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1. ABRASIVES
Abrasives are the materials characterized by their extreme hardness, high
melting point and chemical inertness and are used to wear off other objects by
cutting, grinding and polishing.
1.1 Moh’s Scale
The hardness of abrasives is measured on Moh's scale or Vicker's scale. The
hardness of talc is 1 and hardness of diamond is 10.
Fluorite 4 Corundum 9
Apatite 5 Diamond 10
1.2 Classification
Abrasives can be classified into
(a) Natural abrasives
(b) Artificial abrasives
1.3 Natural Abrasives
a) Diamond
It is the crystalline form of carbon. It ranks first in hardness (Moh's scale 10). It
is chemically inert and not affected by acids and alkalis.
Faulty off colour diamonds are called borts. Black colour diamond from Brazil
is called carbanado and has no jewellery value. Borts and carbanado are used in drill
points, grinding wheels, rock cutting, saw teeth, etc.
b) Corundum
It is crystalline aluminium oxide (Al2O3). Its hardness on Moh’s scale is 9. It is
not having any gem quality and is used in grinding glasses, gems, lenses, metals and
metal cutting.
c) Garnet:
Garnets are nesosilicates having the general formula X3Y2(SiO4)3. The X site is
usually occupied by divalent cations (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn)2+and the Y site by trivalent
cations (Al, Fe, Cr)3+ in an octahedral/tetrahedral framework with [SiO4]4− occupying
the tetrahedral.
Hardness
Because the chemical composition of garnet varies, the atomic bonds in some
species are stronger than in others. As a result, this mineral group shows a range of
hardness on the Mohs scale of about 6.5 to 7.5. The harder species like almandine are
often used for abrasive purposes.
Uses:
Gemstones
Garnet sand is a good abrasive, and a common replacement for silica
sand in sand blasting.
Garnet sand is also used for water filtration media.
d) Emery;
Emery (or corundite) is a dark granular rock used to make abrasive powder. It
largely consists of the mineral corundum (aluminium oxide). Industrial emery may
contain a variety of other minerals and synthetic compounds such
as magnesia, mullite, and silica.
Abrasives.
2. REFRACTORIES
Refractories are materials which can withstand very high temperatures,
without softening or deformation in shape. These materials are hard and
chemically stable.
Example: Alumina, Silica, Magnesite, Dolomite, Graphite
1. Acid Refractories
Acid refractories are materials consist of acidic oxides like alumina (Al2O3)
and silica (SiO2). They are not attacked by acidic materials, but easily attacked by
basic materials.
Example: Alumina bricks, silica bricks and fire clay refractory bricks (containing 30
to 40% of Al2O3).
2. Basic Refractories
These refractories consist of basic oxides like lime (CaO), magnesia (MgO),
etc. They are not attacked by basic materials, but easily attacked by acidic materials.
Example: Magnesite bricks and dolamite bricks.
3. Neutral Refractories
These are refractories made from weakly acidic or basic materials like graphite
(C), chromite (FeO.CrO2), zirconia (ZrO2), etc.
Example: Graphite, chromite, zirconia and carborundum.
2.3 Properties of Refractories
2.3.1 Refractoriness: It is the ability of a material to withstand its own weight
without undergoing appreciable deformation and softening under particular service
conditions.
Refractoriness is generally measured by the softening or melting temperature of
the refractory material.
Measurement of Refractoriness
Refractoriness of the refractory material is measured in Pyrometric Cone
Equivalents (PCE) (Seger Cones). The refractory material under test is made into a
standard cone (pyramid shaped, 38 mm height and has a triangular base, with 19 mm
long sides). This cone is called as seger cone.
37 36 35
1.42 A
Adjacent regular Carbon atom Each carbon atom
hexagonal paraller in a network of boned by only
layers can slide hexagons three convalent
9.40 A
3.4 A
MO
Atom Layer
3.13 A
S Atom Layer
3.13 A
MO
Atom Layer
Where L is the viscosity of low viscosity index oil at 38o C. H is the viscosity
of the high viscosity index oil at 38o C and U is the viscosity of the test oil at 38o C.
H
Viscosity
38oC 90oC
Temperature
The lubricant chosen should have the minimum viscosity (to reduce the internal
resistance between the particles of the lubricant) under working conditions and at the
same time, it should remain in place and separate the surfaces.
Hydrocarbon oils (mineral oils which are lower molecular weight
hydrocarbons with
about 12 to 50 carbon atoms) are considered to be satisfactory lubricants for thick-film
lubrication. In order to maintain the viscosity of the oil in all seasons of year, ordinary
hydrocarbon lubricants are blended with selected long chain polymers.
(b) Thin Film lubrication/ Boundary Lubrication:
This type of lubrication is preferred where a continuous film of lubricant
cannot persist. In such cases, the clearance space between the moving/sliding surfaces
is lubricated by such a material which can get adsorbed on both the metallic surfaces
by either physical or chemical forces. This adsorbed film helps to keep the metal
surfaces away from each other at least up to the height of the peaks present on the
surface.
Vegetable and animal oils and their soaps can be used in this type of lubrication
because they can get either physically adsorbed or chemically react in to the metal
surface to form a thin film of metallic soap which can act as lubricant. Although these
oils have good oiliness, they suffer from the disadvantage that they will break down at
high temperatures.
On the other hand, mineral oils are thermally stable and the addition of
vegetable/animal oils to mineral oils, their oiliness can also be brought up. Graphite
and molybdenum disulphide are also suitable for thinfilm lubrication.
(c) Extreme Pressure lubrication/ High Pressure Lubrication:
When the moving/sliding surfaces are under very high pressure and speed, a
high local temperature is attained under such conditions, liquid lubricants fail to stick
and may decompose and even vaporize. To meet these extreme pressure conditions,
special additives are added to minerals oils. These are called extreme pressure
additives. These additives form more durable films (capable of withstanding very high
loads and high temperatures) on metal surfaces.
Important additives are organic compounds having active radicals or groups such as
chlorine (as in chlorinated esters), sulphur (as in sulphurized oils) or phosphorus (as in
tricresyl phosphate). These compounds react with metallic surfaces, at existing high
temperatures, to form metallic chlorides, sulphides or phosphides.