 8 x 1014 Atoms and Medical application,
Violet 6 Hz to molecules sterilization, killing
Rays x 10-10 m in electrical bacteria and germs in
3 x 1017 discharges food stuff, detection of
Hz and Sun invisible writing, forged
documents, finger print,
etc.

6 X - Rays 10-9 m to 3 x 1017 Inner or X-ray photography,

6 x 10-12 m Hz to more tightly treatment of cancer, skin
bound disease & tumor, locating
5 x 1019 electrons in cracks and flaws in
Hz atoms finished metallic objects,
detection of smuggled
goods in bags of a
person, study of crystal
structure, etc.

7 γ-Rays They overlap 3 x 1018 Radioactive Information about

the upper limit Hz to substances structure of nuclei,
of the X-Ray. astronomical research,
10-10 m to 10- 3x etc.
14
m 1022 Hz

End of EM Waves