Preschoollf

California
Preschool
Learning
Foundations
Volume 1
Social-Emotional Development
Language and Literacy
English-Language Development
Mathematics
Publishing Information
The California Preschool Learning Foundations (Volume 1) was

developed by the Child Development Division, California Depart
ment of Education through a contract with WestEd. It was edited
by Dixie Abbott, Janet Lundin, and Faye Ong, working in coopera
tion with Desiree Soto, Consultant, Child Development Division. It
was prepared for printing by the staff of CDE Press: the cover and
interior design were created and prepared by Cheryl McDonald;
typesetting was done by Jeannette Reyes. It was published by the
Department, 1430 N Street, Sacramento, CA 95814-5901. It was
distributed under the provisions of the Library Distribution Act
and Government Code Section 11096.
© 2008 by the California Department of Education

All rights reserved
ISBN 978-0-8011-1681-0
Ordering Information
Copies of this publication are available for sale from the California
Department of Education. For prices and ordering information,
please visit the Department Web site at http://www.cde.ca.gov/
re/pn or call the CDE Press Sales Office at (800) 995-4099. An
illustrated Educational Resources Catalog describing publications,
videos, and other instructional media available from the Depart
ment can be obtained without charge by writing to the CDE Press
Sales Office, California Department of Education, 1430 N Street,
Suite 3207, Sacramento, CA 95814-5901; FAX (916) 323-0823
or by calling the CDE Press Sales Office at the telephone number
shown above.
Notice
The guidance in California Preschool Learning Foundations is not
binding on local educational agencies or other entities. Except for
the statutes, regulations, and court decisions that are referenced
herein, the document is exemplary, and compliance with it is not
mandatory. (See Education Code Section 33308.5.)
Contents
A Message from the State Superintendent
of Public Instruction
Acknowledgments
vii
Introduction
xi
Foundations in
Foundations in
47
Foundations in
103
Foundations in
Mathematics
143
Appendix: The Foundations

173
California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 iii

A Message from the
State Superintendent of Public
Instruction
I
am delighted to present the California ment of Education, during a three-year
Preschool Learning Foundations long collaborative effort with leading
(Volume 1), a publication that I believe early childhood educators, researchers,
will be instrumental in improving early advocates, and parents, developed these
learning and development for California’s preschool learning foundations.
preschool children. The foundations outline key knowledge
Young children are naturally eager to and skills that most children can achieve
learn. However, not all of them are ready when provided with the kinds of inter
for school. All too often, children entering actions, instruction, and environments
school for the first time as kindergarten research has shown to promote early
ers are already lagging behind their class learning and development. The founda
mates, and this disadvantage can affect tions can provide early childhood educa
them socially and academically long past tors, parents, and the public with a clear
kindergarten. Children who have had the understanding of the wide range of knowl
benefit of attending high-quality preschools edge and skills that preschool children
are more comfortable in their surround typically attain when given the benefits
ings, have been exposed to books, have of a high-quality preschool program.
learned how to play cooperatively, and are These foundations focus on four
accustomed to learning with others. domains: social-emotional development,
Research shows that all children language and literacy, English-language
can benefit from participating in high- development, and mathematics. They
quality preschool programs. And a recent provide a comprehensive understanding
study by the RAND Corporation shows that of what children learn in these four
closing the school “readiness” gap will help domains.
to close the achievement gap, in which far It is my hope that these foundations
too many socioeconomically disadvantaged will help guide and support all California
students and far too many African Ameri preschools as they offer developmentally
can and Latino children are lagging behind appropriate activities and instruction that
and achieving below their abilities. Not all are both purposeful and playful, instilling
preschool programs are equally effective, in our young children a love of learning
however. Those that strengthen children’s that will last a lifetime.
school readiness operate with an in-depth
understanding of what children need to
learn before they start school.
With a goal of ensuring that all
preschools in California offer such high- JACK O’CONNELL
quality programs, the California Depart State Superintendent of Public Instruction
California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1

Acknowledgments
T
he development of the preschool Ross Thompson, University of California,
learning foundations involved many Davis
people. The following groups contrib Cathy Tsao, WestEd
uted: (1) project leaders; (2) the Preschool Ineko Tsuchida, WestEd
Learning Foundations Research Consor Rebeca Valdivia, WestEd
tium; (3) expanded research consortia; Ann Wakeley, Sonoma State University
(4) lead researchers; (5) staff from the Ann-Marie Wiese, WestEd
California Department of Education (CDE); Mark Wilson, University of California,
(6) early childhood education stakeholder Berkeley
organizations; and (7) facilitators of public Hiro Yamada, University of California,
input sessions. Berkeley
Marlene Zepeda, California State
Project Leaders University, Los Angeles
The developmental work involved the Osnat Zur, WestEd
tireless work of dedicated staff. The
following staff members are gratefully Lead Researchers
acknowledged for their many contributions: Special thanks are extended to the follow
Peter Mangione and Cathy Tsao, WestEd; ing lead researchers for their expertise:
Mark Wilson and Stephen Moore, Uni
versity of California, Berkeley.
Ross Thompson, University of California,
Davis
Preschool Learning Foundations
Janet Thompson, University of California,
Research Consortium Davis
The development of the preschool learning
foundations was guided by a research

Language and Literacy*
consortium composed of the following
Anne Cunningham, University of
members:
California, Berkeley
Christopher Lonigan, Florida State
Melinda Brookshire, WestEd
University
Tzur Karelitz, University of California,
Berkeley English-Language Development

Anne Kuschner, Sonoma State University Marlene Zepeda, California State
Peter Mangione, WestEd University, Los Angeles
Katie Monahan, WestEd
Stephen Moore, University of California, Mathematics
Berkeley Doug Clements, State University
Maurine Ballard-Rosa, California State of New York
University, Sacramento Aki Murata, Mills College and Stanford
Kavita Seeratan, University of California, University
Berkeley
Janet Thompson, University of California, * Susan Landry and Susan Gunnewig, University of
Davis Texas, Houston, also made valuable contributions
to early drafts.
California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 ii

iii
Expanded Research Consortia Rena Hallam, University of Tennessee,

Domain experts and their affiliations are Knoxville
listed as follows: Whit Hayslip, Los Angeles Unified School
District
Social-Emotional Development Betsy Hiteshew, University of California,
Oscar Barbarin, University of North Los Angeles Extension
Carolina, Chapel Hill Carolyn Huie-Hofstetter, University
Susanne Denham, George Mason of California, Berkeley
University Deirdre Jackson, San Bernardino City
Michael Lopez, National Center for Latino Unified School District
Child & Family Research, Washington Sarah Kania, Tehama County Office
D.C. of Education
Sandra Machida, California State Linda Kroll, Mills College
University, Chico Anne Kuschner, Sonoma State University
Ross Thompson, University of California, Susan Landry, University of Texas,
Davis Houston
Janet Thompson, University of California, Amy Lin Tan, Sacramento City Unified
Davis School District
Deborah Vandell, University of California, Christopher Lonigan, Florida State
Irvine University
Peter Mangione, WestEd
Language and Literacy Development Rick McCallum, University of California,
Sheila Arnold, Orange County Berkeley
Department of Education Daniel Meier, San Francisco State
Marilyn Astore, Sacramento County University
Office of Education Deborah Montgomery Parrish, American
Janet Barnes, Tehama County Office Institutes for Research
of Education Stephen Moore, University of California,
Melinda Brookshire, Sonoma State Berkeley
University Roberta Peck, First 5 California
Larry Champion, Tehama County Office Pat Phipps, California Association for the
of Education Education of Young Children
Don Corrie, Tehama County Office Eva Ponte, University of California,
of Education Berkeley
Anne Cunningham, University of Lisa Sandberg, Tehama County Office
California, Berkeley of Education
Jan Davis, Sonoma State University Connie Tate, San Joaquin County Office
Gary DeiRossi, San Joaquin County of Education
Office of Education Amy Wagner, WestEd
Karen Draney, University of California, Mark Whitney, Mira Costa College
Berkeley Mark Wilson, University of California,
Donna Elmore, SETA Head Start Berkeley
Imelda Foley, Los Angeles Unified School Frank Worrell, University of California,
District Berkeley
Bertha Franco, United Families, Inc. Joyce Wright, Sacramento County Office
Magda Franco, United Families, Inc. of Education
Susan Gunnewig, University of Texas,
Houston
Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 • California Department of Education

ix
English-Language Development Aki Murata, Mills College and Stanford

University
Barbara Flores, California State Univer
Deborah Montgomery Parrish, American
sity, San Bernardino
Institutes for Research
Vera Gutierrez-Clellan, San Diego State
Roberta Peck, First 5 California
University
Pat Phipps, California Association for the
Linda Espinosa, University of Missouri,
Education of Young Children
Columbia
Eva Ponte, University of California,
Celia Genishi, Teachers College, Columbia
Berkeley
University
Lisa Sandberg, Tehama County Office
Alison Wishard Guerra, University of
of Education
California, San Diego
Ann Shannon, University of California,
RaMonda Horton-Ikard, University of Ten
Berkeley
nessee, Knoxville
Eun Soo Shin, University of California,
Gisela Jia, City University of New York
Berkeley
Lisa Lopez, University of South Florida
Amy Wagner, WestEd
Marlene Zepeda, California State
Mark Whitney, Mira Costa College
University, Los Angeles
Mark Wilson, University of California,
Mathematics Berkeley
Doug Clements, State University of New Frank Worrell, University of California,
York, Stony Brook Berkeley
Janet Barnes, Tehama County Office of Joyce Wright, Sacramento County Office
Education of Education
Melinda Brookshire, Sonoma State
University California Department
Larry Champion, Tehama County Office of Education
of Education Thanks are also extended to the
Don Corrie, Tehama County Office of following staff members: Gavin Payne,
Education Chief Deputy Superintendent; Anthony
Jan Davis, Sonoma State University Monreal, Deputy Superintendent,
Gary DeiRossi, San Joaquin County Office Curriculum and Instruction Branch; and
of Education Michael Jett, Director, Gwen Stephens,
Karen Draney, University of California, Assistant Director, and Desiree Soto,
Berkeley Consultant, Child Development Division.
Donna Elmore, SETA Head Start During the lengthy development process,
Imelda Foley, Los Angeles Unified School many CDE staff members were involved
District at various levels. Additional thanks are
Whit Hayslip, Los Angeles Unified School extended to Sue Stickel,* Meredith
District Cathcart, Barbara Metzuk,* Sy Dang
Carolyn Huie-Hofstetter, University of Nguyen, Mary Smithberger, Maria Trejo,
California, Berkeley and Charles Vail.
Deirdre Jackson, San Bernardino City
Unified School District *During the development of the foundations, these
individuals worked for the California Department
Anne Kuschner, Sonoma State University
of Education.
Peter Mangione, WestEd
Daniel Meier, San Francisco State
University
Stephen Moore, University of California,
Berkeley

Early Childhood Education California Tomorrow

Stakeholder Organizations Californians Together
Campaign for High Quality Early Learning
Representatives from many statewide Standards in California
organizations provided perspectives Child Development Policy Institute
affecting various aspects of the learning Child Development Policy Institute
foundations: Education Fund
Action Alliance for Children Children Now
Asian Pacific Islander Community Action Council for Exceptional Children/The
Network California Division for Early Childhood
Association of California School Council of CSU Campus Childcare
Administrators Curriculum and Instruction Steering
California Alliance Concerned with Committee
School-Age Parenting and Pregnancy Fight Crime, Invest in Kids California
Prevention First 5 Association of California
California Association for Bilingual First 5 California Children and Families
Education Commission
California Association for the Education Infant Development Association of California
of Young Children Learning Disabilities Association
California Association of Family Child Care of California
California Association of Latino Los Angeles Universal Preschool
Superintendents and Administrators Mexican American Legal Defense and
California Child Care Coordinators Education Fund
Association Migrant Education Even Start
California Child Care Resource and Referral Migrant Head Start
Network National Black Child Development Institute
California Child Development Administrators National Council of La Raza
Association Packard Foundation Children, Families,
California Child Development Corps and Communities Program
California Commission on Teacher Preschool California
Credentialing Professional Association for Childhood
California Community College Early Education
Childhood Educators Special Education Local Plan Area
California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Organization
Office University of California Child Care Directors
California County Superintendents University of California, Office of the
Educational Services Association President
California Early Reading First Network Voices for African American Students, Inc.
California Federation of Teachers Zero to Three
California Head Start Association
California Kindergarten Association Public Input Sessions
California National Even Start Association
Special thanks should also be extended to
California Preschool Instructional Network
Joyce Wright, Nancy Herota, the regional
California Professors of Early Childhood
leads of the California Preschool Instruc-
Special Education
tional Network, and to Melinda Brookshire
California School Boards Association
California State Parent-Teacher Association
and Jan Davis, WestEd, for their contri-
California State University Office of the butions in facilitating 53 public input
Chancellor sessions on the draft foundations.
California Teachers Association

Introduction
T
he preschool learning foun programs must work to provide appro
dations are a critical step in priate conditions for learning and
the California Department of individually assist each child to move
Education’s efforts to strengthen pre along a pathway of healthy learning
school education and school readiness and development.
and to close the achievement gap in All 50 states either have developed
California. They describe competen preschool standards documents or are
cies—knowledge and skills—that most in the process of doing so. Many of
children can be expected to exhibit in them have sought to align early learn
a high-quality program as they com ing standards with their kindergar
plete their first or second year of pre ten content standards. In most cases
school. In other words, the foundations these alignment efforts have focused
describe what all young children typi on academic content areas, such as
cally learn with appropriate support. English–language arts or mathematics.
The support young children need to In California priority has been placed
attain the competencies varies from on aligning expectations for preschool
child to child. Many children learn learning with the state’s kindergar
simply by participating in high-quality ten academic content standards and
preschool programs. Such programs complementing the content areas with
offer children environments and expe attention to social-emotional devel
riences that encourage active, playful opment and English-language devel
exploration and experimentation. With opment. Like the learning in such
play as an integral part of the curricu domains as language and literacy and
lum, high-quality programs include mathematics, the concepts in social-
purposeful teaching to help children emotional development and English-
gain knowledge and skills. In addi language development also contrib
tion, many children in California’s pre ute significantly to young children’s
schools benefit from specific support in readiness for school (From Neurons to
learning English. Other children may Neighborhoods 2000; Eager to Learn
have a special need that requires par 2000; Early Learning Standards 2002).
ticular accommodations and adapta Because the focus on preschool learn
tions. To serve all children, preschool ing in California includes the full range
California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 xi

xii
of domains, the term “foundations” Overview of the Foundations

is used rather than “standards.” This
The strands for each of the domains
term is intended to convey that learn
discussed previously are listed in this
ing in every domain affects young chil
section.
dren’s readiness for school.
The preschool learning foundations
Domain. The social-emotional develop
presented in this document cover the
ment domain consists of the following
following domains:
three strands:
• Social-Emotional Development
1. Self, which includes self-aware
• Language and Literacy
ness and self-regulation, social
• English-Language Development
and emotional understanding,
(for English learners)
empathy and caring, and initiative
• Mathematics
in learning
Together, these domains represent
2. Social Interaction, which focuses
crucial areas of learning and develop
on interactions with familiar
ment for young children. The founda
adults, interactions with peers,
tions within a particular domain
group participation, and coopera
provide a thorough overview of devel
tion and responsibility
opment in that domain. Preschool
children can be considered from the 3. Relationships, which addresses
perspective of one domain, such as attachments to parents, close
language and literacy or social- relationships with teachers and
emotional development. Yet, when caregivers, and friendships
taking an in-depth look at one domain, The competencies covered by the
one needs to keep in mind that, for social-emotional development founda
young children, learning is usually an tions underscore the multiple ways in
integrated experience. For example, a which young children’s development in
young child may be concentrating on this domain influences their ability to
mathematical reasoning, but at the adapt successfully to preschool and,
same time, there may be linguistic later on, in school.
aspects of the experience. Language and Literacy Domain.
The foundations written for each of The language and literacy founda
these domains are based on research tions address a wide range of specific
and evidence and are enhanced with competencies that preschool children
expert practitioners’ suggestions and will need support to learn. These foun
examples. Their purpose is to promote dations focus on the following three
understanding of preschool children’s strands:
learning and to guide instructional
1. Listening and Speaking, which
practice. It is anticipated that teach

includes language use and
ers, administrators, parents, and poli

conventions, vocabulary, and
cymakers will use the foundations as

grammar
a springboard to augment efforts to

enable all young children to acquire 2. Reading, which covers concepts
the competencies that will prepare about print, phonological aware
them for success in school. ness, alphabetics and word/print

xiii
recognition, comprehension and ask questions, use social conven

analysis of age-appropriate text, tions, and tell personal stories
and literacy interest and response 3. Reading, which covers appre
3. Writing, which focuses on writing ciating and enjoying reading,
strategies, including the emergent understanding book reading,
use of writing and writing-like understanding print conventions,
behaviors demonstrating awareness that
The foundations that were written print conveys meaning, develop
for this domain reflect the field’s grow ing awareness and recognition of
ing interest in and understanding of letters, demonstrating phonologi
the knowledge and skills that foster cal awareness, and manipulating
children’s language and literacy sounds, such as rhyming
learning during the preschool years. 4. Writing, which includes under
English-Language Development standing the communicative
Domain. The English-language devel function of writing and engaging
opment foundations are specifically in simple writing and writing-like
designed for children entering pre behaviors
school with a home language other Unlike the three other sets of foun
than English. Some English learners dations, in which the foundations are
will begin preschool already having linked to age, the English-language
had some experience with English. development foundations are defined
For other English learners, preschool by three levels of development—Begin
will offer them their first meaningful ning, Middle, and Later. Depending on
exposure to English. No matter how their prior experience with using their
much background English learners home language and English to commu
have with English before they enter nicate with others, preschool English
preschool, they will be on a path of learners will go through these levels at
acquiring a second language. As the different paces. Once children reach
English-language development foun the Later level, they will still need sup
dations indicate, the learning task port to continue acquiring English and
for English learners is sequential and to apply their developing linguistic
multifaceted. English learners will abilities in every domain.
need support in developing knowledge Mathematics Domain. Young
and skills in the following four strands: children’s development of mathemat
1. Listening, which includes ics knowledge and skills is receiving
understanding words, requests increasing attention in research and
and directions, and basic and practice. The mathematics foundations
advanced concepts cover the following five strands:
2. Speaking, which focuses on using 1. Number Sense, which includes
English to communicate needs, understanding of counting, num
expand vocabulary, become ber relationships, and operations
skillful at engaging in conversa
2. Algebra and Functions (Classifica
tions, use increasingly complex
tion and Patterning), which focuses
grammatical constructions when
on sorting and classifying objects
speaking, understand grammar,

xi
and recognizing and understand The DRDP-R gives teachers a means

ing simple, repeating patterns to observe children’s learning along a
3. Measurement, which includes
continuum of four developmental
comparison and ordering
levels.
Finally, the examples listed under
4. Geometry, which focuses on
each foundation give a range of pos
properties of objects (shape,
sible ways in which children can dem
size, position) and the relation
onstrate a foundation. The examples
of objects in space
suggest different kinds of contexts in
5. Mathematical Reasoning, which which children may show the compe
addresses how young children tencies reflected in the foundations.
use mathematical thinking to Examples highlight that children
solve everyday problems are learning while they are engag
Preschool programs can promote ing in imaginative play, exploring the
young children’s learning in this environment and materials, making
domain by encouraging children to discoveries, being inventive, or inter
explore and manipulate materials that acting with teachers or other adults.
engage them in mathematical think Although often illustrative of the diver
ing and by introducing teacher-guided sity of young children’s learning expe
learning activities that focus on math riences, the examples listed under a
ematical concepts. foundation are not exhaustive. In fact,
teachers often observe other ways in
Organization of the which young children demonstrate a
Foundations foundation.
Note: The Appendix, “The Founda
In the main body of this document,
tions,” contains a listing of the
each strand is broken out into one or
foundations in each domain, without
more substrands, and the foundations
examples.
are organized under the substrands.
Foundations are presented for chil
Universal Design for Learning
dren at around 48 months of age and
at around 60 months of age. In some The California preschool learning
cases the difference between the foun foundations are guides to support pre
dations for 48 months and 60 months school programs in their efforts to fos
is more pronounced than for the other ter the learning and development of all
foundations. Even so, the founda young children in California, includ
tions focus on 48 and 60 months of ing children who have disabilities. In
age because they correspond to the some cases, children with disabilities
end of the first and second years of will need to use alternate methods for
preschool. Of course, teachers need to demonstrating their development. It
know where each child is on a contin is important to provide opportunities
uum of learning throughout the child’s to follow different pathways to learn
time in preschool. The Desired Results ing in the preschool foundations in
Developmental Profile-Revised (DRDP order to make them helpful for all of
R) is a teacher observation tool that California’s children. To that end, the
is being aligned with the foundations. California preschool learning founda-

x
tions incorporate a concept known as inclusive of any language and any

universal design for learning. form of communication, includ
Developed by the Center for Applied ing speaking, sign language, finger
Special Technology (CAST), univer spelling, pictures, electronic com
sal design for learning is based on munication devices, eye-pointing,
the realization that children learn gesturing, and so forth.
in different ways (CAST 2007). In • The terms “identifies” and “indi
today’s diverse preschool settings and cates or points to” are often used
programs, the use of a curriculum to represent multiple means of
accessible to all learners is critical indicating objects, people, or
to successful early learning. Univer events in the environment. Exam
sal design for learning is not a single ples include, among other means
approach that will accommodate of indicating, the use of gestures,
everyone; rather, it refers to provid eye-pointing, nodding, or respond
ing multiple approaches to learning ing “yes” or “no” when another
in order to meet the needs of diverse points to or touches an object.
learners. Universal design provides
Teachers should read each founda
for multiple means of representation,
tion and the accompanying examples,
multiple means of engagement, and
then consider the means by which
multiple means of expression (CAST
a child with a disability might best
2007). Multiple means of representa
acquire information and demonstrate
tion refers to providing information in
competence in these areas. A child’s
a variety of ways so the learning needs
special education teacher, parents,
of all of the children are met. Multiple
or related service provider may be
means of expression refers to allowing
contacted for consultation and
children to use alternative methods to
suggestions.
demonstrate what they know or what
they are feeling. Multiple means of
The Foundations
engagement refers to providing choices
for activities within the setting or pro
and Preschool Learning
gram that facilitate learning by build in California
ing on children’s interests. The foundations are at the heart
The examples given in the pre of the CDE’s approach to promoting
school learning foundations have been preschool learning. Teachers use best
worded in such a way as to incorpo practices, curricular strategies, and
rate multiple means of receiving and instructional techniques that assist
expressing. This has been accom children in learning the knowledge
plished by the inclusion of a variety of and skills described in the preschool
examples for each foundation and the learning foundations. The “how to’s”
use of words that are inclusive rather of teaching young children include
than exclusive, as follows: setting up environments, supporting
• The terms “communicates” and children’s self-initiated play, select
“responds” are often used rather ing appropriate materials, and plan
than the term “says.” “Com ning and implementing teacher-guided
municates” and “responds” are learning activities. Two major con
siderations underlie the “how to’s” of

xi
teaching. First, teachers can effectively skills that all young children need to
foster early learning by thoughtfully acquire for success in preschool and,
considering the preschool learning later on, in school.
foundations as they plan environments
and activities. And second, during References
every step in the planning for young Center for Applied Special Technology
children’s learning, teachers have an (CAST). 2007. Universal design for
opportunity to tap into the prominent learning. http://www.cast.org/
role of play. Teachers can best support our-work/about-udl.html#.
young children both by encouraging WCyKt_KFN9A (accessed June 8,
the rich learning that occurs in chil 2007).
dren’s self-initiated play and by intro Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschool
ducing purposeful instructional activi ers. 2000. Edited by B. T. Bowman,
M. S. Donovan, and M. S. Burns. Wash
ties that playfully engage preschoolers
ington, DC: National Academy Press.
in learning.
Early Learning Standards: Creating the
Professional development is a key
Conditions for Success. 2002. Washing
component in fostering preschool ton, DC: National Association for the
learning. The foundations can become Education of Young Children.
a unifying element for both preservice From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The
and in-service professional develop Science of Early Childhood Development.
ment. Preschool program directors 2000. Edited by J. P. Shonkoff and
and teachers can use the foundations D. A. Phillips. Washington, DC:
to facilitate curriculum planning and National Academy Press.
implementation. At the center of the Scott-Little, C.; S. L. Kagan; and V. S.
CDE’s evolving system for supporting Frelow. 2006. “Conceptualization of
young children during the preschool Readiness and the Content of Early
Learning Standards: The Intersection
years, the foundations are designed to
of Policy and Research?” Early Child
help teachers be intentional and focus
hood Research Quarterly, Vol. 21,
their efforts on the knowledge and
153–73.

FOUNDATIONS IN
Social-Emotional
Development
T
his section describes founda- caring, interactions with peers, friend
tions for the behavior of pre ship, group participation (such as in
school children in the domain the classroom), initiative in learning,
of social-emotional development. The attachments to parents, close relation
goal of the California Department of ships with teachers and caregivers,
Education (CDE) in developing these and interactions with familiar adults—
foundations was to describe the behav are each predictive of children’s adap
iors that are typical of preschool chil tation to school and their academic
dren who are making good progress success. Research literature highlight
toward readiness for kindergarten. The ing the social-emotional foundations
research focus was, in particular, on of early school success has been pub
behavior reflecting age-appropriate lished, and relevant studies from that
competency for children in the 40- to literature are cited in the bibliographic
47-month age span and children in listings at the end of this section.
the 52- to 59-month age span.
These competencies are included School readiness consists of
as foundations for children “at around social-emotional competencies as
48 months of age” and “at around well as other cognitive and motivational
60 months of age,” respectively. In competencies required for success
focusing on the social and emotional in school.
foundations of school readiness, a

central assumption—well supported
The CDE’s endeavor to describe the
by developmental and educational
behaviors typical of preschool children
research—was that school readiness
who are on course for school readi
consists of social-emotional competen
ness involved three additional assump
cies as well as other cognitive and
tions. The first was the assumption
motivational competencies required for
that young children have access to the
success in school. The foundations
appropriate kinds of social interac
of social and emotional development
tions, experiences, and environments
described here—including the growth
that normally support healthy develop
of self-awareness, self-regulation, coop
ment. Young children growing up in
eration and responsibility, social and
markedly deprived settings experience
emotional understanding, empathy and

SOCI AL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
greater challenges to healthy develop 60 months of age will find themselves

ment because they are more likely to humbled by the realization that the
lack those supports; consequently, developmental changes apparent over
their readiness to begin school is hin the course of a single year (albeit a
dered. The second assumption was duration that is one-quarter of the
that the purpose of these foundations is child’s lifetime to date) can be subtle.
to describe typical development rather In other words, one should not expect
than to articulate aspirational expec extensive changes in the behavior of
tations for children’s behavior under preschool children during a 12-month
the best possible conditions or for the period. Indeed, individual differences
behaviors to be instilled in children. in the characteristics and behavior
In order for these foundations to be of children of any age can be greater
useful, they must describe what can than the average behavioral changes
typically be expected of young children they will experience over the course
growing up in conditions appropri of a year of development. The purpose
ate for healthy development. The third of these foundations, however, is to
assumption was that these founda highlight the developmental differ
tions, especially the behavioral exam ences that are most common between
ples for each foundation, are not meant typical children at around 48 and 60
to be assessment items; rather, they are months of age. Although the differ
meant to be guidelines and teaching ences between children of each age
tools. Those who use these foundations can be subtle, there are some consis
should not try to measure the chil tent themes that run throughout the
dren they observe against the specific social-emotional domain. Compared
examples included in each domain. with younger children, for example,
This is because the examples given are children at around 60 months of age
meant to be general illustrations of the are more behaviorally competent and
competencies described rather than take greater active initiative in social
essential criteria for age-appropriate interactions and learning; they have
development. Children are different an enhanced psychological awareness
from one another and will vary in the of themselves and others; they have a
extent to which their behaviors match greater capacity for self-control; and
those given in the examples. their social relationships are more
reciprocal in quality. In general, these
The third assumption was that these
differences should be apparent in vari
foundations, especially the behavioral
ous ways across different social and
examples for each foundation, are not
emotional areas.
meant to be assessment items;
Children are a remarkably diverse
rather, they are meant to be guidelines
population, even when children of
and teaching tools.
comparable ages are considered. They
vary in their temperamental qualities
Educators, early childhood special and personality, family background,
ists, and others involved in any effort cultural heritage and values, and other
to describe the behaviors typical of features that make the application of
children at around 48 months of age these foundations (and the behavioral
compared with children at around examples included in each) a challeng-


ing task. This is another reason the in mind, a number of important stud
examples should be used for illustra ies were enlisted in the preparation of
tive purposes only. Indeed, the varia these foundations (e.g., Cabrera and
bility in children’s temperamental Garcia-Coll 2004; Fitzgerald and oth
qualities, for instance, means that ers 2003; Hughes and Chen 1999;
different children will display skills Hughes and others 2006; Johnson
relevant to each social-emotional 2005; and Johnson and others 2003).
foundation in individual ways, thus But it is clear that much more study is
requiring care and sensitivity in the needed.
application of these foundations. It is The lack of adequate research litera
important that the individual charac ture on the social-emotional develop
teristics of a child, the child’s family, ment of preschoolers who are English
and their background be considered learners or from backgrounds other
seriously in determining how the than European-American should be
foundations relate to the child. considered when using these founda
tions because they may be of uncer
Indeed, the variability in children’s
tain applicability to such children.
temperamental qualities, for instance,
The use of language as an indicator
means that different children will
of social or emotional competency,
display skills relevant to each
for example, may be very different as
social-emotional foundation in
applied to English learners, especially
individual ways, thus requiring
when they are observed in play groups
care and sensitivity in the application
with predominantly English-speaking
of these foundations.
children or are being observed by an
English-speaking teacher. The range of
Children in California are particu social relationships on which children
larly diverse in their culture of origin. can depend may be influenced by the
Culture is associated with family val cultural context of the child’s develop
ues and practices, language, and other ment as well as the dominant language
characteristics that are directly related of the adults and children at home.
to the meaning of these foundations For some children, language can be
and their application to individual chil socially isolating. Certain social and
dren, especially children who are from emotional themes in this section, such
underrepresented groups, English as “Initiative in Learning,” may be
learners, or from special populations. limited in application to children from
Although the developmental research cultural backgrounds that discourage
literature is rich in studies of Eng the kind of assertiveness typical
lish-speaking, middle-class European- of middle-class, English-speaking
American children, there is, unfortu children in the same preschool pro
nately, a dearth of studies focusing on gram or setting. It is important, then,
children who speak other languages to acknowledge that the research
and have other backgrounds. The few literature providing a basis for these
studies that do exist are often so spe foundations draws on populations
cific to children from particular back of children that vary widely in their
grounds or circumstances as to be of diversity and, thus, must be consid
limited generalizability. With culture ered carefully.

Likewise, these foundations must well-designed preschool environment.

be used carefully for children with In such settings (and at home) and
special needs. Children who have under the guidance of sensitive teach
physical or mental challenges, neuro ers, young children develop an under
developmental disorders, or other spe standing of other people’s feelings and
cial needs proceed developmentally in needs, are encouraged to feel empathy
ways that are similar to, but also dif and caring, learn to manage their own
ferent from, more typically developing behavior as responsible group mem
children. Again, the research literature bers, and acquire a variety of other
is limited regarding the documentation capabilities that will be directly rel
of age-related changes in social and evant to their success in managing the
emotional competencies. Furthermore, classroom environment of kindergarten
because the examples illustrating each or the primary grades.
of these competencies are written with Last, but perhaps most important,
typically developing children in mind, play is a central context for social and
they may not be consistently relevant emotional development in early child
to children with special needs. Care hood. Although these foundations
givers and teachers will be relied on for focus specifically on developmental
the insight needed to understand how changes in only one kind of play (spe
these foundations can be applied to cifically, pretend play), it is apparent
the children in their care. that many kinds of play contribute to
social-emotional competence in pre
It is important, then, to acknowledge schoolers, including social play with
that the research literature providing caregivers and peers, play with toys
a basis for these foundations draws and other objects, structured group
on populations of children that vary activities, and even games with rules.
widely in their diversity and, thus, One conclusion to be derived from this
must be considered carefully. observation is that play is an essential
cornerstone of healthy social and emo
Young children acquire social and tional development in early childhood
emotional competencies in ways that and contributes to the skills neces
are often different from how they sary for adjustment to and success in
acquire competence in the naming of school. This conclusion is reflected in
letters or numbers. As illustrated in the fact that one-third of the examples
this section, social-emotional skills illustrating these competencies are
emerge through children’s experience based on children’s experience in play.
in close relationships and the var
ied activities that occur in relational Play is a central context for social
experience, such as shared conversa and emotional development
tion, warm nurturance, and guided in early childhood.
assistance in learning capacities for

sociability, responsibility, and self- The preparation of these foundations
control. Social and emotional skills enlisted many sources, including
also develop through the shared activi documents from the CDE detailing
ties of a developmentally appropriate, developmental expectations in relevant
domains for older and younger children.


In addition, early childhood standards miller and others (2001); High/Scope
from a number of other states were Educational Research Foundation
consulted.1 Moreover, general sources (2003); Meisels and others (2003);
on early childhood development and Squires, Brickner, and Twombly
(e.g., Berk 2006; Hohmann and (2003).
Weikart 1995; Shaffer 2004), culture The most important source for
and development (e.g., Rogoff 1990, preparing these foundations was the
2003), and early learning (Committee research literature in developmental
on Early Childhood Pedagogy 2001; and educational psychology concern
Committee on Developments in the Sci ing early social and emotional develop
ence of Learning 2000) were consulted. ment. A reference list is included at
In addition, a number of well-validated the end of this section. Detailed biblio
assessment tools for preschoolers were graphic notes for reference materials
relied on, including those developed consulted for this domain also appear
by Bricker and others (1999); Dichtel later in this section. The bibliographic
notes include useful background infor
1
Early childhood standards from the following states mation for individuals who may wish
were examined in the preparation of the foundations:
Alaska, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Massachu to learn more about the research basis
setts, Rhode Island, Texas, and Washington. for these foundations.

Self
1.0 Self-Awareness
At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age
1.1 Describe their physical character 1.1 Compare their characteristics with
istics, behavior, and abilities those of others and display a grow
positively. ing awareness of their psychological
characteristics, such as thoughts
and feelings.
Children view their characteristics and abilities Children are confident in their abilities and
positively, enjoy demonstrating them, and characteristics, sometimes (depending on
assert their own preferences and desires. cultural values) comparing them favorably
Children also want to be viewed positively by with those of others. Children also regard
adults who matter to them. themselves in terms of their past abilities and
remain sensitive to how they are viewed by
adults, peers, and other people whose opinions
matter to them.
Examples Examples
• Seeks to do things by himself, sometimes refus • Communicates, “I can ride a bike, but my baby
ing an adult’s assistance, and communicates, sister doesn’t.”
“Do it myself.” • Smiles with delight at accomplishing something
• Communicates, “I like rice!” or “See my picture!” that was difficult to do and looks to the teacher
or “I don’t like getting wet” or “Look what I did!” for acknowledgment.
• Shows a painting or demonstrates an accom • Communicates, “I couldn’t do that when I was
plishment to elicit the acknowledgment of the little.”
teacher or parent and smiles when the adult • Communicates, “Sometimes I just want to be
responds. by myself.”
• Communicates, “My skin is brown,” in a positive • Seems disappointed if a drawing or demonstra
manner. tion of physical skill does not elicit the expected
• Seems dismayed and withdraws after her acknowledgement from an adult.
behavior is disapproved of by an adult. • Tries new things, even those that may be too
• Communicates, “I did it!” or “Yea!” after difficult.
finishing a puzzle. • While using her wheelchair, communicates,
• Communicates, “Mine!” when claiming a “I can go faster than you!”
preferred toy. • Asks for help after several attempts to solve a
• Expects success in a game or task, even when problem.
he has just failed at the same task. • Communicates, “I can speak Spanish and
English.”
• Watches a peer demonstrate a skill, then tries
to do the same thing.

Self |

2.0 Self-Regulation
2.1 Need adult guidance in managing 2.1 Regulate their attention, thoughts,
their attention, feelings, and impulses feelings, and impulses more consis
and show some effort at selfcontrol. tently, although adult guidance
is sometimes necessary.
Children follow simple rules and routines, seek Children anticipate routines, cooperate with
to cooperate, manage classroom transitions, fewer reminders, can focus attention on the
and make efforts at selfcontrol (such as task at hand, and manage transitions. They
selfsoothing and waiting) with adult guidance. are more capable of emotional and behavioral
Children also easily lose control of their selfregulation but sometimes require adult
attention, feelings, and behavior. guidance.
Examples Examples
• Jumps up and down on the couch but stops • May anticipate cleanup after play time and begin
when asked to do so by a parent or teacher. cleaning up without being prompted to do so.
• Manages transitions in the classroom routine • Puts away books where they belong without
(such as moving from play time to cleanup) when being prompted by an adult.
helped to anticipate them or provided some • Is more capable of focusing attention on a task in
choice. a busy classroom and is less distractible than a
• When asked by a teacher to share with threeyear old.
another child, may initially resist but eventually • Spontaneously tells the teacher she has broken
cooperates. something.
• Knows to put away his coat and boots after • Tells another child about how to treat the
arriving at the classroom. classroom pet.
• Is distracted by other children when working • Suggests that he can share the blocks with
at a table or easel. another child.
• Accepts a teacher’s comfort when distressed • With a teacher’s prompt, remembers to use
and calms readily. words to convey strong feelings (e.g., “It makes
• Reacts strongly when a peer takes away a me mad when you push!”).
valued toy. • Tries to control her distress after falling off a
• Has difficulty following instructions when too tricycle.
many directions are provided at once. • Asks for a teacher’s help when another child will
• Covers her eyes when seeing something that not share.
is upsetting. • Can be overheard saying when scared by a story,
• Turns away instead of hitting another child. “It’s just pretend” or “That’s not real, right?”
• Has difficulty waiting an extended period for a • Has strategies for waiting (such as distracting
desired object. herself or not looking at the desired object).
• Is learning to act differently in different settings • Deliberately slows down her movements in a
(e.g., speaking loudly outside rather than in the game such as “Red Light – Green Light.”
classroom), although often has to be reminded • Explains the reasons for a behavioral rule
to do so. (e.g., “We walk inside so we don’t bump into
other people”).

| Self
3.0 Social and Emotional Understanding

3.1 Seek to understand people’s feelings 3.1 Begin to comprehend the mental and
and behavior, notice diversity psychological reasons people act as
in human characteristics, and are they do and how they contribute to
interested in how people are similar differences between people.
and different.
Children are interested in people’s feelings Children have a better understanding of

and the reasons they feel that way. They can people’s thoughts and feelings as well as their
describe familiar routines, inquire about the own. They comprehend that another’s ideas
causes and consequences of behavior, and can be mistaken. They are also beginning
notice how people are similar and different, to understand differences in personality,
although their understanding is limited. temperament, and background (e.g., culture)
and their importance.
Examples Examples
• Communicates, “Marco’s crying. He fell down.” • Tells a teacher, “Jorge was sad because he
• Conveys a range of feelings, including happy, thought his mommy wasn’t coming.”
sad, and mad and describes simple situations • Tries to hide how she is feeling or to “mask” her
that evoke them. feelings with a different emotional expression
• Describes what happens at circle time. (e.g., appearing calm and unafraid when encoun
tering a big dog).
• Shows interest in how another child’s
appearance or eating habits are different • Communicates about a peer, “Emma’s really shy.”
from his own. • Has a growing vocabulary for identifying emo
• Enacts in pretend play everyday situations tions and can describe more complex emotional
involving people’s emotions and needs situations that might evoke different feelings.
(e.g., the baby doll is crying because she is • Explores more complex feelings, desires, and
hungry). concepts in pretend play.
• Understands that another child might be mad • Deliberately does not communicate truthfully
because she couldn’t do what she desired about inappropriate behavior.
(e.g., her block tower keeps falling down). • Describes which peers are friendly, aggressive,
• Comments on differences in behavior or or have other qualities.
appearance between boys and girls. • Tends to play in samesex groups.
• Wants to ride in Johnny’s wheelchair or use • Notices a child with a physical disability and
Sara’s walker. responds with questions or curiosity.
• Begins to understand how people’s feelings
can be alike and, on other occasions, be very
different.

Self |

4.0 Empathy and Caring
4.1 Demonstrate concern for the needs 4.1 Respond to another’s distress and
of others and people in distress. needs with sympathetic caring
and are more likely to assist.
Children respond with concern when a child Children respond sympathetically to a dis
or adult is distressed, strive to understand why, tressed person and are more competent at
and may display simple efforts to assist the responding helpfully.
other person.
Examples Examples
• Asks a teacher, “Why is Jessie crying?” and/or • Asks a younger child, “Why are you crying?” and
asks the teacher to help. when told that she misses her mommy, commu
• Watches another child crying loudly and makes nicates, “Don’t worry—your mommy will come
a sad face. back soon.”
• Communicates about an infant nearby, “Jacob’s • May communicate, “That’s not fair!” in response
scared of that loud noise.” to another child being excluded from the group.
• Gets a toy for a distressed peer and may • Helps a friend rebuild a fallen block tower.
communicate, “Do you feel better?” • Offers a friend her favorite book when she looks
• Brings a carrot to school for the class guinea pig. or acts sad.
• May come to the defense of a friend who is
teased by a peer.
• Asks a teacher for bandages after a peer has
fallen and scraped his knee.
• Asks, “Want some water?” of a friend who is
coughing.

0 | Self
5.0 Initiative in Learning

5.1 Enjoy learning and are confident 5.1 Take greater initiative in making
in their abilities to make new new discoveries, identifying new
discoveries although may not solutions, and persisting in trying
persist at solving difficult problems. to figure things out.
Children become engaged in learning Children are selfconfident learners who

opportunities, approach learning with become actively involved in formal and informal
enthusiasm, and have confidence in their learning opportunities by asking questions,
capacities to learn more. But they may give proposing new ways of doing things, and
up when facing difficult problemsolving offering their own ideas and theories.
challenges.
Examples Examples
• Shows interest in many different activities in the • Communicates, “Here’s a different way!”
classroom. • Asks “why” questions fairly often out of real
• Responds positively to a teacher’s invitation to curiosity (e.g., “Why is the worm doing that?”).
try a new activity. • Suggests another way of creating a castle at the
• Moves away after working on a puzzle that he sand table.
has been unable to solve. • Wants to try again when failing in his initial efforts
• Asks, “Why?” when faced with a perplexing to solve a problem.
discovery. • Offers information about animals that she has
• Notices when a new science display has been learned at home.
prepared by the teacher. • Initiates a conversation with an adult about a
• Starts many challenging puzzles but may finish class activity.
few. • Works hard on a project that has captured her
interest.
• Communicates, “I’m going to play with blocks
and then go to the science table.”


Social Interaction
1.0 Interactions with Familiar Adults
1.1 Interact with familiar adults comfort 1.1 Participate in longer and more
ably and competently, especially reciprocal interactions with
in familiar settings. familiar adults and take greater
initiative in social interaction.
Children comfortably interact with familiar Children take increasing initiative in interacting
adults in play or problem solving, ask questions with familiar adults through conversation,
or communicate about their experiences, suggesting a shared activity or asking for the
cooperate with instructions, or demonstrate adult’s assistance, and cooperate readily.
skills to the familiar adult, especially in familiar
settings.
Examples Examples
• Participates in pretend play or storytelling with • Asks a specific teacher to help build a road in
a familiar preschool teacher. the sandbox and interacts cooperatively with the
• Shares a brief conversation initiated by a familiar teacher for a sustained period.
adult or initiates such a conversation. • Communicates to a weekly volunteer, “Guess
• Shows a familiar adult a picture she has drawn. what I did!” and continues conversing with the
visitor about it.
• Responds appropriately to a request or question
by a teacher, although perhaps with delay. • Answers a teacher’s question, then asks the
teacher another question.
• Seeks assistance of a familiar adult, often with
nonverbal cues. • Communicates, “What?” or “Huh?” when the
teacher asks a question that the child does not
• Stays close to a familiar adult when faced with understand.
adult strangers or in an unfamiliar setting.

| Social Interaction
2.0 Interactions with Peers

2.1 Interact easily with peers in shared 2.1 More actively and intentionally
activities that occasionally become cooperate with each other.
cooperative efforts.
Children interact comfortably with one or two Children initiate and participate in more
playmates, although sociability is still basic. complex, cooperative activity with peers. This
Children sometimes share materials and may involve working together in groups to
communicate together, occasionally working achieve a shared goal or communicating about
cooperatively on a mutual goal or project, how to share materials so all can use them.
especially with adult support.
Examples Examples
• After watching another child dig in the sandbox, • Invites several children to help dig a hole in the
begins to dig alongside in a similar fashion; sandbox.
eventually the two children are digging together. • Suggests taking turns riding the tricycle.
• Paints with other children on easels side by side, • Responds appropriately to another child’s ideas
with the children looking at each other’s pictures, about how to build a better car track on the floor.
occasionally conflicting over the sharing of paints,
and commenting about their own painting. • Shares play dough so another child can make
something.
• Uses rhythm instruments together with several
other children. • Talks for several minutes with another child about
how they are dressing up in adult clothes for pre
• With adult prompting, shares the blocks she is tend play.
using or participates in turntaking with another
child. • Joins several other children to create a train track,
using blocks on the floor.
• Holds the bubble wand for another child so she
can blow bubbles.
• Sets the table with another child, communicating
about what is needed next.
2.2 Participate in simple sequences 2.2 Create more complex sequences

of pretend play.* of pretend play that involve
planning, coordination of roles,
and cooperation.
Children play imaginative, complementary roles Children develop longer, more complex pretend
(such as parent and child) in pretend play but play narratives involving a shared script,
without much planning or a welldeveloped coordination of childselected roles, and mutual
story line. correction within those roles as they play.
Examples Examples
• Communicates to another child, “I’ll be the tiger!” • Creates with a small group of children an
when they are playing outside. extended imaginary story with a beginning, a
• Leaps into the air in pretend “flying,” and other middle, and an end (e.g., a story of sickness and
children join in and do the same. healing that involves a doctor’s visit, a trip to the
hospital, an operation, and the patient’s recovery).
* Children may “play” whether or not they are communicating orally, narrating the play, or motorically engaging in activities.
For example, they may ask an adult or peer to assist in the motor aspects of play.

Social Interaction |

2.0 Interactions with Peers (Continued)
Examples (Continued) Examples (Continued)
• Begins roaring like a scary monster; as other • Communicates to another child, “You can’t say
children notice, they run away in mock terror or that! You’re the baby, remember?”
become monsters, too. • While playing with other children, communicates,
• Pretends with another child to make a birthday “I’m sick,” to which another child responds,
cake, then the two sing “Happy Birthday.” “Really?” and he responds, “No, just pretend.”
• Acts out a story with peers as a teacher is • Communicates to another child, “Let’s say this is
reading it to them. a secret cave, OK?” and the other children in the
group respond, “OK!”
2.3 Seek assistance in resolving peer 2.3 Negotiate with each other, seeking
conflict, especially when disagree adult assistance when needed, and
ments have escalated into physical increasingly use words to respond
aggression. to conflict. Disagreements may be
expressed with verbal taunting in
addition to physical aggression.
Children seek adult help when experiencing Children can suggest simple conflict resolu
conflict with another child. Peer disagreements tion strategies as well as respond to adult
(such as those regarding the sharing of toys) suggestions for resolving peer disputes.
can escalate into physical aggression, although Children may taunt or tease another child
not as readily as happens with children of rather than hitting and may also retaliate when
younger ages. provoked.
Examples Examples
• Pulls another child off the tricycle he wants to • Communicates at the water table where other
ride, then the other child cries and runs to the children are playing, “When can it be my turn?”
teacher for help. • Excludes another child from the group, communi
• At the block area, communicates to the teacher, cating, “You can’t play with us.”
“She won’t share!” when another child takes all • Communicates to another child in the block area,
the blocks. “I’m playing with these; you play with those,” or
• Immediately begins to cry when another child suggests taking turns.
knocks down the block structure he was building, • Communicates, “I don’t like it when you push
then looks for adult assistance. me!” without a prompt from the teacher.
• Pushes another child who shoved her in line, to
which other children respond, “Stop that!”

| Social Interaction
3.0 Group Participation

3.1 Participate in group activities and 3.1 Participate positively and coopera
are beginning to understand and tively as group members.
cooperate with social expectations,
group rules, and roles.
Children enjoy participating in group activities Children participate in group activities with
and are beginning to understand social expec the ability to anticipate familiar routines and
tations and group rules and their application. contribute to shared projects more competently
Children may have difficulty, however, coordi as group members.
nating their interests with those of the group.
Examples Examples
• Enjoys playing simple games, such as • Anticipates the predictable routines of the day,
“DuckDuckGoose” or “Follow the Leader,” such as initiating hand washing without being
with adult help. prompted when snack time arrives.
• Stays with the group for a nature walk. • Actively explores social roles in imaginative play.
• Notices when other children are missing from • Is more capable of sustained attention and
class. remaining engaged in group activities, such as
• Responds appropriately when a teacher putting a puzzle together cooperatively.
announces circle time or cleanup, although • Applies game rules more consistently for simple
may need guidance in what to do. games.
• Is interested in playing games but often deviates • Knows the procedure for leaving the setting to
from the rules. go to the bathroom or to another room and
• Attention often wanders after a brief period of corrects children who do not follow the
group activity, especially if it is not personally procedure.
engaging, which may result in inappropriate • Anticipates and begins preparing for an activity,
behavior or nonparticipation. such as a painting project.
• Begins to explore social roles (e.g., mother, • Sometimes shares spontaneously and thinks
teacher) in pretend play. of turntaking without adult prompting.
• Responds appropriately to verbal prompts in
songs or stories during circle time (e.g., “Hokey
Pokey,” “Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes,”
“Itsy Bitsy Spider”).
• Needs help remembering how to prepare for an
activity, such as getting ready to paint at an easel.
• With adult prompting, can share toys or wait
for a turn.

Social Interaction |

4.0 Cooperation and Responsibility
4.1 Seek to cooperate with adult 4.1 Have growing capacities for self
instructions but their capacities for control and are motivated to
selfcontrol are limited, especially cooperate in order to receive adult
when they are frustrated or upset. approval and think approvingly
of themselves.
Children strive to follow adult instructions to Children’s cooperation with adult instructions
maintain a good relationship with the parent or is more reliable because of better capacities
teacher and because of incentives and rules. for selfcontrol. Children are motivated by adult
Children often become dismayed or distressed approval and by a desire to view themselves
when corrected. Children have more difficulty approvingly for their good conduct, reflecting
complying with instructions when without adult their acceptance of adult standards for
support or when distressed or frustrated. themselves.
Examples Examples
• Plays gently with the classroom rabbit when • Tells another child to be gentle with the classroom
reminded to do so by the teacher but may play guinea pig.
more roughly on other occasions. • Suggests taking turns with another child who
• Seems sad and hides after the teacher comments wants to ride the tricycle.
on inappropriate behavior. • Spontaneously communicates, “I’m a good
• Smiles when the teacher comments on the child’s helper!”
cooperative behavior while setting the table for • Accidentally spills paint on another child’s art
lunch. work, then communicates, “I’m sorry,” or gets
• Hits another child when frustrated, then looks at another piece of paper for the other child.
the teacher. • Communicates, “uhoh,” and begins to pick up
• Shouts angrily at another child, but looks the pieces of a puzzle she has knocked off
confused or upset when the other child begins a shelf.
to cry. • Works cooperatively with a friend to wipe off the
• Participates in classroom routines, such as table with sponges after lunch.
cleanup. • Responds cooperatively when his behavior is
corrected by a teacher.

Relationships
1.0 Attachments to Parents
1.1 Seek security and support from their 1.1 Take greater initiative in seeking
primary family attachment figures. support from their primary family
attachment figures.
Children use their family caregivers (e.g., Children seek the support of their family
mother, father, grandparent, other adult raising caregivers, especially in difficult situations,
the child) as sources of security and support, by requesting help in resolving conflicts with
especially in challenging circumstances, others, initiating cooperative problem solving,
by obtaining comfort, requesting help, and or seeking comfort when distressed.
communicating about feelings.
Examples Examples
• Plays comfortably on the other side of the room • Seeks the parent’s help in a conflict with a sibling.
or the yard while the parent talks to the teacher, • With assistance from the parent, describes her
but cries to the parent to be consoled if hurt or feelings about a recent upsetting experience.
frustrated and readily calms when comforted.
• Seeks the parent’s help with a difficult task
• Asks for the parent’s help with a task (e.g., putting (e.g., zipping a coat, folding a note) and
on shoes) and may cooperate with the parent’s cooperates readily.
assistance.
• Responds positively to the parent’s arrival after
an absence.
• Runs over to his parent to tell about having
bumped his head and asks for a hug.
1.2 Contribute to maintaining positive 1.2 Contribute to positive mutual

relationships with their primary family cooperation with their primary
attachment figures. family attachment figures.
Children prefer interacting with their family Children demonstrate an awareness of the
caregivers, choosing them for sharing mutuality of close relationships in their efforts
activities, providing assistance, and displaying to be helpful, showing interest in the family
discoveries or achievements. caregiver’s feelings, preferences, or wellbeing
and sharing activities.
Examples Examples
• Asks the parent to watch something the child has • Wants to make a birthday card for the parent
learned to do. while at school.
• Prefers the parent’s company or assistance to • Wants to help the parent care for a baby sibling
that of other adults who may be equally available. or a pet or work together with the parent on a
• Responds positively when the mother initiates a task at home (as reported by the parent).
conversation about a shared experience, although • Communicates feelings to the mother, sometimes
will not contribute much to the conversation at taking the initiative in doing so.
this age.

Relationships |

1.0 Attachments to Parents (Continued)

• Shows the parent a drawing she has made at • Reports to the teacher about helping with a chore
school that day. at home.
• Shares information about parents with a teacher • Shows the attachment figure what she has been
(e.g., “My dad caught a fish!”). working on at school.
1.3 After experience with outofhome 1.3 After experience with outofhome
care, manage departures and care, comfortably depart from
separations from primary family primary family attachment figures.
attachment figures with the Also maintain wellbeing while apart
teacher’s assistance. from primary family attachment
figures during the day.
Children show affection to the family caregiver Children are eager to begin the day in
when the adult departs at the beginning of the preschool. They respond affectionately to
day but may need the assistance of a teacher the family caregiver as the adult departs
in coping with separation. and have little difficulty being separated.
Examples Examples
• Gives the father a hug and kiss and lingers near • Runs into the preschool at arrival to greet friends,
him as he prepares to leave the child at preschool then runs back to the mother for a hug and kiss
in the morning. as she departs.
• Begins to fuss as the mother departs but soothes • Eagerly waves goodbye to the father as he
easily with the primary caregiver at school. leaves, then turns to a favorite activity.
• After a distressing fall, cries for the mother but • Greets the parent with conversation in the home
is reassured when reminded that the mother will language at the end of the day.
return at the end of the day.
• Manages his feelings after the parent leaves by
playing with favorite objects, carrying personal
objects around the room, and so forth.
• Switches to the language typically used at home
when the parent arrives.

| Relationships
2.0 Close Relationships with Teachers and Caregivers

2.1 Seek security and support from their 2.1 Take greater initiative in seeking the
primary teachers and caregivers. support of their primary teachers
and caregivers.
Children use their primary teachers and Children seek the support of their primary
caregivers as sources of security and support, teachers and caregivers, especially when they
especially in challenging circumstances, are in difficult situations, by requesting the
by obtaining comfort, requesting help, and adult’s help in resolving conflicts with others,
communicating about feelings. initiating cooperative problem solving, or
seeking comfort when distressed.
Examples Examples
• Plays comfortably at a distance from the teacher, • Seeks the teacher’s help in a conflict with another
but cries to the teacher for help if hurt or frus child.
trated and readily calms when comforted. • Seeks the teacher’s assistance when confronted
• Prefers a particular teacher’s company or assis with a difficult task (e.g., challenging puzzle, new
tance to that of other teachers who may be skill to master).
equally available. • Upon returning from outdoors, looks for the pri
• Seeks to be near the primary teacher if distressed mary teacher and asks to play a game together.
by peer conflict or frightened by an unfamiliar • With assistance from the primary caregiver,
adult. can describe his own feelings about a recent
• Talks about the primary teacher at home (as upsetting experience.
reported by the parent).
2.2 Contribute to maintaining positive 2.2 Contribute to positive mutual

relationships with primary teachers cooperation with primary teachers
and caregivers. and caregivers.
Children prefer interacting with their primary Children demonstrate an awareness of the
teachers and caregivers, choosing them mutuality of close relationships in their efforts
for sharing activities, seeking comfort and to be helpful, showing interest in the teacher’s
assistance, and displaying discoveries or feelings, preferences, or wellbeing and sharing
achievements. personal experiences with the teacher.
Examples Examples
• Completes a puzzle and proudly shows it to the • Responds with interest when the primary teacher
primary teacher. communicates, “Yesterday I got a new dog!” and
• Rebuffs another adult’s attempts to help when continues the conversation about dogs.
the child is hurt and looks around to locate the • Proudly displays a drawing or discovery to the
primary teacher or caregiver. primary teacher for a positive response.
• Responds with pleasure when the primary • Contributes to classroom cleanup at the pri
teacher talks about a project done together with mary teacher’s request and, sometimes, initiates
the child; may not, however, contribute much to the cleanup of her own project, then shows the
the conversation at this age. teacher what she has done.
• Volunteers to help when the primary teacher is
setting up a new activity.

Relationships |

2.0 Close Relationships with Teachers and Caregivers (Continued)

• Communicates, “Good morning, teacher!” • Cooperates when asked to do so by the primary
or uses another term of respect when prompted teacher.
by the parent after arriving at preschool. • Refers to the primary teacher by the proper
• Imitates the behavior of the primary teacher. name when doing so is consistent with the
family’s cultural values.
• Physically greets the primary teacher or uses
other culturally appropriate means of greeting.

0 | Relationships
3.0 Friendships
3.1 Choose to play with one or two 3.1 Friendships are more reciprocal,
special peers whom they identify exclusive, and enduring.
as friends.
Children play with many peers but also seek Children seek to share activities with special
the company of one or two specific children friends who, in return, seek their company.
whom they identify as friends. Children are Friends act more positively toward each other
more cooperative and share more complex but may also experience greater conflict.
play with friends than with other children. Children respond with enhanced efforts at
conflict resolution.
Examples Examples
• Plays with the same friend regularly. • Sits regularly with one or two special friends
• Plays more complex, imaginative roles with a at lunch.
friend than with other peers. • Seeks to play exclusively with one or more
• Seeks out a favorite peer when entering the room. friends, even to the extent of excluding other
children from the play group.
• Sits next to a friend at circle time or mealtime.
• Communicates, “We’re friends, right?” when
• Notices when a friend is absent. seeking to play with a special peer.
• Can identify a friend by name (e.g., “Sara is my • Comes to the defense of a friend who is teased
friend!”). by a peer.
• Offers a toy to a friend to play with. • Engages in recurrent, familiar, and coopera
tive roleplay activities with one or more favorite
friends in the setting.
• Shares about experiences in the family with a
special friend.
• Laughs with a friend about an experience they
have shared.


Bibliographic Notes
Self Stipek and Mac Iver 1989; Stipek,

Roberts, and Sanborn 1984). The
sensitivity of preschool children to
Self-Awareness
adults’ evaluative judgments of their
There has been recent, considerable performance is also well documented
research interest in the development by Stipek’s research (1995; Stipek,
of self-awareness in young children, Recchia, and McClintic 1992). A
particularly because of the realization number of studies have revealed the
that older preschoolers are capable of emerging awareness of internal, psy
significantly greater depth and psy chological characteristics in the self-
chological insight into their concep awareness of older four-year-olds; see
tions of themselves. The period of time Eder (1989, 1990), Measelle and oth
addressed by these foundations is, ers (1998), and the work of Marsh and
therefore, an important transitional his colleagues (Marsh, Craven, and
period. This period starts with the very Debus 1998; Marsh, Ellis, and Craven
simple, rudimentary self-awareness of 2002). This work challenges earlier,
the younger child, focusing on physical traditional views that preschoolers
self-recognition (such as in a mirror are focused exclusively on observ
image) and dispositional self-attribu able appearance and behavior in their
tions (e.g., “Me big!”) and progressing self-perceptions and shows that when
to a more fully realized form of the developmentally appropriate research
psychological self-awareness of the methods are used, even four-year-olds
early-grade-schooler. For general reveal a dawning understanding of
reviews of this research literature, their psychological selves.
consult Harter (1999, 2006) and
Thompson (2006), who offer some
Self-awareness is an important
what different portrayals of the emer
component of early school success
gence of self-awareness during the
because young children’s
preschool period. Self-awareness is an
self-confidence shapes their interest,
important component of early school
motivation, and persistence in
success because young children’s
academic work . . .
self-confidence shapes their interest,
motivation, and persistence in aca
demic work, and their success in the Povinelli’s creative research studies
classroom reciprocally influences their have shown that older preschoolers are
sense of pride and accomplishment. also capable of perceiving themselves
Research revealing young children’s in a more extended temporal context,
(unrealistically) optimistic self-regard including the past and future (Povinelli
has often used Harter’s Self-Percep 2001; Povinelli, Landau, and Perilloux
tion Scale for Children (Harter and 1996; Povinelli and others 1999; Povi
Pike 1984); see also studies by Stipek nelli and Simon 1998). That capability
(1984; Stipek and Hoffman 1980; is relevant to both autobiographical

memory development and self-aware and emotional self-control to learn

ness. Finally, by the time they reach ing and classroom conduct (see Kopp
kindergarten, young children are 2002; Thompson 2002; Thompson [in
already becoming experts in the use press]). Several research teams have
and interpretation of social comparison found that differences in aspects of
information, a skill that will continue to self-regulation predict children’s read
develop throughout the primary school ing and mathematics achievement in
years (Pomerantz and others 1995). the early primary grades (Alexander,
Older preschoolers are just beginning Entwisle, and Dauber 1993; Howse
to incorporate social comparison infor and others 2003; NICHD Early Child
mation into their self-perceptions. Care Research Network 2003a).
Self-Regulation Self-regulation is relevant to the

The development of self-regula management of emotions and
tion involves emerging capacities to emotion-related behavior, attention,
suppress a dominant response and cognitive activity, and social behavior
to perform, instead, a subdominant (such as impulses to act aggressively
response. It is also associated with when provoked).
the self-control of impulsivity and
the development of more deliberate, The development of self-regula
intentional activity throughout early tion has been a topic of long-stand
and middle childhood. Self-regula ing interest to developmental scholars
tion is relevant to the management of (see reviews of this research: Kopp
emotions and emotion-related behav 1982; Kopp and Wyer 1994). This topic
ior, attention, cognitive activity, and has recently gained renewed atten
social behavior (such as impulses to tion under the concepts of “effort
act aggressively when provoked). The ful control” and “executive function.”
significant growth in self-regulation Although effortful control is often
in early childhood is revealed through studied as a component of emergent
the contrast between the impulsiv personality, developmental research
ity of a toddler and the capacities for ers, including Eisenberg (Eisenberg
more careful, deliberate behavior of a and others 2004; Liew, Eisenberg, and
child preparing to enter kindergarten Reiser 2004) and Kochanska (Kochan
(although these capacities are not, of ska and Knaack 2003; Kochanska,
course, consistently exercised). Bron Murray, and Harlan 2000), have
son (2000) has written a valuable over documented important developmental
view of research and practical knowl changes in young children’s capacities
edge on this topic (see also Brazelton for effortful control. Their research
and Sparrow 2001; Knitzer 2000; has revealed not only significant
Committee on Integrating the Sci increases in children’s capacities for
ence of Early Childhood Development self-regulated conduct throughout
2000). The relevance of self-regulation early and middle childhood, but also
to young children’s school readiness a consistent association between indi
is widely acknowledged because of the vidual differences in effortful control
importance of cognitive, behavioral, and independent measures of social


competence, emotion regulation, own (see Dunn 1988; Saarni 1999).
conscience development, and psycho Further exploration of this topic has
logical adjustment. Higher effortful also been motivated by the realization
control is, in short, a benefit for young that early differences in social and
children’s deliberate and socialized emotional understanding are associ
conduct. ated with individual differences in
The research on executive function social competence. Preschoolers who
seeks to explain young children’s prob are more socially and emotionally per
lem-solving behavior in regard to their ceptive are capable of greater success
ability to regulate their attentional and in their relationships with peers and
cognitive processes, another aspect adults (see Denham and others 2003;
of self-regulation (see Zelazo and oth Denham and others 2002a; Denham
ers 2003). This research identifies the and others 2002b; Denham and oth
period of three to five years of age as ers 2001; and see reviews by Denham
an especially important developmental 1998, 2006; Denham and Weissberg
period for executive function, which 2004; Halberstadt, Denham, and
may be associated with concurrent Dunsmore 2001), which is relevant to
changes in brain functioning (Bunge school readiness. Young children who
and Zelazo 2006; Diamond and Taylor are more competent in understanding
1996; Gerstadt, Hong, and Diamond others’ feelings have been found, for
1994). example, to become more academi
Among the various capacities young cally competent in the primary grades,
children gradually acquire for self- which may arise from the more suc
control, emotion regulation has been cessful peer relationships to which
of particular interest to developmental they contribute (Izard 2002; Izard and
scientists because of its relevance to others 2001; see also Dowsett and
social competence and psychological Huston 2005; Raver 2002; Raver and
adjustment. Thompson, Meyer, and Knitzer 2002).
Jochem (in press) have written several
reviews of theory and research on this Preschoolers who are more socially
topic, summarizing an expanding body and emotionally perceptive are capable
of research literature. of greater success in their relationships
with peers and adults . . .
Social and Emotional
Understanding In recent years, research in this area
Over the past several decades, there has grown under the idea that young
has been an enormous amount of children develop a progressively more
research interest in the early develop complex “theory of mind,” by which
ment of social and emotional under they explain people’s behavior with
standing. This interest has arisen from respect to internal mental states. They
the realization that, contrary to tradi gradually come to understand internal
tional ideas, toddlers and preschoolers mental states more and more fully.
are not egocentric but are, instead, Research on developing theory of mind
very interested in others’ beliefs and has focused on the ages of three to five
how those beliefs compare with their years, the period during which young

children advance from a theory of mind There is also vigorous research

that is focused primarily on compre literature on young children’s
hending others’ intentions, desires, developing emotion understanding,
and feelings as motivators of behavior, an aspect of theory of mind that
to a more advanced theory of mind in is especially important to social
which they also understand the nature competence. This research shows
of people’s thoughts and beliefs as that from three to five years of age,
motivators of behavior. One of the cen young children become increasingly
tral features of this conceptual advance capable of identifying a broader
is the four-year-old’s emerging under range of emotions and describing
standing that people’s beliefs can be prototypical situations in which these
mistaken; thus, others can be misled emotions might be elicited. They
or fooled, and the child’s own feelings also become capable of explaining
can be hidden or masked. The research the causes of these emotions and
literature on developing theory of mind their consequences in ways that
is vast; recent summaries can be found reveal a greater understanding of
in Wellman (2002) and Harris (2006). the psychological bases of emotional
Although young children’s under experience (e.g., frustrated goals with
standing of the internal determinants respect to anger). This is consistent,
of behavior remains rudimentary, there of course, with broader characteristics
is evidence that they are already begin of their developing theory of mind.
ning to comprehend the concept of The research on developing emotion
personality characteristics and their understanding is reviewed by Denham
association with enduring behavioral (1998, 2006), Harris (1989), Lagattuta
characteristics in others. This emerg and Thompson (2007), Saarni and
ing understanding parallels similar others (2006), and Thompson (in
advances in their ability to perceive press; Thompson 2006; Thompson,
themselves in terms of psychological Goodvin, and Meyer 2006; Thompson
characteristics as well, as is discussed and Lagattuta 2006).
in the bibliographic note on self-aware The later preschool years also wit
ness. Research by Heyman and her ness growth in event knowledge—that
colleagues shows that by the later pre is, the capacity to comprehend and
school years, children are beginning to predict everyday routines—which is an
derive personality-like generalizations important component of social under
about the behavior of others (see Giles standing. Young preschool children
and Heyman 2005a, 2005b; Heyman, can describe the sequence of events
Gee, and Giles 2003; Heyman and that characterize everyday routines
Gelman 2000). and experiences in their lives (e.g., a
trip to the grocery store), and older
One of the central features of this preschool children have more compre
conceptual advance is the hensive knowledge of these events
four-year-old’s emerging (see Hudson 1993; Narratives from the
understanding that people’s beliefs Crib 1989; Nelson 1993).
can be mistaken . . . Finally, the preschool years also
witness young children’s growing


awareness of and response to diver (although this does not necessarily
sity in gender, culture, and ethnicity, occur reliably). For recent reviews of
particularly as these are apparent in this research, consult Eisenberg, Spin-
differences in people’s appearance and rad, and Sadovsky (2006), Thompson
behavior. This is complex research (1998), and Zahn-Waxler and Robinson
literature, particularly because of the (1995).
multiple origins (e.g., social learning,
conceptual development, direct expo Initiative in Learning
sure to diversity) of young children’s How children approach new learn
responses to human diversity in their ing and problem-solving challenges
experience; see Aboud (2005, 2003). is a critical feature of their academic
success. “Approaches to learning” is
Empathy and Caring an important predictor of classroom
Young children’s capacities to achievement in kindergarten and
respond sympathetically and help the primary grades, with the term
fully to others in distress have been “approaches to learning” defined as
of long-standing interest to parents, teacher ratings of children’s classroom
professionals, and researchers. These engagement, motivation, and participa
capacities build on children’s develop tion (Alexander, Entwisle, and Dauber
ing social and emotional understand 1993; Duncan, Claessens, and Engel
ing and contribute to their ability to 2005). Young children’s natural curios
cooperate successfully with others in ity, interest, and self-confidence that
group learning environments. they can discover the answers to their
In understanding the development questions are a central component of
of caring, it is important to distinguish their capacities to benefit from learn
a young child’s emotional response to ing opportunities (Thompson 2002).
another’s distress, which emerges very Beginning in early childhood, there
early, from the behavioral capacity are significant differences in the
to help the distressed person. Know enthusiasm, motivation, and self-
ing how to aid a peer in distress is a confidence that children bring to new
complex challenge to a young child learning situations. The work of Dweck
(it is an even greater conceptual chal and her colleagues has demonstrated
lenge to figure out how to assist a that from relatively early in childhood,
distressed adult); therefore, genuine children develop distinctly different
helping behavior emerges later in the learning styles that influence their ini
preschool years than does a child’s tiative in learning and their persistence
emotional response to another’s upset. when faced with difficult challenges
The period of three to four years of age (see Burhans and Dweck 1995; Dweck
is a crucial one. From before the age 2002; Dweck and Leggett 1988). Chil
of three, young children respond with dren with a “performance orientation”
concerned attention to the distress of focus on efforts in learning situations
another and are interested in finding that elicit positive evaluations from
out why the person is upset. But it is others and avoid negative judgments.
not until later in the preschool years As a consequence, these children
that children can accompany their may avoid situations that are likely to
empathic response with assistance result in failure and they may not per-

sist in circumstances in which they are learning situations with enthusiasm

unlikely to succeed. This orientation and self-confidence but not necessarily
can, under some circumstances, result with persistence in confronting difficult
in a learned helplessness orientation problem-solving situations. In con
in which children tend to give up after trast, older children are more active
failing because they do not have con learners who are more persistent but
fidence in their ability to succeed. In who are also more likely to be creative
contrast, children with a “learning (or problem solvers, proposing their own
mastery) orientation” focus on efforts ideas and approaching new learn
that increase their ability. These chil ing opportunities with initiative and
dren will be more likely to tackle dif involvement (see Committee on Early
ficult challenges if they can foster new Childhood Pedagogy 2001; The Role of
learning (even if their initial efforts Interest in Learning and Development
result in failure) and are more likely 1992; Renninger and Wozniak 1985;
to persist until they are successful. Flavell, Miller, and Miller 2001).
This is the kind of learning orientation
that best predicts classroom achieve
ment. These differences in learn
Social Interaction
ing orientation are readily observed Interactions with Familiar
among primary grade students, but Adults
there is evidence that they are pres
Young children regularly inter
ent among older preschoolers as well
act with familiar adults in preschool
(see Burhans and Dweck 1995; Smiley
and other early childhood settings.
and Dweck 1994). Research by Dweck
Although these adults are not attach
and her colleagues indicates that these
ment figures, and children’s relation
differences arise from many influ
ships with them are not necessarily
ences, including the kinds of reactions
sources of security and support, a
by parents and teachers to children’s
child’s ability to interact competently
achievement successes and failures
with familiar adults is important to
that emphasize the child’s intrinsic
social competence and the ability to
ability and strong effort.
obtain the assistance the child needs.
The research on learning orienta
The ability to interact with other adults
tions focuses on individual differences
is important also to school success
among children of a given age. But
because children in kindergarten and
there are also developmental differ
the primary grades must interact with
ences in preschool children’s initia
many adults other than their teachers.
tive in learning, with younger children
With the primary focus of develop
being more likely to approach new
mental research on young children’s
establishment and maintenance of
Young children’s natural curiosity,
close relationships, scientists have
interest, and self-confidence that they
devoted considerably less attention to
can discover the answers to their
the growth of social skills relevant to
questions are a central component
interacting with familiar adults (see
of their capacities to benefit from
Durkin 1995 for a general source).
learning opportunities.
The relevant research offers a por-


trayal that is consistent with conclu The development of social skills with
sions from other foundations. Older peers is also important to the growth of
three-year-olds have developed a num school readiness. A number of studies
ber of social skills for interacting com have shown that the peer experiences
petently with familiar adults—includ of children in kindergarten and the
ing developing abilities to engage in primary grades are an important pre
simple conversations, enjoy other dictor of children’s academic success
shared activities, and cooperate with and school adjustment. Children who
requests or instructions—and they experience greater peer acceptance
can exercise these skills particularly and positive peer relationships tend
in familiar and comfortable settings. to feel more positively about coming
Older four-year-olds are not only more to school, participate more in class
advanced in most of these social skills room activities, and achieve more in
but also take greater active initiative in the classroom (Buhs and Ladd 2001;
interacting with familiar adults. Based Ladd, Birch, and Buhs 1999; Ladd,
on these conclusions, most children Kochenderfer, and Coleman 1996,
are becoming prepared for the variety 1997; O’Neil and others 1997).
of social encounters that will charac The period of ages three to five
terize their experience in kindergarten years is a particularly significant one
and the primary grades. for the growth of social skills with
peers, and these foundations illus
Interactions with Peers trate the multifaceted ways in which
It was not so long ago that develop peer relationships evolve during this
mental researchers and practitioners time (see reviews of this research by
underestimated the peer social skills Rubin, Bukowski, and Parker [2006]
of young children, interpreting epi and Rubin and others [2005]). Young
sodes of conflict to reflect preschoolers’ children initially acquire greater skill
egocentrism and limited social inter and confidence in interacting with
est. With the growing experience of other children in playgroups of two or
young children in preschool and early three; later, they do so in larger, well-
childhood settings, researchers have coordinated peer groups. Among the
rethought peer interactions and have important achievements of the later
discovered that they are far more preschool period is the ability to initi
complex, sophisticated, and multi ate peer sociability and smoothly join
faceted than earlier believed. This others in play; to cooperatively and
discovery is consistent with the devel spontaneously share with others; to
opmental accomplishments described coordinate one’s behavior with that of
in the other foundations. As preschool one or more other children; to com
ers achieve considerable insights into municate in ways that other children
others’ thoughts and feelings through can understand; and to spontaneously
their growth in “theory of mind,” for enlist procedures (such as turn-taking)
example, they are capable of greater that reduce the chance of peer conflict
cooperation with other children and (Howes 1987, 1988; Vandell, Nenide,
more adept at using conflict resolution and Van Winkle 2006).
strategies.

Children’s play with peers changes ways and are more likely to use verbal
significantly during the later preschool taunts and teasing rather than hitting
period. Preschoolers become capable (Tremblay 2000). Fortunately, there
of greater cooperation and coordina are also developmental changes in
tion in their shared activity, playing children’s capacities for conflict negoti
interactively rather than just side by ation, such that by the later preschool
side. In addition, imaginative or pre years, children are capable of spon
tend play—one of the hallmarks of taneously suggesting simple conflict
preschool play activity—develops sig resolution strategies (such as propos
nificantly in complexity and sophisti ing alternative play materials or taking
cation. Young children proceed from turns) and enlisting negotiation over
simple sequences of pretend activity aggression (Howes 1987, 1988; Rubin
to well-coordinated, complex episodes and others 2005; Rubin, Bukowski,
of imaginative play that involve plan and Parker 2006; Vandell, Nenide, and
ning, coordination of roles, and mutual Van Winkle 2006). These conflict reso
correction as the story line is enacted lution strategies will develop further
(Goncu 1993; Howes 1987, 1988, in the elementary grades, of course,
1992; Howes and Matheson 1992). but differences in the capacities of
The remarkable ability of older pre preschoolers to spontaneously enlist
school children to competently enact conflict resolution strategies are an
pretend roles, coordinate their activity important basis for their social compe
with that of other children in pretend tence with peers at this age.
roles, and monitor the unfolding of the
sociodramatic play script is consistent Group Participation
with—and helps to confirm—much The ability to participate coop
of what we know about their social eratively and constructively in group
understanding and capacities for activity is an essential skill in any
cooperation, self-awareness, and group learning activity; thus, it is a
self-regulation during this period. critical component of school readi
Peer interactions do not always ness. This substrand integrates the
proceed happily, of course. There are developmental achievements described
significant developmental changes in other social-emotional foundations
during this period in how young and applies them to the young child’s
children express their hostility when competency as a group member (see
disagreements arise. Younger pre Developmentally Appropriate Practice in
school children are more likely to Early Childhood Programs 1997; Landy
respond with physical aggression, 2002). These developmental achieve
while older preschool children are ments (described in detail in other
more capable of expressing their foundations) include:
hostility in more socially acceptable
• Developing capacities for self-regula
tion and self-control, which enable
Imaginative or pretend play—one of
the older preschool child to remem
the hallmarks of preschool play
ber the rules for classroom behavior,
activity—develops significantly in
games, and other activities; apply
complexity and sophistication.
the rules to his or her own behav-


ior; and spontaneously self-correct nate their own desires, needs, and
to better maintain compliance with interests with those of others, which,
those rules (Bronson 2000; Kopp in turn, facilitates older children’s
1982; Kopp and Wyer 1994) capacities to collaborate on group
• Developing skills for behavioral activities as well as to play harmo
and attentional self-control, which niously with peers (Harris 2006;
enable preschool children to gradu Thompson 2006)
ally attain a greater ability to delib • Developing self-awareness, which
erately focus attention; sit still for enables preschool children to
longer periods; manage transitions identify themselves not just as indi
in the daily routine more easily; viduals in a classroom but also as
cooperate in games that require members of a group, and prompts
specific responses at particular older preschoolers to strive to make
times (e.g., “Hokey Pokey”); and be the group work better in shared
less fidgety and distractible (Zelazo activities (Harter 1999, 2006;
and others 2003) Thompson 2006)
• Developing capacities for coopera
The purpose of delineating a new
tion and a sense of responsibility in
substrand for group participation,
relation to others, which cause older
therefore, is to indicate how these
preschoolers to have a more consci
different developmental achievements
entious commitment to complying
assemble in a manner that enables
with group procedures (sometimes,
older preschool children, because of
spontaneously correcting other
this developing constellation of skills,
children who fail to comply), often
to be more constructive group partici
anticipating the procedures before
pants than are younger children. In
being reminded by the teacher, and
this respect, therefore, the whole (of
acting in a manner that helps the
these advances for classroom conduct)
group to function better (Kochanska
is truly greater than the sum of the
and Thompson 1997; Thompson and
developmental parts.
others 2006)
• Developing event knowledge, which Cooperation and Responsibility
enables the older child to under
Because of the moral development
stand and predict the ordinary rou
theories of Piaget (1965) and Kohlberg
tines of the classroom schedule;
(1969), young children were, for many
manage transitions in the routine
years, believed to be motivated primar
well; and cooperate with new activi
ily by rewards and punishments in
ties when they are initiated by the
their cooperation with adult standards.
teacher, especially when preparatory
This belief was consistent with the
tasks for the activity are required
traditional view that young children
(e.g., getting ready to paint at an
are egocentric in considering the needs
easel) (Hudson 1993; Narratives from
of others in relation to their own. Dur
the Crib 1989; Nelson 1993).
ing the past several decades, however,
• Developing social and emotional
a new view of the early growth of coop
understanding, which enables older
eration and responsibility—studied
children (with a more advanced
under the term “conscience develop-
“theory of mind”) to better coordi

0
ment”—has emerged. It emphasizes primary grades (Alexander, Entwisle,

that in addition to responding to the and Dauber 1993; McClelland, Mor
incentives and punishments of adults, rison, and Holmes 2000; Yen, Konold,
young children are motivated to coop and McDermott 2004). Children who
erate by their emotional attachments show greater cooperative compliance
to those adults and their desire to with their teachers are capable of get
maintain positive relationships with ting along better in the classroom and
them. Children cooperate in order to achieve more than do children who are
maintain relationships of mutual coop less cooperative.
eration with the adults who care for
them. Furthermore, young children are During the past several decades,
also motivated by the feelings of others however, a new view of the early
to act in ways that do not cause others growth of cooperation and
distress. Moreover, as they reach the responsibility—studied under the term
end of the preschool years, children “conscience development”—
are also motivated to cooperate and act has emerged.
responsibly because in doing so, they

think more approvingly of themselves.
This reflects that young children have Developmental changes in children’s
proceeded from a primarily “external” motivated cooperation and their grow
view of adults’ expectations and stan ing sense of responsibility build on
dards—in other words, cooperating developmental accomplishments in
because this is what adults expect—to other social and emotional areas. In
an “internalized” acceptance of adult particular, these changes build on
standards as their goal. The desire to children’s developing capacities for
perceive themselves as cooperative, self-regulation and changes in self-
helpful, and “good” emerges at this awareness that enable older preschool
time and will remain an important, ers to perceive themselves as positive
lifelong motivator of moral conduct. and approvable. In this respect, as in
These conclusions about the devel others, growth in the later preschool
opment of cooperation and respon period is integrated and consistent
sibility emerge from a large body of across different areas of development.
research literature, to which Kochan
ska has made major contributions Relationships
(e.g., see Kochanska 1997, 2002;
Kochanska and Thompson 1997). A Attachments to Parents
review of this research literature can One of the central conclusions of
be found in Thompson, Meyer, and developmental research is the extent
McGinley (2006). The development of to which young children rely on their
capacities for cooperation and respon close relationships with caregivers for
sibility is important to early school emotional security and well-being.
success. A number of research teams Decades of research on parent-child
have found that individual differences attachment relationships in infancy
in children’s cooperation capacities and early childhood have established
are directly associated with children’s the importance of the security of these
academic achievement in the early relationships and their long-term


importance for a child’s self-concept, academic success in kindergarten and
relationships with others, and under the early primary grades as well as
standing of what people are like (see their social competence in the class
reviews by Thompson 2006; Thomp room. Children with more secure, sup
son and others 2005; and Waters portive family relationships also show
and others 1991). At the same time, fewer conduct problems and have bet
developmental researchers realized ter work habits (Burchinal and others
that the caregivers on whom children 2002; Estrada and others 1987; Morri
are emotionally reliant are not always son, Rimm-Kauffman, and Pianta 2003;
biological parents. Sometimes they NICHD Early Child Care Research
are grandparents or other adults who Network 2003b, 2003c, 2005; Pianta,
assume a regular caregiving role in the Nimetz, and Bennett 1997).
child’s life—they are, in a sense, “psy The behavioral indications of parent-
chological parents” to the child. This is child attachment in preschoolers are
true when nonparents are substitute well established (Marvin and Britner
parents (such as when grandparents 1999), and the indicators of attach
are providing full-time care instead ment relationships incorporated into
of a parent who is incapacitated or this foundation are drawn from the
absent) and when nonparents are co extensive research literature as well
parents along with the child’s biologi as validated assessment instruments
cal parents. In each case, these adult for assessing parent-child attachment
caregivers assume a parenting func quality (see Solomon and George 1999;
tion in the child’s life and are usually Waters 2006). In contrast to the
attachment figures. This substrand dependence of infants and toddlers on
is labeled “Attachments to Parents,” physical proximity to their caregivers,
although the foundations refer to preschool children are more indepen
“primary family attachment figures” to dent socially yet are still very emotion
acknowledge the diversity of adults ally reliant on their attachment figures.
who are attachment figures to young The indicators included here focus on
children. how preschoolers seek security and
Consistent with their psychological support from their attachment figures
importance to young children, par in age-appropriate ways as well as
ent-child attachments have also been their capacities to maintain positive
found to be important to the develop relationships with their attachment
ment of school readiness. Many stud figures through their own initiative
ies have found that the quality of the (Maccoby 1984). An important develop
parent-child relationship in the pre mental change in attachment relation
school years, especially its quality in ships during this period is the greater
terms of warmth and support to the initiative of older preschoolers in both
child, predicts children’s subsequent seeking support and maintaining
a relationship of positive mutual
Children with more secure, supportive cooperation with their attachment
family relationships also show fewer figures, which is an outgrowth of their
conduct problems and have better greater psychological understanding of
work habits. the adult and of the relationship they

share. As with younger children, pre bonds with their teachers and caregiv
schoolers exhibit their trust in attach ers in early childhood settings, and
ment figures through their preference although there is some debate about
to be with the adult; the adult’s capac whether these should be considered
ity to assist and comfort them when “attachments” as the term is applied
others cannot; their efforts to attract to primary family caregivers (parents
the attachment figure’s positive regard or other adults raising the child), it is
(and avoid criticism by this person); apparent that these close family care
their pleasure in shared activity with giver relationships function very much
the adult; and the greater ease with like attachment relationships for chil
which they can disclose and discuss dren in early childhood settings (Berlin
troubling topics (such as distressing and Cassidy 1999; Dunn 1993; Howes
experiences) with the attachment 1999). Young children rely on their
figure. primary teachers or caregivers in early
All of the behavioral indicators childhood settings in much the same
included in this foundation should be manner that they rely on their fam
readily observed of children interacting ily caregivers at home. Although these
with their family attachment figures relationships are not interchangeable,
while in a preschool or early childhood and close relationships outside the
setting. An additional indicator con home do not diminish the strength of
cerns preschoolers’ success in coping the young child’s attachments to the
with departing from the attachment parents, it is apparent that both kinds
figure at the beginning of the day and of relationships are developmentally
with separation throughout the day, important.
for which younger preschool children Young children’s close relationships
require greater assistance than do with preschool teachers and caregivers
older preschool children. This differ are also important to their develop
ence arises from the greater ability ment of school readiness. A number
of older preschoolers to maintain a of studies have found that the warmth
satisfying mental representation of the and security of the preschool child’s
attachment figure and their relation relationship with a preschool teacher
ship with that person to sustain them; are predictive of the child’s subse
their greater self-regulatory capacities; quent classroom performance, atten
and their enhanced involvement with tional skills, and social competence in
peer relationships and the activities of the kindergarten and primary grade
the setting. classroom (Peisner-Feinberg and oth
ers 2001; Pianta, Nimetz, and Ben
Close Relationships with nett 1997; see Committee on Early
Teachers and Caregivers Childhood Pedagogy 2001 and Lamb
Just as researchers have acknowl 1998 for reviews). The importance of
edged the importance of nonparental close relationships outside the home
caregivers within the family to the extends to children’s adaptation to
emotional well-being of young children, school. Several studies have confirmed
they have also recognized the impor that young children’s success in kin
tance of caregivers outside the home. dergarten and the primary grades is
Preschoolers develop strong emotional significantly influenced by the qual-


ity of the teacher-child relationship
and that conflict in the relationship Several studies have confirmed
is a predictor of children’s poorer that young children’s success in
academic performance and greater kindergarten and the primary grades
behavior problems, sometimes years is significantly influenced by the
later (Birch and Ladd 1997; Hamre quality of the teacher-child relationship
and Pianta 2001; La Paro and Pianta and that conflict in the relationship
2000; Pianta, Steinberg, and Rollins is a predictor of children’s poorer
1995; Pianta and Stuhlman 2004a, academic performance and greater
2004b). In a manner similar to the behavior problems, sometimes
way in which successful peer relation years later.
ships in the classroom contribute to

children’s enthusiasm for learning and this person); their pleasure in shared
classroom success, so is the teacher- activity with the adult; and the greater
child relationship a significant con ease with which they can disclose
tributor—both before school entry and and discuss troubling topics (such as
afterward. distressing experiences) with the pri
The indicators of young children’s mary preschool teacher or caregiver.
close relationships with preschool Although this similarity in behavioral
teachers and caregivers are remark indicators should not be taken to indi
ably consistent with the behavioral cate that young children’s relation
indicators of children’s attachments to ships with their parents are identical
their family caregivers. In both cases, to their relationships with their
the significant features are the extent primary preschool teachers and
to which children seek security and caregivers in early childhood settings—
support from their primary preschool clearly, they are not—it is important to
teachers and caregivers and the extent recognize that children derive security
to which they contribute to maintain and support from their close relation
ing positive relationships with those ships in these settings comparable to
adults. Preschoolers exhibit their reli the confidence they derive from attach
ance on their primary preschool teach ment relationships at home.
ers through their preference to be with
the adult; the adult’s capacity to assist Friendships
and comfort them when others cannot; Our understanding of preschool
their efforts to attract the teacher’s children’s friendships has advanced
positive regard (and avoid criticism by in concert with our knowledge of peer
interactions, both of which reveal
Although these relationships are
children’s skill and sophistication
not interchangeable, and close
in peer sociability to be greater than
relationships outside the home
was earlier believed. Friendships are
do not diminish the strength of the
important to children’s adaptation to
young child’s attachments to the
school and their academic success for
parents, it is apparent that both
the same reason that successful peer
kinds of relationships are
interactions are important: they cause
developmentally important.
kindergarteners and elementary grade

children to look forward to coming to 2005; Rubin, Bukowski, and Parker

school, to have a more positive class 2006; Vandell, Nenide, and Van Winkle
room experience, and to achieve more 2006). Friendships become character
as students (Ladd, Kochenderfer, and ized by more complex play between
Coleman 1996, 1997; Ladd, Birch, and friends and more positive and affec
Buhs 1999). tionate behavior. But, somewhat sur
Research on the friendships of pre prisingly, there can be greater conflict
school children reveals that close between friends than in interactions
relationships between peers tend with nonfriends. The greater incidence
to be stable over time; but with the of conflict may derive both from the
children’s increasing age, these friend greater frequency of friendship interac
ships become more reciprocal, more tion and the greater emotional invest
exclusive (i.e., children are more likely ment in these interactions. However,
to exclude other children from the toward the end of the preschool years,
activities they share with friends), and friends are more likely to negotiate
friends become more psychologically with each other, to disengage from
aware of the relationship they share disagreements before conflict worsens,
(see reviews by Gottman 1983; Parker and to find other ways of maintaining
and Gottman 1989; Rubin and others their friendship beyond the disagree
ment (Gottman 1983; Hartup 1996;
Friendships become characterized
Howes, Droege, and Matheson 1994;
by more complex play between friends
Parker and Gottman 1989). In these
and more positive and affectionate
ways, then, broader features of devel
behavior. But, somewhat surprisingly,
oping social and emotional compe
there can be greater conflict between
tences in early childhood contribute
friends than in interactions
to the maintenance of friendship in
with nonfriends.
older preschoolers and their greater
endurance over time.


Glossary
approaches to learning. Children’s class family caregiver. A mother, father,

room engagement, motivation, and grandparent, or other adult raising
participation the child
attachment figures. Caregivers on whom early childhood setting. Any setting in
children are emotionally reliant, such which preschool children receive
as a parent, grandparent, or nonpa education and care
rental caregiver; adults who assume a teacher. An adult with responsibility for
parenting function the education and care of children in
caregiver. An adult with responsibility for a preschool program
children in a family child care home, theory of mind. Children’s developing
or an adult who provides family, friend, ability to explain people’s behavior with
or neighbor care respect to internal mental states

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FOUNDATIONS IN
Language
and Literacy
Purpose of the Language depends on children’s functioning in

and Literacy Preschool the other domains, including social-
emotional development, physical devel
Learning Foundations
opment, and for English learners,
This section presents preschool English-language development. Many
learning foundations for preschool such complementary and mutu
children in the central domain of ally supporting aspects of the child’s
language and literacy learning and overall learning and development are
development. Based on research, these addressed in the learning foundations
preschool learning foundations identify for the other domains, such as those
key competencies typical of children for social-emotional development and
who are making progress toward being mathematics learning.
ready for kindergarten and becoming An assumption underlying the
fluent communicators and readers. language and literacy foundations is
The foundations describe age-appropri that children should experience the
ate knowledge and skills expected of kinds of interactions, relationships,
older three-year-olds (i.e., at around 48 activities, and play that research has
months of age) and of older four-year shown to support successful learning
olds (i.e., at around 60 months of age). and development. Like the foundations
In other words, the focus of these foun for the other domains, the language
dations is on the language and literacy and literacy foundations describe
competencies of young children near learning and development that would
the time when they are three years old typically be expected with appropriate
going on four years old and four years support rather than presenting aspi
old going on five years old. Although rational expectations that would be
an in-depth consideration of children’s expected only under the best possible
language and literacy competencies conditions. The foundations are not
during the preschool years is funda intended to be assessment items. This
mentally important, attention to this publication is meant to be a resource
domain is best understood in the broad and a guide to support preschool pro
context of early learning and develop grams in their efforts to foster learning
ment. Language and literacy learning in all young children.
California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 47

48
Organization of the Language strands are presented is not meant

and Literacy Foundations to indicate a developmental progres
sion from strand to strand. Nor is the
The preschool learning foundations order of presentation of the substrands
in language and literacy are organized within a strand meant to indicate a
into three developmental strands to developmental progression from sub-
align with the strands for listening strand to substrand.
and speaking, reading, and writing in Both substrands and founda
the California Department of Educa tions are numbered sequentially. For
tion’s English–language arts content example, if a substrand is numbered
standards for kindergarten. The first 1.0, the foundations under that sub-
strand, listening and speaking, relates strand are 1.1, 1.2, and so on for both
primarily to language development. age levels; likewise, if a substrand is
This strand includes the substrands of numbered 2.0, the foundations under
language use and conventions, vocab that substrand are 2.1, 2.2, and so on,
ulary, and grammar. The other two again for both age levels. While both
strands relate to literacy development. substrands and foundations are num
The reading strand consists of the bered sequentially, the order of pre
substrands of concepts about print, sentation does not represent a devel
phonological awareness, alphabetics opmental progression.
and word/print recognition, compre Each foundation is accompanied by
hension and analysis of age-appro examples that further illustrate the
priate text, and literacy interest and meaning of the foundation. They pro
LANGUAGE AND LITER ACY
response. The writing strand has one vide behavioral illustrations of how a
substrand: writing strategies. child might demonstrate a competency
Within each substrand, individual described in a given foundation. In
foundations specify distinct compe some instances the examples may also
tencies. Each substrand is divided clarify the meaning of a foundation.
into two columns: The column on the However, the examples are not exhaus
left-hand side focuses on children at tive checklists or assessment items
around 48 months of age, and the col and should be used for illustrative
umn on the right-hand side focuses on purposes only.
children at around 60 months of age. Following the foundations, a review
The substrand descriptions for chil of the relevant research for each
dren at around 60 months of age detail strand is presented to indicate the
more sophisticated and advanced research basis for the foundations in
competencies than do those for chil that strand. This section provides the
dren at around 48 months of age. In reader with a more complete expla
some cases the difference between the nation of each strand. At the end of
foundations for the two age ranges is this section, a selected bibliography
more pronounced than for the other of research citations is provided for
foundations. Although two points of a the entire set of language and literacy
developmental progression (at around foundations. Brief explanations of the
48 months of age and at around 60 main points within the strands are
months of age) are specified within provided next.
each strand, the order in which the

49
Listening and Speaking— when they speak, while in other com

Language Use and Conventions, munities they do not. At around 48
months of age, children typically can
Vocabulary, and Grammar
make themselves understood when
The rate of children’s early language they communicate with familiar adults
growth and later language outcomes and children. At this age they may
is directly related to the verbal input make pronunciation errors or some
that children receive when communi times use words in unusual ways that
cating with adults and other children. are understood by people who know
Detailed within the three substrands is them, but not by people who are unfa
the sequential progression of children’s miliar with them. As children develop,
developing understanding of language they increasingly speak in ways that
use and conventions, vocabulary, and most familiar and unfamiliar adults
grammar. and children can understand. This
Language Use and Conventions. development pertains to the articula
The substrand of language use and tion of specific words and the expres
conventions covers a broad range of sion of specific sounds rather than
knowledge and skills, including using to the overall way in which children
language to communicate for a variety speak or whether they speak with an
of purposes, using accepted language accent.
and style when communicating with At this age children also begin con
adults and children, understanding structing narrative by engaging in
and using language to communicate extended monologues that commu

effectively with others, and construct nicate to the listener an experience,
ing narratives with language. In pre a story, or something desired in the
school, children are developing the future. As children get older, such sto
ability to use language for a range of ries become more detailed, linear, and
purposes, such as describing, request geared toward the perspective of the
ing, commenting, greeting, reasoning, listener. When children are about 48
problem solving, seeking new informa months of age, their narratives may
tion, and predicting. Children nearing consist of several unrelated ideas,
four years of age are expected to gener characters, or events. Children near
ate an appropriate response to at least five years of age begin to produce nar
one comment made during a conversa ratives that convey a causal or tem
tion, and those nearing five years of age poral sequence of events (e.g., “After
are expected to maintain a conversation naptime we woke up. Then we had a
for several turns. snack and went outside. Then . . . ”).
Another development in the area of For children at the older age, the nar
language use and conventions is learn ratives tend to be longer, make more
ing to use accepted language and style sense, and provide more information
during communication. It is impor than those of younger children. Teach
tant to note that accepted language ers can support young children in the
or behavior is that which commonly area of language use and conventions
occurs in the child’s environment or by repeating and extending what chil
community. For example, in some dren say in conversations. Teachers
environments people make eye contact can also provide opportunities for chil-

50
dren to use language for a broad range and use of words that describe rela
of purposes, including encouraging tions between objects. For example, as
children to repeat or tell stories. children near 48 months of age, they
Vocabulary. The vocabulary sub- use such words as under, in, and dif
strand represents an important tool ferent. Children at around 60 months
for accessing background knowledge, of age continue to use simple words
expressing ideas, and acquiring new to describe relations between objects
concepts. Children with large vocabu and add complex relational words to
laries can acquire new words more eas their vocabulary, for example, smaller,
ily, are more effective readers, and are bigger, next to, and in front of. During
more proficient in reading comprehen the preschool years, children begin to
sion. Multiple experiences with words use the comparative -er and the super
across a variety of contexts are critical lative -est (big, bigger, biggest; long, lon
for children’s acquisition and exten ger, longest) to discriminate among the
sion of vocabulary. An important ele sizes of objects.
ment of vocabulary development is the Often, to promote children’s vocabu
attainment of an increasing variety and lary development, adults’ language
specificity of accepted words (words must be contextualized, or supported
that are commonly used in the chil by the immediate context. Children
dren’s environment or community) for can understand and express more
objects, actions, and attributes used decontextualized language as their
in both real and symbolic contexts. concepts of vocabulary and language
For example, many children nearing expand. They can describe concepts
the age of four would call all dinosaurs without the support of the immediate
“dinosaurs.” By the time children are context and increasingly communi
approaching the age of five, they refer cate about events and actions in the
to dinosaurs with greater specificity, past and in the future. This movement
pointing to an Apatosaurus and saying, from concrete and contextualized lan
“Apatosaurus,” or pointing to a Tyran guage to abstract and decontextual
nosaurus and saying, “Tyrannosau ized language plays a critical role in
rus.” children’s growing comprehension of
Vocabulary development also con abstract ideas. Children learn much
sists of understanding and using of their vocabulary and basic language
accepted words for categories of concepts indirectly through their inter
objects. At around 48 months of age, action with others. They also acquire
children understand and use category vocabulary through teacher-guided
names they encounter frequently, such instructional activities.
as toys, food, clothes, or animals. As Grammar. The third substrand
children near the age of 60 months, of listening and speaking, grammar,
their understanding and use of ver refers to the ways in which words,
bal categories expands to ones they phrases, and sentences are struc
encounter less often, such as reptiles, tured and marked to make meaning
vehicles, fruits, vegetables, and fur in language. In preschool, children
niture. Another important aspect of take important steps toward acquir
vocabulary development during the ing grammar. Preschoolers learn the
preschool years is the understanding rules of making basic sentences, join-

51
ing phrases and clauses to make lan understood. Children’s development of

guage into more complex sentences, grammatical sophistication is greatly
joining adjectives to nouns, and using enhanced by the teacher’s modeling of
verb tenses, adverbs, and other parts correct forms and providing support
of speech. At around 48 months of age, in play and through teacher-guided
children tend to convey their thoughts instructional activities.
by using simple, short phrases that
communicate only one main idea Reading—Concepts About
(e.g., “I’m hungry!” or “Almost bed Print, Phonological Awareness,
time!”) Over time, preschool children Alphabetics and Word/Print
begin producing increasingly longer
Recognition, Comprehension
compound sentences (e.g., “It’s almost
bedtime and I am still hungry!”) by
and Analysis of Age-Appropriate
connecting clauses (using words such Text, Literacy Interest
as and and but). They also begin to and Response
generate more complex sentences Concepts About Print. Children
(e.g., “Because I haven’t eaten yet, I am develop concepts about print through
still hungry”) that combine multiple seeing print in the environment and
phrases or concepts to communicate observing people using print for vari
more sophisticated and interrelated ous purposes. Central to an under
ideas (using words such as if and standing of the nature and role of
because). As children develop their reading and writing is a child’s under
comprehension and use of verb mark standing of “intentionality,” i.e., that

ers, such as -ed, they tend to make intentional meaning is encoded in
errors (e.g., “I wented,” “He hitted”). print and print conveys a message.
Errors among preschoolers in the use Children’s understanding that print
of pronouns are very common (e.g., carries meaning often begins earlier
“Her did it,” “It’s hims”). Children’s use than at preschool age, but the concept
of basic negative sentences between becomes increasingly sophisticated
two and three years of age (e.g., “no during the preschool years, and it
go,” “no want”) becomes increasingly depends largely on exposure to print
precise during the preschool years and interaction with it in preschool.
(e.g., “I don’t want any” or “You are not Preschoolers begin to use print to
going”). Some errors in negation will be communicate, to understand the way
observed during the preschool years print is organized in text and in books,
(e.g., “I not want to do that!”), but to recite the alphabet, and to recog
these errors occur less frequently as nize some letters and words in print.
children near 60 months of age. They develop sophisticated knowledge
As with the development of chil about print conventions—how print is
dren’s vocabulary and basic language organized and how this organization
concepts, children’s ability to use changes to fit various purposes and
increasingly sophisticated language genres. Preschool children’s under
structures allows them to make greater standing of print conventions supports
use of “decontextualized language”— their knowledge of the alphabet
language that requires little reliance and letter recognition. The print
on the immediate context for it to be

52
conventions preschoolers learn include and five years of age. The focus is on
directionality (e.g., the left-to-right and this age group because research indi
top-to-bottom organization of print in cates that children younger than four
books and other print media in Eng tend not to demonstrate this ability
lish), the way books are organized in reliable ways that can be read
(title, author, front and back), and the ily observed. At age four, however,
way books are handled. Preschool children begin to develop phonologi
ers develop an understanding of the cal awareness along a developmental
functions of print—that it serves a progression from sensitivity to large
number of purposes related to social units of sound, such as phrases and
and cultural contexts. In the pre words, to small units of sound, such
school setting, children are beginning as syllables and phonemes. Phonologi
to understand and operate within the cal awareness is an important area of
routines and contexts where literacy early and later reading instruction. It
instruction occurs, contexts such as plays a direct role in several compo
reading a page and a story, writing, nents of reading, such as understand
and drawing. This knowledge extends ing the alphabetic principle, decoding
to routines governing the use of lit printed words, and spelling—and an
eracy in the classroom or home, such indirect but important role in reading
as reading stories, making lists, and comprehension through its direct role
writing letters. Preschool-age children in facilitating decoding.
also gain an understanding that print Children demonstrate phonological
forms (e.g., words, letters, and other awareness in three ways—detection
print units) have distinct names and (matching similar sounds), synthesis
are used in specific, organized ways. (combining smaller segments into
Knowing that the word is the basic syllables and words), and analy
unit of meaning in the reading and sis (segmenting words or syllables
writing process is a critical transition into smaller units). Children usually
point in children’s literacy develop develop detection skills first, then
ment. Adults can encourage children’s synthesis skills, followed by analysis
engagement with print by explicitly skills. But children do not have to
focusing children’s attention on print master one skill before they begin to
forms and functions. acquire the next. In the foundations
Phonological Awareness. Spoken for phonological awareness, there is a
language is made up of various phono progression from the ability to detect
logical units that include words, sylla and blend words to the ability to seg
bles, subsyllabic units (onsets, rimes), ment at the onset-rime level. Pre
and sounds (phonemes). “Phonological schoolers’ development of phonological
awareness” is generally defined as an awareness depends to a great extent
individual’s sensitivity to the sound (or on the amount and kind of support
phonological) structure of spoken lan provided by the teacher. For example,
guage. It is an oral language skill that when asking children to delete the
does not involve print. Unlike the foun onset of a word, teachers can help chil
dations for all the other substrands, dren remember the word by showing
those for phonological awareness are pictures. The foundations for phono
written only for children between four logical awareness indicate which skills

53
are most likely to be demonstrated in child may use some alphabetic infor
the context of such teacher support, mation (e.g., the first letter T and its
i.e., when the teacher uses pictures, corresponding letter sound) to make a
props, objects, and so forth in activi good guess at what it says.
ties intended to support phonological Comprehension and Analysis
awareness. of Age-Appropriate Text. Preschool
Alphabetics and Word/Print ers’ development of narrative think
Recognition. Knowing the letters of ing goes through a series of stages
the alphabet at preschool age is related that ultimately lead to their making
to both short- and long-term read sense of stories and the world around
ing proficiency. Knowledge of letter them. At the earliest stage, preschool
names facilitates children’s ability to ers construct narrative scripts, or
decode text and to apply the alpha primitive accounts of story plots that
betic principle to word recognition. focus on familiar events and routine
For most children letter names help activities. In the next stage, children
them connect the sounds in words construct narrative schemas, which
and letters in print. Preschool children include knowledge about the main ele
tend to learn first the letters that are ments of stories (such as characters
most familiar to them, such as the let and settings) and about the sequence
ters in their own names and the let of events (such as time, order, and
ters that occur earlier in the alphabet causal progression). Then preschool
string. As children become aware of ers come to understand and relate to
letter names, they also start to identify characters’ internal responses, such

printed words. Word recognition at the as their mental processes and expe
preschool age is mainly prealphabetic riences. Ultimately, children recog
(i.e., the recognition of words by sight nize both the external and internal
and by reliance on familiar cues). Chil features of narrative. Preschoolers’
dren can recognize some words, but competence with narratives can be
rarely can they examine the alphabetic greatly expanded through instruc
or phonetic structures of the word to tional activities guided by teachers.
arrive at its meaning. Preschool chil Exposure to wordless picture books
dren are able to recognize some words provides instructional opportunities for
in the environment (e.g., Stop, Exit, children and, for teachers, a window
and some brand names) but usually into children’s learning processes. The
only in a familiar context. Typically, efforts of children to make sense of the
four-year-olds develop their knowl pictures when they are reading word
edge of the alphabet and letter-sound less picture books form the foundation
correspondences. Coupled with their for reading comprehension and mak
improving phonological awareness, ing meaning. Storybook reading, both
those children may read at partial of wordless picture books and regular
alphabetic levels during the preschool books, when combined with interac
years. They may be able to look at tive language activities, such as active
some unknown words and use letters discussion of stories, before, during,
and their corresponding sounds to and after reading, enhances children’s
decode the printed word. For instance, understanding and recall of stories.
seeing the word Thomas in a book, the Shared reading activities allow teach-

54
ers to model key components of the reading and leads to increased

reading task and enable children to exposure and engagement with text.
begin discovering the components of
reading themselves. Interaction during Writing—Writing Strategies
shared reading creates opportunities
Writing Strategies. Learning to
for cognitive processing and problem
write involves cognitive, social, and
solving.
physical development. Children from a
Literacy Interest and Response.
very young age notice writing in their
Interest in books and a positive regard
surroundings. They begin to under
for reading are important developmen
stand that signs in the environment
tal accomplishments for preschool-age
represent words for ideas or concepts.
children. Participation in such literacy
By age three they begin to differenti
activities as handling books and
ate between writing and other kinds of
listening to stories leads to continuing
visual representation, such as draw
engagement with text and to motiva
ing. With this realization comes dif
tion and persistence in challenging
ferentiation between tools for writing
reading tasks. These experiences
and tools for drawing (“I need to get a
are necessary for children to become
pencil to write my name”). Their writ
able readers and lifelong literacy
ing starts to look different from their
learners. An emerging body of research
drawing—more linear than circular.
shows that motivation is an important
Young children become involved with
factor in the development of early
written text by being read to, examin
literacy in preschool and later read
ing books, and observing others writ
ing achievement. Increasing engage

ing. Preschoolers begin to experiment
ment in literacy and expanding read
with writing by pretending to write
ing activities are tied to increases in
and by learning to write their names.
motivation, which, in turn, facilitates
Initially, children demonstrate a global
comprehension and recall of informa
form of writing. They tend to use draw
tion. Children’s active engagement in
ings as writing or use idiosyncratic
text-related activities, such as turning
scribbles (i.e., markings that have only
pages in a book, is related to knowl
personal meaning). Later, children use
edge of print concepts at around four
letter-like forms that resemble some
years of age. Opportunities for read
of the characteristics of real writing
ing are related to children’s interest
(e.g., longer words are represented by
in reading at home and at school.
longer strings of letter-like symbols).
Children who are read to more fre
Children in the next phase start using
quently and from an earlier age tend
actual letters to write, but with little
to have greater interest in literacy,
or no connection to the actual spelling
exhibit superior literacy skills during
of what they want to write (i.e., non-
the preschool and school years, choose
phonetic strings of letters). This phase
reading more frequently, initiate read
is followed by attempts at phonetic
ing sessions on their own, and show
spelling, also called “invented spelling.”
greater engagement during reading
In this phase, children use letters to
sessions. Adult-child storybook read
match letter sounds to parts of words
ing promotes children’s interest in
they hear, but from a phonological

55
rather than an orthographic perspec dren begin to understand the alpha

tive. betic principle. It also helps children
Children may recognize that writing realize that writing carries meaning,
the word they are thinking of requires that other people should be able to
more than one or two symbols and read what they write, and that people
that the same symbols may be in dif write for different purposes. Children
ferent words or in different places in who have the physical experience of
the same word, but they have not yet writing in this way begin to develop
mastered the alphabetic principle. ways of handling writing implements,
Even so, invented spelling is an effec but they need support from adults in
tive vehicle through which many chil learning to do so.

56
Listening and Speaking

1.0 Language Use and Conventions
Children understand and use language Children extend their understanding and
to communicate with others effectively. usage of language to communicate with
others effectively.
1.1 Use language to communicate with 1.1 Use language to communicate with
others in familiar social situations for others in both familiar and unfamiliar
a variety of basic purposes, including social situations for a variety of basic
describing, requesting, commenting, and advanced purposes, including
acknowledging, greeting, and reasoning, predicting, problem solv
rejecting. ing, and seeking new information.
Examples Examples
Describing Reasoning
• The child says, “It was big and green and • The child says, “I think we can go outside because
scary.” it’s sunny now” or “I don’t need my coat because
it’s not windy.”
Requesting
• The child asks, “Can I have more play dough?” Predicting
while in the art area. • The child says, “I think that bear’s going to get
lost!” or “If it keeps raining I think the worms will
Commenting
come out.”
• The child says, “This is my blanket.”
Problem solving
Acknowledging
• The child says, “Maybe we can put the milk in here
• The child indicates, “Me too.” and then it will be cookie dough.”
Greeting Seeking new information
• The child says, “Hi, Mrs. Franklin,” when • The child asks, “Why isn’t Jerome at school?” or
entering the room. “Why are you dressed up? Where are you going?”
Rejecting
• The child says, “I don’t want to clean up blocks”
during clean-up time.
1.2 Speak clearly enough to be under 1.2 Speak clearly enough to be under
stood by familiar adults and children. stood by both familiar and unfamiliar
adults and children.
Examples Examples
• The child’s speech may contain pronunciation • The child generally speaks with correct pronuncia
errors that are understood by familiar adults and tion, although some continuing speech errors are
children, but those errors would be difficult for a age-appropriate.
visitor to the classroom to understand. • Most of the child’s speech is free of speech errors.
• The child may speak using some idiosyncratic Most listeners do not have to ask the child to
words that are understood by familiar adults and repeat himself or herself by asking, “What did you
peers but not by unfamiliar adults (e.g., Bryan say?”
calls his blanket a “wobie”).

Listening and Speaking | 57
1.0 Language Use and Conventions (Continued)

1.3 Use accepted language and style 1.3 Use accepted language and style
during communication with familiar during communication with both
adults and children. familiar and unfamiliar adults and
children.
Examples Examples
• The child responds on the topic for at least one • The child responds on topic across several turns in
turn in a conversation. For example, the child conversation. For example, during dramatic play,
responds, “Me too. I got new shoes,” following a the child says, “I’m the baby and I’m hungry.” A
peer’s comment, “I got new shoes,” while playing friend responds, “Okay, I’ll cook you breakfast.”
in the dress-up area. The child responds, “Then you’re the mommy and
• The child adjusts the form and style of language you’re cooking the breakfast.” A friend responds,
use according to the listener’s status or compe- “I’m going to make pancakes.”
tence. For example, asks the teacher, “Can • The child adjusts the form and style of language
I please have that paintbrush,” but tells peer, use according to the listener’s status, competence,
“Give me that paintbrush,” or speaks slowly or knowledge. For example, during a field trip to
and deliberately to a younger child. the fire station, tells a firefighter, “Wow! That’s
• The child often uses appropriate nonverbal neat. Can I hold it?” but tells a peer, “I want to
standards in conversation with others (e.g., eye see!” While talking with older brother, prefaces
contact, distance to conversational partner, facial the description of the fire truck and equipment by
expressions). stating that the class went on a field trip to the fire
station that day.
• The child often uses polite forms of communica
tion as appropriate (e.g., says thank you, please, • The child consistently uses appropriate nonverbal

addresses adults as Mr., Mrs., or Ms.). standards in conversation with others (e.g., eye
contact, distance to conversational partner, facial
• The child often uses volume and intonation expressions).
appropriate for a situation when speaking. For
example, speaks quietly to the teacher while the • The child typically uses polite forms of communi
other children are napping or speaks in a slower cation as appropriate (e.g., says thank you, please,
and quieter tone while expressing regret (e.g., addresses adults as Mr., Mrs., or Ms.).
“I’m sorry I broke it”). • The child typically uses volume and intonation
appropriate for a situation when speaking. For
example, uses a quieter voice inside the classroom
than on the playground.

58 | Listening and Speaking
1.0 Language Use and Conventions (Continued)

1.4 Use language to construct short 1.4 Use language to construct extended
narratives that are real or fictional.* narratives that are real or fictional.*
Examples Examples
• The child draws attention or points to pictures on • The child tells a brief story that unfolds over time:
the wall of a special class event: “The mama bird “I went to the park with my mommy, and we
built a nest in our toy box. The baby birds flew played in the sandbox. Then we had a picnic. After
away.” that, we went to the store.”
• The child describes an unfolding event at snack • The child tells about activities of interest to him or
time: “I want to put peanut butter on my bread. her that day: “First we come to school and sit on
I’m going to put jelly on, too.” the carpet. Then we have our circle time. And then
• The child relays events from the day’s morning: we do the centers. And then it’s time for lunch.”
“My daddy’s truck broke down. We walked to • The child retells the major events of a favorite
school. It was a long way.” story: “The boy wrote to the zoo, and they kept
sending him animals. But he doesn’t like them.
So, then he gets a puppy, and he keeps it. He was
happy then.”
* Producing narratives may vary at these ages for children who are communicating with sign language or alternative
communication systems. As is true for all children, teachers can support young children’s communication knowledge and
skills by repeating and extending what children communicate in conversations. Teachers can also provide opportunities for
children to repeat or tell stories as a way to encourage them to produce narratives.

2.0 Vocabulary
Children develop age-appropriate Children develop age-appropriate
vocabulary. vocabulary.
2.1 Understand and use accepted words 2.1 Understand and use an increasing
for objects, actions, and attributes variety and specificity of accepted
encountered frequently in both real words for objects, actions, and
and symbolic contexts. attributes encountered in both real
and symbolic contexts.
Examples* Examples*
Nouns/Objects Nouns/Objects
• The child hands a friend the trucks when the • The child hands a friend the fire truck, the dump
friend says, “I want to play with those trucks” truck, and the semitruck when the friend says,
during play. “I want to play with the fire truck, dump truck,
• While reading a book about spiders, the child and semi” during play.
answers, “spiders,” when the teacher asks, • While reading a book about dinosaurs, the child
“What are these?” answers, “That’s a Apatosaurus and that’s a
Tyrannosaurus,” when the teacher asks, “What
Verbs/Actions are these?”
• When the child is playing with tools in the dra
matic play area, the child responds, “the stove,” Verbs/Actions
when a friend asks, “What needs to be fixed?” • When the child is playing with tools in the dra
matic play area, the child responds, “the stove,”

• The child says to a parent volunteer, “I have a
story. Can you do it on the computer for me?” when a friend asks, “What needs to be repaired?”
• The child says to a parent volunteer, “I have a
Attributes story. Can you type it on the computer for me?”
• During a cooking project, the child gives the
teacher the big bowl when the teacher says, Attributes
“Hand me the big bowl.” • During a cooking project, the child gives the
• While in the block area, the child says to a friend, teacher the plastic fork when the teacher says,
“Look at what I made. It’s tall.” “Hand me the plastic one.”
• During dramatic play, the child says to a friend,
“Look at my necklace. It’s shiny.”
* Key word forms in the examples are italicized.

2.0 Vocabulary (Continued)

2.2 Understand and use accepted words 2.2 Understand and use accepted words
for categories of objects encountered for categories of objects encountered
and used frequently in everyday life. in everyday life.
Examples* Examples*
• When painting at the easel, Min paints a picture • After reading a book about reptiles, the child
of a doll and a dollhouse and says, “This is my points to pictures of a snake, a lizard, and a turtle
doll and her dollhouse. They’re my favorite toys.” when the teacher asks the children to find the
• While playing store, Peter tells Judy, “I want to pictures of reptiles.
buy some food,” and Judy says, “OK. We have • When the children and teacher are making a pre
milk, bread, and corn.” tend city, the teacher says, “Now, we need some
• Frieda puts some hats on the shelf and puts vehicles,” and Sammy brings a car, a truck, a
some dresses in a box when the teacher asks, tractor, and a motorcycle.
“Can you please put the dress-up clothes away?” • During play the child puts the apple, banana,
• During play Lorenzo brings an elephant, a giraffe, and pear into one bowl and puts the broccoli,
a goat, a hippopotamus, and a lion to the table carrots, and corn into another bowl and says to
and says to Miguel and Larry, “Here are the a friend, “These are the fruits and these are the
animals for our zoo.” vegetables.”
• During play Anne tells Cathy, “You go get the
furniture for the house. We need a chair, a table,
a sofa, a desk, and a dresser.”
2.3 Understand and use simple words 2.3 Understand and use both simple
that describe the relations between and complex words that describe the
objects. relations between objects.
Examples* Examples*
• While playing a game, the child is able to collect • After reading a story about the zoo, the teacher
all the circles when the teacher says, “Find all asks, “What animals are smaller than an
the things that are the same shape as this” elephant?” The child correctly identifies a lion,
(while showing a picture of a circle). a tiger, a bear, and a zebra.
• During play Alice tells Mary, “Ortiz is under the • During circle time the teacher invites Stephen
table.” to sit next to Mark, and he does.
• The child puts all the marbles in the box when a • While playing in the block center, DeAndre tells
peer says, “Now let’s put them all in the box.” Susan, “Put the red block in front of the tower.”
• During story time the child points to pictures of • During snack time the child complains, “Your
a dog and a cat and says, “These are different quesadilla is bigger than mine!”
animals.”
*Key word forms in the examples are italicized.

3.0 Grammar
Children develop age-appropriate Children develop age-appropriate

grammar. grammar.
3.1 Understand and use increasingly 3.1 Understand and use increasingly
complex and longer sentences, complex and longer sentences,
including sentences that combine including sentences that combine
two phrases or two to three two to three phrases or three to four
concepts to communicate ideas. concepts to communicate ideas.
Examples* Examples*
• The child demonstrates comprehension of two-, • The child responds with appropriate action to
three-, and four-word requests (e.g., “please sit a statement or a request that includes multiple
down,” “put that over here”) and sentences clauses, such as “find the girl who is sad” or
(e.g., “John is here,” “The cat is black”). “pick up the dog that fell over.”
• When asked to “pick up the toys” and “take off • When asked to “take off your coat, find a book,
your jacket and put it in your cubby,” the child and come to the rug” or “please sit down at the
does so. table, help yourself to some crackers, and pour
• The child produces noun phrases that include your juice,” the child does so.
one or more descriptors (e.g., “that blue chair is • The child uses noun phrases that include three
mine,” “the green car crashed”). or four descriptors (e.g., “the big red shirt is
• The child uses short complete sentences to Bobby’s,” “I want to play with the little blue
comment, ask questions, and request (e.g., square one”).

“Where’s my baby doll?” “What’s that?” and • The child produces a two-part sentence through
“I want a cookie”). coordination, using and and but (e.g., “I’m
pushing the wagon, and he is pulling it!” and
“It’s naptime, but I’m not tired”).
3.2 Understand and typically use 3.2 Understand and typically use
age-appropriate grammar, including age-appropriate grammar, including
accepted word forms, such as accepted word forms, such as
subject-verb agreement, progressive subject-verb agreement, progres
tense, regular past tense, regular sive tense, regular and irregular past
plurals, pronouns, and possessives. tense, regular and irregular plurals,
pronouns, and possessives.
Examples* Examples*
Understands and uses verbs indicating present, Understands and uses verbs indicating present,
progressive, and regular past tense. progressive, and both regular and irregular past
• The child responds, “The block tower,” when tense (even if not always used correctly).
another child asks, “What fell down?” or • While reading a picture book, the child correctly
responds appropriately to questions, such as, identifies “the children” and “the girl” when
“Who walked to school today?” “Who is drinking asked, “Who was running and who fell down?”
juice?” or “Who drives the bus?” during discus
sion at lunch.

3.0 Grammar (Continued)

Examples (Continued)* Examples (Continued)*

• The child says, “Maria jumps with the rope,”
• During story time, the child remarks, “The bear
“Maria is jumping rope,” or “Maria jumped with
ate the fish and then he ran away.”
the rope,” depending on the time when the
• Suzie tells the teacher, “He pushed me and
action occurred.
I felled† down!”
Understands and applies the “s” sound at the end Understands and applies the “s” sound at the end of
of words to indicate plurals (even if not always used words to indicate plurals and understands and uses
correctly). irregular plurals (even if not always used correctly).
• Miguel brings more than one cup to the table
• Alice points to a picture of five mice when the
when the teacher requests, “Please bring me
teacher asks, “Which is the picture of the mice?”
the cups.”
• A child brings five sheep to the table after a friend

• The child uses plural forms of nouns, such as
says, “Now we need lots of sheep.”
socks, cups, mens,† and foots† when talking
about more than one sock, cup, man, or foot

• Gene exclaims, “Look at that one. He has lots of
teeths!”† while looking at a book about dinosaurs.
Understands and uses different types of pronouns,
including subject (he, she, it), object (him, her), • A child says, “Look at those trees; they have lots
possessive (hers, his, its), and demonstrative and lots of leaves.”
(there, here), although usage may be incorrect Understands and uses different types of pronouns,
and inconsistent at times. including subject (he, she, it, they), object (him,
• Lisa gives a book to the girl when an adult her, them), possessive (hers, his, its, our, their), and
requests, “Please give the book to her,” and a demonstrative (there, here).
boy is also present, or Lisa puts the animals on • The child hands Maria a book when the parent
the table when a friend requests, “Put them there, volunteer says, “Please give it to her,” and Juan
please” while gesturing toward the table. is also present.
• Brandee says, “I have boats” during circle time, • Darla complains to the teacher, “This ball is mine
“Him† put that there” when talking with another and that one is his.”
child, or “This is my dolly” when in the dramatic
• The child tells a friend, “Our tower is bigger
play area.
than theirs, but they could build it higher” when
Understands and adds an “s” sound to nouns to
playing with blocks.
indicate the possessive form.
• Maria responds, “Susan did. She gave the

• Richard helps find John’s coat when asked, or
cookies to them” when asked, “Who gave the
Elizabeth points to Mariella’s backpack when
cookies to Jose and Mallika?”
asked, “Which one is Mariella’s?”
Understands and adds an “s” sound to nouns to

• The child says, “I like to put on Daddy’s shoes
indicate the possessive form.
and walk” during a discussion about favorite
• Robby responds, “Those are his mom’s keys,”

pastimes, or “I brushed the doll’s hair” when
when an adult points to a picture and says, “The

asked, “What happened?”
boy has somebody’s keys. Are they his?”

• The child shares, “We went to grandma’s house
because it was my mommy’s birthday” during
circle time when the children are telling what they
did over the weekend.

†
Denotes common usage of an incorrect form.

63
Reading
1.0 Concepts about Print
Children begin to recognize print Children recognize print conventions

conventions and understand that print and understand that print carries
carries meaning. specific meaning.
1.1 Begin to display appropriate 1.1 Display appropriate book-handling

book-handling behaviors and begin behaviors and knowledge of print
to recognize print conventions. conventions.
Examples Examples
• When holding a book, the child orients it as if • The child orients a book correctly for reading
to read. (i.e., right-side up with the front cover facing
• The child can point to where the title is shown the child).
on the cover of a book. • The child turns the pages of a book one at a time.
• The child opens a book and turns the pages in • The child begins to track print from left to right
a single direction, although not necessarily one and top to bottom (e.g., while pretending to read
page at a time. a story to a peer or doll).
• While looking through a book, the child says,
“the end” after reaching the last page.

1.2 Recognize print as something that 1.2 Understand that print is something
can be read.* that is read and has specific
meaning.*
Examples Examples
• The child points to letters in a book, on a sign, or • The child asks the teacher, “What does this say?”
on a drawing and communicates, “that says my when pointing to text in a book.
name,” although usually inaccurately. • The child communicates, “Can you tell me what
• The child can indicate which part of a picture that says?” drawing attention to a sign while
book shows the story (pictures) versus which part outside on a walk.
tells the story (text). • The child asks the teacher to write down a story
• The child “writes” something down on paper or note that the child dictates, and then the child
and then asks the teacher what it says (i.e., to “reads” it to the other children.
“read” it).
* Children can learn to recognize letters of the alphabet without being able to see conventional print. Multiple means of
recognizing print include the use of tactile letters, large print, color contrast or lighting, and braille, as well as other means of
representing letters.

64 | Reading
2.0 Phonological Awareness

Children develop age-appropriate

phonological awareness.*
2.1 Orally blend and delete words and

syllables without the support of
pictures or objects.†, ‡
Examples
Orally puts together two familiar words, making a

compound word.
• The child plays the “What’s That Word?” game
while on a swing. With each push of the swing,
the teacher says one part of a compound word
(e.g., sun, shine) and then asks the child, “What’s
that word?” The child responds, “Sunshine.”
• While playing in the dramatic play area, the
child responds, “hairbrush” when asked, “What
word do you get when you say ‘hair’ and ‘brush’
together?”
Orally puts together the two syllables of two-syllable
words that are familiar to the child.
• During mealtime conversation, the child partici

pates in the guess-the-food game. The teacher
says two-syllable words (ta-co, su-shi, crack-er,
ap-ple, but-ter) and says each syllable distinctly.
The teacher asks, “What food is this?” The child
responds, “Taco.”
• The child chants, “sister” after singing along to,
“What word do you get when you say ‘sis’ and
‘ter’ together?”
• The child responds, “Amit” in unison with other
classmates during circle time when the teacher
says, “I’m thinking of a classmate’s name that
has two parts, like ‘A-mit.’ Whose name is that?”
* “Phonological awareness” is defined for the preschool learning foundations as an oral language skill: an individual’s
sensitivity to the sound (or phonological) structure of spoken language. Phonological awareness is an important skill that
children start to acquire during preschool and continue to build in early elementary school as they learn to read. Even
though it is defined as an oral language skill, it is also an important skill for children who are deaf or hard of hearing.
A teacher of the deaf should be consulted for strategies for facilitating phonological awareness in individual children who
are deaf or hard of hearing.
†
Some children may need assistance in holding a book or turning the pages, either through assistive technology or through
the help of an adult or a peer. For example, a book can be mounted so that it does not have to be held, and sturdy tabs can
be placed on the pages so that they are easier to turn. Some children may need to have an adult or a peer hold the book
and turn the pages.
‡
The foundations for phonological awareness are written only for older four-year-olds because much of the initial
development of phonological awareness occurs between 48 months and 60 months of age.

Reading | 65
2.0 Phonological Awareness (Continued)

Examples (Continued)
Orally takes apart compound words into their
component words.
• The child claps out words in a compound word
as part of a circle time activity. When the teacher
says, “When I think of the word ‘book,’ I think of
clapping one time. Other words like ‘bookshelf’
have two parts. So I clap two times. Let’s clap out
the parts for ‘paintbrush.’”
• The child responds, “table” when asked, “What
word do you get when you say ‘tablecloth’ with
out ‘cloth’?”
• The child responds, “ball” when asked, “What
word do you get when you say ‘football’ without
‘foot’?”
• The child responds, “mail” and “box” when
asked, “What two words make ‘mailbox’?”
Orally takes apart two-syllable words into their
component syllables.
• The child claps out syllables in a two-syllable
word as part of a circle time activity. When the
teacher says, “Let’s clap out how many parts we
hear in the word ‘cook-ie.’”

• The child responds, “door” when asked, “What
word do you get when you say ‘doorknob’
without ‘knob’?”

66 | Reading
2.0 Phonological Awareness (Continued)

2.2 Orally blend the onsets, rimes,

and phonemes of words and orally
delete the onsets of words, with the
support of pictures or objects.*
Examples
Orally blends the onsets and rimes of words with

the support of pictures or objects.
• During a small group activity with several objects
on the table (e.g., cat, cup, mat, bus, rat, pup),
the child responds and selects the rat (or says
“rat”) when a teacher asks, “Ricardo, can you find
the r—at?”
• While playing a game of I-spy, the teacher says,
“I spy a s—un,” and the child indicates or points
to the sun or says, “sun.”
• While engaged in a game, the child selects the
picture of a bed from among three or four pic
tures (or says, “bed”) when asked to put together
the letter sounds b—ed.
Deletes the onset from a spoken word with the
support of pictures or objects.
• The child selects the picture of ants from among

three or four pictures (or says, “ants”) when asked
to say “pants” without the “p” letter sound.
Orally blends individual phonemes to make a simple
word with the support of pictures or objects.
• While playing a “bingo game” during small group
time, the child chooses and marks pictures
corresponding to the words for which the
teacher sounds out the individual phonemes
(e.g., h—a—t, m—o—p, c—u—p).
• The teacher sings, “If you think you know the
word, shout it out. If you think you know the
word, tell me what you’ve heard. If you think you
know the word, shout it out . . . s—i—t.” The child
sings out “sit” along with the classmates.
• The child picks up the picture of a hat from
among three or four pictures (or says, “hat”)
when asked to put together the letter sounds
h—a—t.
* The foundations for phonological awareness are written only for older four-year-olds because much of the initial
development of phonological awareness occurs between 48 months and 60 months of age.

Reading | 67
3.0 Alphabetics and Word/Print Recognition

Children begin to recognize letters Children extend their recognition

of the alphabet.* of letters of the alphabet.*
3.1 Recognize the first letter of own 3.1 Recognize own name or other
name. common words in print.
Examples Examples
• Kavita communicates, “That’s my name” while • The child recognizes his or her name on a
indicating the letter K on Karen’s name card on sign-in sheet, helper chart, artwork, or name tag
the helper chart. (e.g., name tag, label for the cubby, or place at
• Bobby indicates a word beginning with the letter the table).
B and says, “That’s my letter.” • The child recognizes common or familiar words
• The child responds appropriately when the (e.g., mom or friends’ names) in print.
teacher holds up a card with the first letter of his
or her name and says, “Everyone whose name
begins with this letter (the first letter of the child’s
name), put on your jacket.”
3.2 Match some letter names to their 3.2 Match more than half of uppercase
printed form. letter names and more than half of
lowercase letter names to their
printed form.
Examples Examples

• When putting the “T” puzzle piece into the • When shown an upper- or lowercase letter, the
alphabet puzzle, the child says, “That’s a T.” child can say its name.
• The child traces over sandpaper letters, saying • The child says letter names when attending to
the matching letter name for some letters. different words, such as own name, friends’
• The child names some letters in storybooks, names, or frequently seen signs.
logos, or on artwork. • During circle time the child indicates or points
• The child says, “I want all the A’s,” when sorting to the correct letter on a chart when the teacher
through a container of letters, picking out the A prompts with the name of the letter.
shapes.
3.3 Begin to recognize that letters have

sounds.
Examples
• The child makes the correct sound for the first
letter in his name.
• The child says the correct letter sound while
pointing to the letter in a book.
• The child indicates the correct picture when pre
sented with four pictures—dog barking, car horn
honking, letter k, and letter n—and asked, “Which
of these make these sounds: bow-wow, honk, “k”
(letter sound), “n” (letter sound)?”
* Children with oral motor involvement, who may have difficulty in saying words or syllables as they learn to match,
synthesize, or analyze syllables and sounds, may demonstrate their knowledge by indicating yes or no in response to
an adult’s production of sounds or words or by identifying pictures that represent the products of these manipulations. It
should be understood that children can learn letters of the alphabet and about print without being able to see typical print.
Multiple means of recognizing print include the use of tactile letters, large print, color contrast or lighting, braille, and any
other means of representing letters and print.

68 | Reading
4.0 Comprehension and Analysis of Age-Appropriate Text

Children demonstrate understanding Children demonstrate understanding

of age-appropriate text read aloud. of age-appropriate text read aloud.
4.1 Demonstrate knowledge of main 4.1 Demonstrate knowledge of details

characters or events in a familiar in a familiar story, including charac
story (e.g., who, what, where) ters, events, and ordering of events
through answering questions through answering questions (par
(e.g., recall and simple inferencing), ticularly summarizing, predicting,
retelling, reenacting, or creating and inferencing), retelling, reenacting,
artwork. or creating artwork.
Examples Examples
• In the dramatic play area, the child pretends • The child uses a bucket (pail of water) and step
to be a character from a familiar story. stool (the hill) to reenact the “Jack and Jill”
• During circle time the child reminds a peer what nursery rhyme.
has just happened in a story being read aloud. • The child places story picture cards or flannel
• The child retells a story to peers or stuffed board pictures in order while retelling a familiar
animals in the library center, not necessarily story with peers.
including all events or in the correct order. • The child acts out the sequence of events in a
• The child names places where Rosie walked in familiar story, using props and puppets.
the book Rosie’s Walk (e.g., chicken coop, pond). • The child responds to open-ended questions
from teachers or other children (e.g., how, why,
• The child is able to label correctly a character’s

feelings when asked by teacher (e.g., “Critter cause/effect, connecting events, prediction,
was sad”). and inferring).
• The child is able to describe the situation and
feelings that led to a story character’s actions
(e.g., “He yelled at them because he was mad
that they took his toy”).
4.2 Demonstrate knowledge from 4.2 Use information from informational

informational text through labeling, text in a variety of ways, including
describing, playing, or creating describing, relating, categorizing,
artwork. or comparing and contrasting.
Examples Examples
• The child demonstrates knowledge of trucks by • The child communicates important differences
indicating that things can be carried in the back and similarities of jet airplanes and propeller
of trucks after the teacher has read a description planes after being read a story about airplanes
of jobs that trucks do. and airports.
• In the block area a group of children build an • The child tells about a visit to the dentist in
airport after being read a story about airplanes response to a book about getting teeth cleaned
and airports. at the dentist’s office.
• During outside play the child pretends to be a • The child explains or demonstrates the steps of
traffic officer by directing tricycle traffic after planting a seed after being read a book about
listening to or looking at a story about traffic gardening.
officers.
• The child communicates, “I love the giraffe.
Giraffes have long necks” when listening to or
looking at a book about the zoo.

Reading | 69
5.0 Literacy Interest and Response

Children demonstrate motivation for Children demonstrate motivation for

literacy activities. a broad range of literacy activities.
5.1 Demonstrate enjoyment of literacy 5.1 Demonstrate, with increasing

and literacy-related activities. independence, enjoyment of
literacy and literacy-related
activities.
Examples Examples
• The child brings a book to an adult to share or to • The child brings a favorite book from home
read together. to be read aloud during story time.
• The child chooses the activities in literacy or writ • The child initiates creating or obtaining appropri
ing center (e.g., “reading” a book by oneself in the ate written materials for dramatic play (e.g., menus
library area or pretending to write a story). for playing restaurant, lists for playing grocery
• The child displays appropriate attention while lis store).
tening to a read-aloud during circle time. • The child describes a trip to the library with a
family member where they selected books and
checked them out to read at home.
5.2 Engage in routines associated with 5.2 Engage in more complex routines
literacy activities. associated with literacy activities.

Examples Examples
• The child listens during story time. • The child returns books to the library shelf after
• The child participates in a discussion of a story. independent reading.
• The child asks for help from the teacher to write • The child finds own journal book when entering
something (e.g., writing a note to mother, labeling the classroom and engages in pretend writing.
a picture, writing a story). • After the reading of a book about insects during
circle time, the child asks the teacher to identify
other books about insects for the child to look
through.

70
Writing
1.0 Writing Strategies
Children demonstrate emergent Children demonstrate increasing

writing skills.* emergent writing skills.*
1.1 Experiment with grasp and body 1.1 Adjust grasp and body position
position using a variety of drawing for increased control in drawing
and writing tools. and writing.
Examples Examples
• The child holds a marker with the fist or finger • The child holds a pencil or pen with finger grasp
grasp to draw. to write.
• The child paints at an easel with fat and thin • The child draws recognizable figures, letters, or
brushes. shapes.
• The child draws or paints with pencils, crayons, • The child child moves hand to hold paper in place
markers, brushes, or fingers. while drawing or writing.
1.2 Write using scribbles that are 1.2 Write letters or letter-like shapes to
different from pictures. represent words or ideas.
Examples Examples
• The child produces scribble writing that is linear • The child draws a picture and writes a label
(mock cursive). (may not be readable).
• The child makes scribbles of lines and circles • The child writes strings of symbols that look like
(mock printing). letters or writes actual letters, which can vary in
• The child makes scribbles that are more directionality (not necessarily left to right).
separated.
1.3 Write marks to represent own name. 1.3 Write first name nearly correctly.
Examples Examples
• The child makes a series of circles and lines to • The child writes own name with or without
represent name. mistakes, for example:
• The child writes marks and refers to them as – Excludes some letters (dvid).
“my name” or “this is my name.” – Reverses some letters (Davib).
– Uses letters that may not be written in a line.
* Some children may need assistance in emergent writing, either through assistive technology or through the help of an adult.
Assistive technology (either low tech or high tech) may be as simple as building up the width of the marker or pencil so that
it is easier to grasp, or it may be as sophisticated as using a computer. Another possibility would be for an adult or a peer to
“write” for the child who would then approve or disapprove by indicating yes or no.

71
Bibliographic Notes
Listening and Speaking ability to use language for a variety

of different purposes. Each time chil
Language Use and Conventions.
dren produce language, an intention is
The development of oral language is
being expressed. As children develop
one of the most impressive accom
their language abilities during early
plishments that occur during the first
childhood, the range of intentions they
five years of children’s lives (Genishi
express expands. They use language
1988). Oral language development
not just to request, reject, and com
results from the interaction of a variety
ment, but to acknowledge, to greet,
of factors, including social, linguistic,
to understand, to solve problems,
maturational/biological, and cognitive
to hypothesize, to regulate, and to
influences, and these factors interact
describe, among other uses.
and modify one another (Bohannon
The second component centers on
and Bonvillian 2001). Research indi
the ability of young children to learn
cates that social factors have a promi
to use understandable pronunciation
nent role on oral language develop
and words. This development pertains
ment. For example, the wide variation
to the articulation of specific words
in the rate of children’s early language
and the expression of specific sounds

growth and later language outcomes
rather than to the overall way in which
is directly related to differences in
children speak or whether they speak
maternal and other caretakers’ verbal
with an accent. Young children may
input (Baumwell, Tamis-LeMonda,
speak in ways that may contain pro
and Bornstein 1997; Girolametto and
nunciation errors and idiosyncratic
Weitzman 2002; Hart and Risley 1995;
words. Usually their communication is
Landry and others 1997; Pellegrini and
understood by familiar adults and chil
others 1995; Tamis-LeMonda, Born-
dren. As children continue to develop,
stein, and Baumwell 2001).
they usually speak with clear pronun
The language use and conventions
ciation and use common words. Their
substrand focuses on children’s use
speech is usually understood by both
of language for social and commu
familiar and unfamiliar adults and
nicative purposes. Four aspects of
children.
language use are emphasized in the
The third component of the founda
foundations: using language to com
tion focuses on children’s increasing
municate with others for a variety of
understanding of the conventions of
purposes, increasing clarity of com
communication, including conversa
munication (i.e., phonology), develop
tional participation and the ability to
ing an increasing understanding of the
sustain a topic over turns, and the use
conventions of language use (i.e., prag
of appropriate verbal and nonverbal
matics), and using language for narra
communicative behaviors, including
tive purposes. The first component of
adapting language based on communi
the foundation emphasizes the child’s
cative partners and situations.
72
It is important to note that appropri of events (e.g., “The bear was angry
ate (or accepted) language or behavior because her babies woke her up. And
is that which commonly occurs in the then . . .”). The narratives of four- and
child’s environment or community. five-year-old children tend to be longer
For example, in some communities or and contain more information than
environments, people make eye con those of three-year-olds (Curenton and
tact when they speak, while in other Justice 2004). They contain more mul
communities they do not. In the first ticlausal sentences, more words, and a
few years of life, children are not very greater diversity of words. At the same
skilled conversationalists, only able to time, children’s narratives become
(typically) maintain a conversational more coherent as children develop and
focus for one or two turns. As children become less likely to omit key informa
become older and near the end of the tion that the listener needs to follow
preschool years, they can maintain a the events (Gutierrez-Clellen and Igle
conversation for several turns and take sias 1992; Peterson 1990).
on more of the responsibility of main Teachers can help children to
taining a conversational focus. Also, as develop the different aspects of con
children become older, they develop an versation described previously. For
increasingly sophisticated understand instance, teachers can provide oppor
ing of the pragmatics of communica tunities for all children to develop and
tion, or the social rules that govern the apply a range of communication inten
use of language and other communica tions. Teachers can develop skills in
tive behaviors. maintaining a conversational focus
The fourth component of the founda by repeating what children say and
tion emphasizes the child’s ability to extending children’s conversational
use language for narrative purposes. contributions—techniques that pro
With narrative, the child’s task is, mote children’s conversational abili
essentially, to produce an “extended ties (Girolametto and Weitzman 2002).
monologue” as she relays an experi Additionally, teachers can both model
ence she had, a story she has devel and promote the use of the appropriate
oped, or something she wants to do social conventions of language. Finally,
in the future. Narratives include both teachers can support children’s nar
real events (the personal narrative) as rative comprehension—which involves
well as fictional or imagined events the ability to negotiate vocabulary,
(the fictional narrative). There are clear grammar, and background knowledge
developmental changes in narrative on the subject, to process information,
production as children mature during to engage their phonological memory
the preschool years (Umiker-Sebeok (Baddeley 1986), and when produc
1979). Children at three years of age ing a narrative, to take into account
may produce narratives organized as a the listener’s needs. Teachers can
series of unrelated actions or charac elicit children’s demonstration of pho
ters (e.g., “the bear, the cat, the gorilla, nological memory by requesting that
the end”). At around 48 months of age, children produce immediate recalls of
children begin to organize narratives to verbally presented material (Lonigan
follow a causal or temporal sequence 2004).

73
Vocabulary. The development of vocabulary that describes relations

vocabulary is one of the most essen between objects.
tial, observable, and robust aspects of Vocabulary undergoes rapid growth
early language acquisition. Vocabulary during the preschool years. Many chil
knowledge is an important language dren enter into a period termed the
tool that children use to access back “vocabulary explosion” or “word spurt”
ground knowledge, express ideas, and within the second year of life (Bates,
acquire new concepts. In addition to Bretherton, and Snyder 1988). Vocab
providing children with a tool that ulary acquisition is not merely add
supports peer relationships and their ing new words in a serial fashion to a
interactions with adults, the size of a static and established vocabulary base.
child’s vocabulary is itself a positive Learning new vocabulary is a more
influence on word learning. Children complex process that involves altering
who have a larger vocabulary have and refining the semantic representa
an easier time acquiring new words tion of words already in the children’s
(Nash and Donaldson 2005; Sénéchal, vocabulary base, as well as the rela
Thomas, and Monker 1995). They also tionships among them (Landauer and
tend to be more effective readers, mas Dumais 1997; Woodward, Markham,
tering a wider variety of strategies to and Fitzsimmons 1994). Children’s
figure out the meaning of new words development of the meaning of a single
than less capable readers can (McK word is best viewed as a gradual pro
eown 1985), and are more proficient cess in which word representations
in reading comprehension (Report of progressively develop from immature,

the National Reading Panel 2000). On incomplete representations to mature,
the contrary, preschool and kinder accurate representations (Justice,
garten children who show difficulties Meier, and Walpole 2005). Children
with vocabulary exhibit relatively lower often can acquire a general representa
reading achievement later (Cunning tion of a new word with only a single
ham and Stanovich 1998; Share and exposure through a process called
others 1984; Stanovich, Cunningham, “fast mapping” (see McGregor and oth
and Freeman 1984). The differences ers 2002). This process is followed by
in vocabulary words between high and “slow mapping,” during which repre
low achievers are stable over time. sentations are gradually refined over
Vocabulary growth throughout early time with multiple exposures (Curtis
childhood occurs at a very rapid rate. 1987). Thus, multiple experiences with
This process continues throughout words across a variety of contexts are
school, where children acquire from critical for children’s acquisition of a
3,000 to 5,000 new words each aca fine-grained representation of those
demic year, with about half of those words.
words learned through reading (Nagy An important aspect of early vocabu
and Herman 1987). It is thus impor lary and linguistic concept develop
tant to pay attention to vocabulary ment is that of “categorization” (Hoff
development from an early age. The 2005). “Vocabulary development”
vocabulary substrand includes three can be defined as the child’s ongoing
interrelated foundations: age-appropri achievement of increasingly precise
ate vocabulary, basic concepts, and ways of representing the contents of

74
the world. As children develop new as hard/soft, big/little, and short/tall.

words, those words naturally fall into Three- and four-year-old children also
different categories, such as words begin to use the comparative -er and
that describe food items, different ani the superlative -est (big, bigger, big
mals, and family members. During the gest; long, longer, longest) to be dis
preschool years, as children gradually criminating about the sizes of objects.
expand their use and understanding The superlative form usually emerges
of words within a category, they also before the comparative form, so that
learn the “superordinate terms” (the children use and understand terms
names of the categories) by which to like longest and largest before they do
group these words. Examples of super the terms longer and larger (Owens
ordinate terms often acquired during 1996). Also, children’s accuracy in
the preschool years are colors, animals, comprehension of such terms tends
shapes, family members, friends, bugs, to precede their use.
toys, and vegetables (Owens 1999). The development of an extensive
As children grow and are exposed to a vocabulary provides children with
range of new experiences, they learn more sophisticated and precise ways
words from across a variety of gram to represent the world around them
matical classes and from a range of through the use of language. In the
“ontological categories” (Clark 1993). first few years of life, the language
These categories include objects, of children is developed enough to
actions, events, relations, states and allow them to describe the immedi
properties. Relating words and con ate world—the persons, objects, and
cepts within these ontological catego events in the immediate vicinity. Often,
ries helps the children create meaning children’s language must be contex
within their environment. tualized, or supported by the immedi
Another important element of vocab ate context. As their vocabulary and
ulary development is the attainment language concepts expand, children
of a core group of terms that describe can be more decontextualized in their
relations between objects. Young language use and comprehension. This
children’s vocabulary becomes increas movement from the concrete and con
ingly refined to show an understanding textualized to the abstract and decon
of and relay information about posi textualized plays a critical role in the
tion and location (e.g., in, on, under, development of “academic language”
above), amount, and size (e.g., small, (also called literate language) (see
big, huge). For instance, three- and Curenton and Justice 2004) and the
four-year-old children are able to vocabulary used to produce and com
produce and comprehend locational prehend the relatively abstract content
terms, such as in, on, above, below, of written language. Use of an “aca
in front, of, next to, under, underneath, demic language style” helps children to
and beside (see Owens 1996). Dur represent explicitly and precisely the
ing the same period, they also begin world around them through the use
to use terms that specify amounts, of language and allows them to com
such as more, less, all, and none, and municate effectively in the type of lan
physical relationships among objects guage most commonly used in school
on the basis of size and texture, such settings (Charity, Scarborough, and

75
Griffin 2004; Dickinson and Snow Grammar. During the first five years
1987; Dickinson and Tabors 1991; of a child’s life, language acquisition
Snow 1983). develops toward an adult-like gram
Children learn much of their vocab mar. “Grammar” refers to the way
ulary and basic language concepts in which phrases and sentences are
indirectly through their interaction structured to make meaning. Children
with others, especially adults (Cun seem to have an innate propensity
ningham and Stanovich 1998; Hayes toward learning the grammatical rules
and Ahrens 1988; Miller and Gildea that govern their language. The gram
1987; Nagy and Anderson 1984; Nagy, matical rules include the organization
Herman, and Anderson 1985; Nagy of basic sentences (e.g., subject + verb
and Herman1987; Sternberg 1987; + object: Juan drew the picture) and
Swanborn and De Glopper 1999). the joining of clauses and phrases to
Children also acquire vocabulary elaborate the basic sentence struc
through direct, explicit instruction. ture (e.g., subject + verb + object and
For example, Biemiller (1999) and subject + verb + object: Juan drew the
Stahl (1999) reviewed several studies picture and he is hanging it) (Chomsky
and found that children can acquire 1957). Grammar also provides rules
and retain two or three words a day about the way in which nouns can be
through instruction involving contex elaborated with determiners and adjec
tualized introduction and explanation tives (e.g., the big brown dog), verbs
of new words. Other researchers have can be elaborated to share information
also found that direct and explicit about time (e.g., will be running), and

approaches are effective in increas phrases can be created for prepositions
ing children’s vocabulary (see Elley (e.g., on the table), adverbs (e.g., very,
1989; Feitelson, Kita, and Goldstein very slowly), and other parts of speech.
1986; Whitehurst and others 1988). Between the second and fifth year of
With adequate instruction most chil life, children master virtually all the
dren can acquire new vocabulary at rules required for an adult-like gram
rates necessary to reach “grade level” mar and can comprehend and produce
vocabulary by the middle years in sentences with embedded clauses
elementary school (Biemiller 2001). (e.g., “That boy who came today is
For example, Hart and Risley (1995) my friend”), as well as sentences with
found that when teachers provided multiple subjects and predicates (e.g.,
40 or more hours of rich linguistic “I am going and then he will get me”).
interactions per week, children were The rate at which children achieve
able to perform linguistic tasks at the syntactic precision, however, varies
expected level. Similarly, Landry’s from child to child (Chapman 2000).
study (in press) demonstrates that par The proportion of complex sentences
ents who do not frequently engage in contained in children’s language use
quality conversations with their chil ranges from 5 percent to 30 percent
dren can be coached to support their (Huttenlocher and others 2002). This
children’s language and literacy skills variability in the rate of growth has
more effectively. been linked to children’s experiences

76
in hearing complex sentences from tive sentences include a fully inflected

their teachers (Huttenlocher and oth verb structure, as in, “I don’t want
ers 2002). any” and “You are not going.” Some
The foundations are organized to errors in negation will be seen during
emphasize the child’s grammatical the preschool age (e.g., “I do want to
accomplishments at both the sentence do that!”), but these errors will become
and the word levels. Sentence-level less frequent by four and five years of
accomplishments relate to the child’s age as children achieve grammatical
use and production of increasingly mastery (see Hoff 2004; Owens 1996).
complex and longer sentences. Word- As children near three years of age,
level accomplishments relate to the they begin to organize phrases and
child’s manipulation of word structure clauses to produce compound sen
for grammatical purposes. tences (e.g., “I want the cupcake and
One foundation emphasizes chil I want the cake, too”) and complex
dren’s grammatical accomplishments sentences (e.g., “La’Kori is my friend
at the sentence level. Typically, the because we go to school together”).
sentences of three-year-old children Children typically begin producing
average about 3.5 words, and those of compound sentences (conjoined with
four-year-olds increase to about five but, so, or, and and) by three years of
words in length. (Brown 1973). While age and then start to conjoin clauses
the increase in the length of sentences to form complex sentences (using if
is not dramatic, there is a significant and because) soon thereafter (Brown
increase in the internal complexity of 1973).
the sentences children are producing. By four years of age, most children
By two years of age, children begin to have become skilled at both clausal
produce simple sentences that include embedding and clausal conjoining.
a noun + predicate (e.g., “doggy sit,” “Clausal embedding” occurs when a
“mommy work”). Later, children begin dependent clause is embedded within
to elaborate nouns by making noun an independent clause, as with, “Jose,
phrases (e.g., “the big brown doggy,” who is two, is not yet talking” (here,
“my mommy,” “my daddy’s gloves”). By the clause “who is two” is embedded
four years of age, children commonly into another clause). “Clausal con
produce elaborated noun phrases that joining” occurs when children link
include determiners (e.g., the, a, an, clauses, as in, “He took my toy, but I
all, both, one, two) and adjectives (e.g., didn’t want it” and “When I am four,
green, little, fast, angry). This increase I can chew gum.” At four years up to
in complexity allows children to be one-third of children’s sentences will
highly precise in their language use be complex (Huttenlocher and others
(e.g., “I want that little green one over 2002), with the remainder being sim
there”). A related development centers ple. In addition, by four years of age,
on children’s ability to produce nega children are typically able to produce
tive sentences. Children’s use of basic complex-compound sentences that
negative sentences during the second include the conjoining of two sentences
year (e.g., “no go,” “no want”) becomes using and or but as well as clauses
more precisely stated between ages embedded within the sentences (e.g.,
three and four. Typically, these nega “I will go because she said to but I

77
don’t really want to”) (Curenton and Another type of word-level achieve
Justice 2004). ment emphasized in the foundations is
Word-level accomplishments relate the child’s development of pronouns.
to the child’s manipulation of word “Pronouns” are grammatical structures
structure for grammatical purposes. that serve in the place of nouns. They
Between two and five years of age, include subject pronouns (I, you, he,
children acquire the ability to inflect she, they), object pronouns (me, you,
words to be more precise in meaning. him, her, them), possessive pronouns
For instance, one of the earliest word- (hers, his, theirs), reflexive pronouns
structure achievements (by about two (myself, herself), and demonstrative
years of age) is inflecting verbs with pronouns (this, that, those). Typically,
the -ing marker to denote present pro children first develop the pronouns to
gressive, as in “cat jumping” (Brown refer to self (I, me, mine, my) between
1973). By three years of age, children 18 and 24 months of age (see Owens
are using the past tense -ed marker to 1996). Between 24 months and five
denote events occurring in the past, as years of age, children gradually master
in, “I walked” (Brown 1973). As chil the other pronouns to include a vari
dren develop their comprehension and ety of subject, object, possessive, and
use of these verb inflections, they tend reflexive pronouns. Errors in usage are
to make errors, as in “He going” (in very common as children develop their
which the auxiliary verb is is omitted), skills with pronouns, such as, “Her did
“I wented,” or “He hitted” (in which the it” and “It’s hims” (Owens 1996). With
-ed marker is added to an irregular experience and development children

past tense verb that does not take the will typically show few difficulties with
-ed), and Carlos “walkded” (in which pronouns by the end of the preschool
the -ed marker is added twice). Such period.
errors are entirely commonplace and As indicated concerning the devel
typical in early grammatical acquisi opment of children’s vocabulary,
tion and will gradually be replaced children’s ability to use increasingly
with more accurate use (Brown 1973). sophisticated language structures
By five years of age, children are quite allows them to make greater use
accurate in their inflections of verbs of “decontextualized language”—
for past tense, present progressive language that requires little reliance
tense, and future tense (Brown 1973). on the context for it to be understood.
It is important to note that some dia By contrast, “contextualized language”
lectical variations in the United States requires context to aid in understand
affect verb inflections. For instance, ing. For example, contrast the two sen
children who speak some variations tences: “He took it” and “That boy over
of African-American English may omit there took my green ball.” Obviously,
the plural marker (e.g., two dollar) or the latter example requires much less
modify the future tense (e.g., “She be context for it to be understood; like
mad”) in ways that differ from Stan wise, the latter example also places
dard American English but are wholly a great burden on the speaker to
appropriate to the individual’s dialect be linguistically precise. This level of
(Owens 1996). linguistic precision, required in decon-

78
textualized situations, is referred to as knowledge is enhanced by their explicit

“literate language” (Curenton and and implicit exposure to literacy
Justice 2004). Key markers of liter practices within their homes, class
ate language include use of elabo rooms, and communities (Ferreiro and
rated noun phrases (e.g., my green Teberosky 1982; Harste, Woodward,
ball), conjunctions (when, because), and Burke 1984; Sulzby 1987; Teale
and adverbs (tomorrow, slowly). As 1987). Children develop an under
children develop literate language, standing of print from television and
they can decrease their reliance on other media exposure and from more
immediate context as a tool for com traditional types of public literacy—like
munication. This ability is essential in magazines, comics, newspapers, and
preparing young children for school, billboards (Harste, Woodward, and
where decontextualized language is Burke 1984; Holdaway 1986). Most
highly valued and used, and it has also important, children develop an aware
proven to be an important facilitator ness of concepts about print as they
of later reading comprehension (Dick experience people around them using
inson and Snow 1987; Dickinson and the printed word for many purposes.
Tabors 1991; Snow 1983). Children also learn about the purposes
Children’s semantic (vocabulary) and of print from labels, signs, and other
syntactic (grammar) abilities become kinds of print that they see around
especially important in the later stages them (Neuman and Roskos 1993).
of learning to read (Bishop and Adams This exposure to print is key not
1990; Bowey 1986; Demont and only to developing preschool children’s
Gombert 1996; Gillon and Dodd 1994; concepts about print, but also to pro
Share and Silva 1987; Vellutino, Scan viding the foundation of processes
lon, and Tanzman 1991; Whitehurst and knowledge bases that facilitate
and Lonigan 1998). These abilities are writing, reading, and reading com
particularly relevant when children prehension, such as vocabulary and
try to comprehend units of text larger declarative knowledge (Adams 1990;
than individual words (Mason 1992; Mason 1980; Stanovich and Cunning
Nation and Snowling 1998; Snow and ham 1992, 1993; West and Stanovich
others 1991; Whitehurst 1997). Thus, 1991). Children’s understanding of
it is important for preschool children concepts about print has been shown
to continue building their semantic to be associated with later reading per
and syntactic abilities to facilitate formance (Adams 1990; Badian 2001;
their learning later in the sequence Clay 1993; Preventing Reading Difficul
of learning to read. ties in Young Children 1998; Reutzel,
Oda, and Moore 1989; Scarborough
Reading 1998; Stuart 1995; Tunmer, Herriman,
and Nesdale 1988).
Concepts About Print. An impor
Central to an understanding of the
tant element to the development
nature and role of reading and writing
of emergent literacy is preschool
is a child’s understanding of “inten
children’s development of a sophisti
tionality” (Purcell-Gates and Dahl
cated knowledge of how print works.
1991). That is, children need to
Children’s development of this

79
recognize that print carries mean- using print, preschool children learn
ing—that a meaning or message is the vocabulary of reading in instruc
encoded (Purcell-Gates 1996). When tional contexts—such as read, write,
a child understands intentionality, draw, page, and story (Morgan cited in
meaning and understanding become a Weir 1989; van Kleeck 1990)—as well
background for all subsequent learn as the routines that govern literacy use
ing. Failure to develop this awareness in the classroom, home, or preschool
is one characteristic of delayed reading setting, for example, reading stories,
development (Clay 1985; Purcell-Gates making lists, and writing letters (Elster
and Dahl 1991). Children’s under 1988; Elster and Walker 1992).
standing that print carries meaning Although natural exposure to print
emerges between the second and fifth has a positive influence on children’s
year of life, depending on the extent to awareness of concepts about print,
which children interact with and are researchers have found that adults
exposed to print (Mason 1980). This need to deliberately and actively
understanding becomes increasingly encourage children’s engagement with
sophisticated during the preschool print by explicitly drawing children’s
years (Justice and Ezell 2000). At this attention to print forms and functions
time, children begin to use print to (Justice and others 2005). Strategies
communicate, to understand the way teachers use to help young children
print is organized in books and other develop print awareness skills include
texts, to recite the alphabet, and to asking questions about print, com
recognize some letters and words in menting about print, tracking print

print. when reading, and pointing to print
The first aspect of this substrand, (Justice and Ezell 2000, 2002).
print conventions, describes children’s Phonological Awareness. “Phono
growing knowledge of the ways in logical awareness” is generally defined
which print is organized, including as an individual’s sensitivity to the
directionality and, for English orthog sound (or phonological) structure of
raphy, the left-to-right and top-to spoken language independent of mean
bottom organization of print in books ing. Spoken language is made up of
or other print media (Clay 2002). Print different phonological units that differ
conventions also refer to the way books in their linguistic complexity. The pho
are organized (e.g., front and back) and nological units include words, sylla
the way they should be handled (Clay bles, subsyllabic units (onsets, rimes),
2002). and individual sounds (phonemes).
The second aspect of this substrand Phonological awareness (also called
focuses on children’s understanding “phonological sensitivity”) should be
that print can be read and has spe differentiated from “phonemic aware
cific meaning. Children are beginning ness.” Phonemic awareness is the most
to understand and operate within the advanced level of phonological aware
routines and contexts in which print ness that an individual can achieve.
is a component, and they are learn It refers to one’s ability to recognize
ing that reading and writing play a and manipulate phonemes, which con
key role in various social contexts. By stitute the smallest units of spoken
interacting with and observing adults words. Phonological awareness (and

80
phonemic awareness) should also be sensitive to smaller units of spoken

distinguished from phonics. “Phonics” language.
is a method of instruction that focuses In addition to development involv
on teaching the relationships between ing the linguistic complexity of sound
sounds and the letters that represent units, children demonstrate their pho
them, whereas phonological awareness nological awareness through three
is an oral language skill that does not types of operations—detection, syn
involve print. thesis, and analysis (Anthony, Loni
The development of phonological gan, and Burgess 2003). “Detection”
awareness typically moves along a is the ability to match similar sounds.
continuum in which children prog “Synthesis” is the ability to combine
ress from a sensitivity to larger con smaller segments into syllables and
crete units of sound to a sensitivity words. “Analysis” is the ability to seg
to smaller abstract units of sound ment words or syllables into smaller
(Adams 1990; Anthony and others units. At the level of segmenting words
2002; Fox and Routh 1975; Goswami into syllables and segmenting syllables
and Bryant 1990; Liberman and oth into onset and rime, children’s phono
ers 1974; Lonigan 2006; Lonigan and logical awareness performance usually
others 1998; Lonigan, Burgess, and progresses from detection, to syn
Anthony 2000; MacLean, Bryant, and thesis, to analysis. This development
Bradley 1987; Treiman 1992). Typi does not occur in discrete stages but
cally, children’s first achievements in instead represents overlapping abilities
phonological awareness are to detect (Anthony, Lonigan, and Burgess 2003).
and manipulate words and syllables That is, children do not have to com
within words and to then progress to pletely master the earlier skill before
awareness of onsets and rimes. The they begin to acquire the next skill in
onset of a syllable is the first conso the sequence. The foundations concur
nant or consonant cluster (e.g., the rently address the developmental levels
m- in the word map, the dr- in the word of phonological awareness within the
drum), whereas the rime of a syllable is various performance areas, so that
its vowel and any ending consonants a progression can be seen from the
(e.g., -ap in the word map, -um in the ability to detect and blend words to
word drum). Finally, children develop the ability to segment at the onset-
awareness of the smallest abstract rime level.
units of sound, the phonemes. Pho The position of a phoneme in a word
nemes can be represented by single or syllable and the context in which
letters, such as with the phonemes the phoneme occurs also influence
c—a—t in the word cat, or with two the level of difficulty of a phonologi
letters, such as in the ch- in the word cal awareness task. Children are able
cheese; but not all letters in a word to detect or manipulate the initial
represent a phoneme, such as the phonemes in words before they can
silent-e in the word store. The founda detect or manipulate final phonemes.
tions reflect these gradations in the Additionally, children have more dif
achievement of phonological awareness ficulty in identifying or manipulating
as children become gradually more a phoneme that is a part of a cluster

81
than they do phonemes that are not in Anthony 2000; Report of the National
a cluster. For instance, children may Reading Panel: Teaching Children to
be able to identify the three phonemes Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment
in pop but have difficulty in identifying of the Scientific Research Literature
the four phonemes in plop because the on Reading and Its Implications for
onset of the word contains a conso Reading Instruction 2000; Prather,
nant cluster. The foundations address Hendrick, and Kern 1975; Templin
these variations in the level of difficulty 1957; Wagner, Torgesen, and Rashotte
of phonological awareness tasks by 1994; Wagner and others 1997). Pho
focusing the harder operations (e.g., nological awareness plays a key role
deleting parts of words and blending in several of the components that help
phonemes) on the initial parts of words children become skilled readers, such
(deleting onsets rather than deleting as understanding the alphabetic prin
rimes) and on simple words (blending ciple (Burgess and Lonigan 1998; Ehri
of words that have a limited number 1991, 1995), decoding printed words
of phonemes and do not contain (Beck and Juel 1999; Bradley and Bry
clusters). ant 1985; Byrne and Fielding-Barns
One additional source of variation ley 1993, 1995; Demont and Gombert
relates to the amount and kind of sup 1996; Tunmer, Herriman, and Nesdale
ports provided to children so that they 1988), spelling (Bryant and others
can perform these tasks. For example, 1990; Gentry 1982; Read 1975), and
when asking children to delete the reading comprehension—although this
onset of a word, the teacher can pro relation with reading comprehension is

vide pictures of stimuli to reduce the not direct (Tunmer and Nesdale 1985).
level of difficulty of the task. This Given the importance of phono
approach helps children to remember logical awareness to early and later
the different words and enhances their literacy achievement, these founda
performance compared with having tions emphasize attention to its devel
them perform this task without picture opment for older preschool children.
stimuli. When needed, the founda They do not include, however, specific
tions emphasize phonological aware indicators for younger children, as is
ness performance within the context explained next. First, evidence sug
of support, and the expectation is that gests that phonological awareness
children will demonstrate mastery in is not consistently mastered by chil
the context of the support provided by dren under four years of age (Loni
pictures, props, objects, or other valid gan, Burgess, and Anthony 2000),
supportive context. This is the case although performance at three years
for the foundations that involve the of age can be assessed and targeted
manipulation of smaller units of sound through instruction. Second, vocabu
within more difficult forms of cognitive lary is highly related to children’s
operations (e.g., deletion of a word’s acquisition of phonological sensitivity
initial phoneme). (Burgess and Lonigan 1998; Chaney
Phonological awareness is an impor 1992; Lonigan and others 1998; Loni
tant area of early and later reading gan, Burgess, and Anthony 2000).
instruction (Bowers 1995; Bowers Most probably, the positive effect of
and Wolf 1993; Lonigan, Burgess, and vocabulary on phonological awareness

82
is based on the fact that vocabulary ledge of letter names, then, can be
development facilitates children’s abil conceived as a mediator in the reading
ity to focus their attention on parts of process that provides children with the
words, rather than on their whole, as ability to remember the sounds associ
children learn more words (see Met ated with letters (Ehri 1979, 1998).
sala and Walley 1998), thus helping The order of learning the alphabet
them progress in their phonological letters seems facilitated by environ
awareness from large to smaller units mental and developmental influences.
of sound. From these findings, Loni An important environmental influence
gan and others (Fowler 1991; Jusczyk is exposure to the individual letters
1995; Lonigan, Burgess, and Anthony of the alphabet. Children learn first
2000; Metsala and Walley 1998; Walley the letters that are the most familiar
1993) conclude that vocabulary devel to them, such as the letters in their
opment may provide the basis for the own names and the letters that occur
emergence of phonological awareness. earlier in the alphabet string (Treiman
Therefore, the foundations focus on and Broderick 1998). The features of
this key precursor for three-year-olds certain letters make them more ame
and include phonological awareness nable to learning. For instance, letters
foundations for children at around that contain their sound in a child’s
60 months of age, because mastery of name, like b and f, are learned ear
phonological awareness is more appro lier than are those letters that do not,
priate for older preschool children. like q and w (Treiman and Broderick
Alphabetics and Word/Print 1998). A developmental influence on
Recognition. The ability to recognize children’s learning of alphabet letters

letters is a basic step in the process of relates to the relationship between
learning to read and write. Knowledge phonological development and alpha
of the alphabet letters is a strong pre bet knowledge. Children learn earlier
dictor of short- and long-term reading those letters that map onto earlier-
success. Children who have a well- acquired phonemes, such as the “b”
developed knowledge of the letters letter sound and the “d” letter sound,
before engaging in reading instruction instead of letters that map onto pho
make better progress than those who nemes that tend to be acquired later,
do not (Adams 1990; Badian 1982; such as the “r” letter sound and the
Bond and Dykstra 1967; Chall 1967; “l” letter sound. (Justice and others
Evans, Shaw, and Bell 2000; Scanlon 2006). Consequently, the focus of the
and Vellutino 1996; Share and others foundations is on children’s ability to
1984; Stevenson and Newman 1986; recognize or identify familiar letters
Stuart 1995; Tunmer, Herriman, and and words, such as the first letter of
Nesdale 1988; Walsh, Price, and Gill their name and, later, their whole first
ingham, 1988). Knowing the names of name.
letters facilitates children’s ability to As children become aware of the
decode text and to apply the alphabetic names of letters, they also begin to
principle to word recognition. For most identify printed words. Ehri (1995) has
children the name of the letters helps defined children’s development in word
them connect the sounds in words and recognition as a series of transitions
letters in print (Durrell 1980). Know as children move from “prealphabetic

83
readers” (learning words by sight and progress from remembering isolated

using salient contextual cues for word aspects of simple stories to under
recognition), to “partial alphabetic” standing parts of more complex
(applying some phonetic information, literacy events. As children become
such as the sound corresponding to better able to respond to complex
the first letter in a word, to recognizing literacy events that feature causal or
the word), to “full alphabetic” (read temporal sequences or descriptions
ing a word using the alphabetic prin of nonfiction, real events, they draw
ciple). The word recognition skills of on their narrative skills in particular.
preschool-age children are primarily of “Narrative” is a term that describes
a prealphabetic type, so that they can production and comprehension of
recognize some words, but rarely can discourse (including both written and
they examine the alphabetic or pho spoken). A defining feature of narrative
netic structures of the word to arrive is its organizational cohesion, so that
at its meaning. This is why young information is threaded over a series
children are able to recognize some of utterances or sentences.
words in the environment (e.g., Stop, Preschool children’s development
Exit, and some brand names), but they of narrative thinking goes through a
require contextual information from series of stages that ultimately help
the environment to aid their recogni them to make sense of stories and the
tion of these words. Some children world around them (Paris and Paris
who have well-developed knowledge 2003). At the early stages preschool
of the alphabet and letter-sound cor children construct narrative scripts,

respondences, coupled with relatively which involve primitive accounts of
good phonological awareness, may story plots. These scripts usually focus
read at partial alphabetic levels dur on the description of familiar events
ing the preschool years. These children and routine activities, such as going to
are able to look at some unknown a birthday party or visiting the doctor.
words and use letters (and their corre Over time, children construct narra
sponding sounds) to unlock the word’s tive schemas, which include knowledge
meaning. For instance, a child may see about the main elements of stories
the word Thomas in a book and use (such as characters and settings) and
some alphabetic information (e.g., the about the sequence of events (such as
first letter T and its corresponding let time, order, and causal progression).
ter sound) to make a good guess as to In the last, and perhaps most dif
what it says. ficult stage, preschool children come
Comprehension and Analysis of to understand and relate to charac
Age-Appropriate Text. Reading com ters’ internal responses, such as their
prehension is influenced greatly by mental processes and experiences.
language comprehension, and in large This ability to understand characters’
part they draw on the same develop internal thinking also helps children
mental processes (Perfetti, Van Dyke, to develop a sense of perspective by
and Hart 2001). Just as children move which they can empathize with the
from understanding simple phrases experiences and reactions of charac
and directions to comprehending ters in a story, and it helps children
more detailed information, they also develop the ability to recognize both

84
the external and internal features of stories (Cochran-Smith 1984; Mason

narratives. and Allen 1986; Morrow 1984; Mor
Children’s comprehension and pro row and Smith 1990). Book reading
duction of narrative is an important also contributes to general language
foundation for learning to read (Burns, development, whether it is practiced at
Griffin, and Snow 1999; Whitehurst home (Chomsky 1972; Raz and Bryant
and Lonigan 1998). Narratives are 1990; Sénéchal and others 1998; Wells
pervasive in children’s language, play, 1985a; Whitehurst and others 1988)
and thinking and tend to be naturally or in the classroom (Dickinson 2001;
supported by parents and teachers. Dickinson, Hao, and He 1995; Dickin
However, narrative competence can be son and Keebler 1989; Dickinson and
expanded through designed interven Smith 1994; Martinez and Teale 1993;
tions (Yussen and Ozcan 1996). Teale and Martinez 1986). Within the
Exposure to wordless picture books classroom, studies conducted with
provides both instructional opportuni preschool children have shown that
ties for children and a window into the intervention-enhanced teacher-child
process for teachers. When reading interactions have positive effects on
wordless picture books and books with the children’s language skills (e.g.,
print, preschool children use a com syntactic forms at the sentence level)
mon set of strategies to grasp meaning: (Arnold and Whitehurst 1994; Karweit
they make use of prior knowledge and 1989; Valdez-Menchaca and Whitehu
experiences, pay attention to intertex rst 1992). This enhanced development
tual cues and multiple perspectives, of language abilities may in turn lead
rely on story language and rituals, and to enhanced comprehension (Elley and
implement active, playful behavior as Mangubhai 1983; Feitelson, Kita, and
a part of the reading process (Crawford Goldstein 1986; Feitelson and others
and Hade 2000). Children’s efforts to 1993; Morrow 1984, 1988).
make sense of the pictures in word Shared reading activities provide an
less picture books form the foundation adult with the opportunity to introduce
for the reading comprehension and key components of the reading task to
meaning-making skills needed later to children and to support their learning
be successful readers (Paris and van of these key issues. Research has
Kraayenoord 1998). Children’s narra shown that such practices as shared
tive comprehension of wordless picture reading, when conducted over time,
books has been shown to be an effec provide children with a sense of the
tive way to assess children’s compre purposes of literacy (Gee 1992; Heath
hension when they are still not able to 1983), the values associated with
decode (Paris and Paris 2003). shared reading (Snow and others
Storybook reading, both of wordless 1991), and the processes and skills
picture books and books with print, involved in shared reading (see the
when combined with interactive lan preceding paragraph). While storybook
guage activities, has other benefits reading has often been considered
as well. Active discussion of stories an introduction to literacy (Adams
before, during, and after shared read 1990), the practices and styles of
ing has been shown to improve chil interaction that emerge during shared
dren’s understanding and recall of oral reading set the foundation for the

85
types of cognitive processing and tant that adults who read with young
problem solving that characterize children provide this structure
comprehension in the elementary consistently and systematically, so
grades, with strategies such as that they support children’s engage
self-questioning and use of mental ment with certain aspects of the text
imagery (Bauman and Bergeron 1993; (e.g., causal flow of events) that chil
Fitzgerald and Spiegel 1983). Shared dren may not be drawn to incidentally
reading activities also help children or of their own accord (Ezell and
become familiar with the nature of Justice 2000).
written language and help preschool Literacy Interest and Response.
children realize the developmental The comprehension of text for young
progression from an “oral” to a children requires both skill and will,
“written” type of language (Purcell- will usually being a precursor to skill.
Gates 1988; Sulzby 1985). Showing an interest in books and
Children entering school from dis holding a positive regard for read
advantaged environments often have ing are considered developmental
limited or minimal exposure to com accomplishments of three- and four
plex narrative texts. Shared reading, year-olds by the National Research
picture-book reading, and the instruc Council (Preventing Reading Difficulties
tional conversations are of special in Young Children 1998). Children’s
relevance for these children. The lack willing participation in such literacy
of exposure puts them at a disadvan activities as handling books and listen
tage when they are placed in class ing to stories is an essential precur

rooms with students who have been sor to their later cognitive engagement
repeatedly exposed to the language, with text, in the same way that early
ideas, routines, and pleasures associ joint attention between a caregiver and
ated with complex text (Baker, Serpell, a child is an essential precursor to
and Sonnenschein 1995; Dahl and achievements in oral language produc
Freppon 1991; Marvin and Mirenda tion and comprehension. Early interest
1993; Preventing Reading Difficulties in literacy may also motivate children
in Young Children 1998; Purcell-Gates to persist with future challenging read
and Dahl 1991). Fortunately, this ing tasks (Preventing Reading Difficul
exposure gap can be closed through ties in Young Children 1998). Cognitive
instruction at home and in school skills are necessary for children to
(Clay 1979; Leppäen and others 2004; become able readers, but to become
Purcell-Gates, McIntyre, and Frep lifelong literacy learners, children
pon 1995). For example, adults can must be motivated to engage in literacy
explicitly engage children with think activities and persist in their engage
ing about and responding to specific ment. As such, interest in literacy is
elements of texts during storybook closely linked to the issue of motiva
reading interactions. They might, tion.
for instance, focus a child’s atten Interest in and motivation toward
tion on following the cause-and-effect reading describe the child’s affect
sequence of a story or discussing toward, or feelings about, literacy
words that occur repeatedly in a text activities (Alexander and Filler 1976;
to create coherence. It is most impor Mathewson 1994; McKenna, Kear,

86
and Ellsworth 1995). The beliefs, moti with school-age children and college
vation, and purposes of individuals students. Nonetheless, an emerging
influence their decisions about which research base shows that interest and
activities to do, how long to do them, motivation are also factors in pre
and how much effort to put into them school reading achievement (Scarbor
(Bandura 1997; Eccles, Wigfield, and ough and Dobrich 1994; Whitehurst
Schiefele 1998; Pintrich and Schunk and Lonigan 1998). Research with
1996). The literature on motivation young children has confirmed that
makes a distinction between “intrin they have strong, stable, and relatively
sic motivation,” which refers to being well-focused individual interests that
motivated to do an activity for its own influence their attention, recognition,
sake and out of interest and curiosity, and recall of information during lit
and “extrinsic motivation,” or doing an eracy activities, such as shared story
activity to receive an award or other book reading (Renninger and Wozniak
form of recognition (Guthrie, Wigfield, 1985). In addition, children’s active
and Von Secker 2000). Both intrinsic engagement in text-related activities,
and extrinsic motivation influence the such as turning pages in a book, is
amount and frequency of children’s related to knowledge of print concepts
reading. However, research has shown at four years of age (Crain-Thoresen
that intrinsic motivation is a stronger and Dale 1992). Preschool children
predictor of reading achievement than who are engaged and attentive during
is extrinsic motivation (Baker and literacy activities achieve greater lit
Wigfield 1999; Gottfried 1990; Schultz eracy gains in these activities (Justice
and Switzky 1993; Wigfield and Guth and others 2003).

rie 1997). Motivation toward reading A positive relationship exists
influences individuals’ engagement between children’s interest in reading
with reading and literacy activities by and their opportunities for reading at
facilitating their entry into a “psycho home and school. Children who are
logical state of interest” (Krapp, Hidi, read to more frequently and from an
and Renniger 1992), in which individu earlier age tend to have a greater inter
als demonstrate increased attention, est in literacy, exhibit superior literacy
cognitive functioning, and persistence skills during the preschool and school
in different literacy tasks, as well as an years, choose reading more frequently,
increase in their affective investment initiate reading sessions on their own,
(Hidi, 1990; Krapp, Hidi, and Renniger and show greater engagement during
1992). Reading in this state of interest reading sessions (Lonigan 1994; Scar
facilitates comprehension and recall of borough and Dobrich 1994). Guthrie
information (see Anderson 1982; Asher and others (1996) have also reported
1979, 1980; Bernstein 1955; Estes that increasing literacy engagement
and Vaughan 1973; Hidi 2001; Hidi and expanded reading activity are tied
and Baird 1986, 1988; Kintsch 1980; to increases in intrinsic motivation,
Schank 1979; Schraw, Bruning, and whereas decreased literacy engage
Svoboda 1995). ment is reflected in decreased intrin
Studies about interest and motiva sic motivation. In short, adult-child
tion toward reading and literacy have storybook reading promotes children’s
most extensively been conducted interest in and motivation for reading,

87
both of which lead to increased expo signs can be used to represent ideas or
sure, experience, and engagement with concepts. At first, they may conclude
text. This engagement with text has a that there should be some resem
positive effect on overall reading abil blance between what is being repre
ity (Bus 2001; Whitehurst and Lonigan sented and the way it is represented.
1998). The opposite is also true: nega For example, they may say that train
tive attitudes toward reading, espe must be a very long word, while
cially recreational reading, usually lead mosquito must be a very small one
to decreased exposure to reading and (Ferreiro and Teberosky 1982; Piaget
reading ability (McKenna, Kear, and 1962). At the same time, they begin to
Ellsworth 1995). differentiate between writing and other
In addition to increasing children’s kinds of visual representation (e.g.,
exposure to reading and print and drawing) (Bissex 1980; Ferreiro and
their interest in literacy, early read Teberosky 1982; Harste, Woodward,
ing activities also help children learn and Burke 1984). They accompany
about the context of literacy and the this realization with a differentiation
structure of literacy activities (Crain- between the tools for writing and those
Thoreson and Dale 1992), providing for drawing (“I need to get a pencil to
children with the language used at write my name”). Moreover, their writ
school for literacy activities (Heath ing starts to look different from their
1982; Wells 1985b). Helping children drawing (Ferreiro and Teberosky 1982;
become familiar with some aspects of Harste, Woodward, and Burke 1984),
the language (Heath 1982), participant often being linear in form instead of

structures (Phillips 1983), and pat circular.
terns of interaction (Cazden 1986) of As young children get more involved
the classroom during the preschool with written text by being read to,
years will place them in the right tra examining books, and observing
jectory to be successful learners in others write, they begin to experiment
school (Improving Schooling for Lan with writing. Children’s emergent
guage-Minority Children: A Research writing abilities are demonstrated in
Agenda 1997). Consequently, the foun the preschool classroom with such
dations focus on children’s engage activities as pretending to write and
ment in literacy activities in a way learning to write one’s name (White
that will furnish them with knowledge hurst and Lonigan 2001). According
about the roles and routines of reading to some theorists, children’s writing
and literacy activities they are likely to follows a developmental path. Initially,
experience when they enter school. children demonstrate a global form of
writing. They tend to treat writing from
Writing a pictographic perspective, which is
usually demonstrated by using draw
Writing Strategies. Learning to
ings as writing or using idiosyncratic
write involves cognitive, social, and
scribble (e.g., markings that have
physical development. From a very
meaning only for the child). Later,
young age, children notice the writing
children use letter-like forms to write,
in their surroundings. They begin to
usually making marks that resemble
develop the understanding that regular

88
characteristics of the real writing (e.g., Throughout this early stage of

longer words are represented by longer learning to write, children begin to
strings of letter-like symbols). In the realize that writing carries meaning;
next stage children start using actual people should be able to read what
letters to write, even when there is no you write (Clay 1977; Harste, Wood
connection between the true spelling ward, and Burke 1984; Kress 1994).
of what they want to write and what They also learn that people write
they produce (i.e., producing nonpho for different purposes (Ferreiro and
netic strings of letters) (Ferreiro and Teberosky 1982; Heath 1983; Schief
Teberosky 1982; Sulzby 1986, 1987). felin and Cochran-Smith 1984; Taylor
This stage is followed by a period and Dorsey-Gaines 1988; Teale 1987).
when children produce phonetic spell While research shows that children
ing, also called “invented spelling.” from different cultural and socioeco
Children use letter-like symbols to nomic backgrounds have different
represent the parts of words that they experiences with written language,
hear and attempt to match letters to it also shows that all children have
sounds or syllables, usually based on experienced written language and its
sound rather than on what is written purposes (McGee and Richgels 1990).
(Ferreiro and Teberosky 1982). For Finally, children have the physi
example, children may recognize that cal experience of actually writing
to write something requires more than and drawing, in which they begin to
one or two symbols, and they may also develop effective (or not so effective)
realize that the same symbols may ways of handling writing implements.
recur in different words and in differ While many children handle writing
ent places in the word (Ferreiro and implements efficiently, some children
Teberosky 1982; Temple and others need support in learning to do so.
1993), but they have not yet mastered Children who are still using scribbles
the alphabetic principle. Nonethe and have difficulty with the basic
less, several studies have shown that shapes (circle, square, triangle) would
invented spelling is an effective vehicle benefit from informal instruction in
through which many children begin to learning to make these shapes, since
understand the alphabetic principle they ease the transition to learning
(Clarke 1988; Ehri 1988; Torgesen and letters (Lesiak 1997).
Davis 1996).

89
Glossary
caregiver. An adult with responsibility for phonological awareness. The ability to

children in a family child care home, detect or manipulate the sound structure
or an adult who provides family, friend, of spoken words, independent of mean
or neighbor care ing (It is an increasingly sophisticated
contextualized language. Language used capability that is highly predictive of, and
to communicate about the “here and causally related to, children’s later ability
now,” or immediate situation, with a per to read.)
son who may share background knowl pragmatics. The system of social rules for
edge with the speaker and who is in the using language in different communica
same location as are the things, actions, tion contexts or situations (Pragmatics
or events the speaker describes (Such includes using language for different
cues as intonation, gestures, and facial purposes, such as greeting or request
expressions may support the meaning ing; changing language according to the
that contextualized language conveys.) needs of a listener or situation, such as
decontextualized language. Language, communicating differently to a baby than
such as that in story narratives, used to to an adult; or following conversational
provide novel information to a listener rules, such as taking turns, making eye
who may share limited background contact, or maintaining physical distance
knowledge with the speaker or who is during a conversation. These rules vary
not in the same location where the things among cultures.)
or events described are located productive language. The process of

early childhood setting. Any setting formulating and sending a message
outside the home in which preschool (communicating) using language (Speech
children receive education and care is one form of productive or expres
family caregiver. Mother, father, grand sive language. Other means to express
parent, or other adult raising the child language include using sign language,
at home pointing to words and pictures on a com
onset. The first consonant or consonant munication board, and producing written
cluster in a syllable (e.g., the h in the messages on a computer screen.)
one-syllable word hat, the m and k in the rime. Everything left in a syllable after the
two syllables in the word monkey) onset is removed; the vowel and coda of a
orally blend. To combine sound elements syllable (e.g., the at in the single-syllable
to make a word or syllable (e.g., combine word hat, the in in the single-syllable
the phonemes “k” “a” “t” to make the word in)
word cat) receptive language. The process of receiv
phoneme. The individual unit of meaning ing and understanding communication
ful sound in a word or syllable through language (Speech is one way
phonemic awareness. A subtype of pho to receive messages through language.
nological awareness (Phonological Other means to receive language are sign
awareness can refer to the detection or language, words and pictures on a com
manipulation of large and concrete units munication board, and written messages
of sounds, like words and syllables, or on a computer screen.)
smaller and abstract units of sound, like teacher. An adult with responsibility for
onsets, rimes, and phonemes. Phonemic the education and care of children in a
awareness specifically refers to the ability preschool program
to manipulate or detect the smallest units
of sound in the words, the phonemes.)

90
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FOUNDATIONS IN
English-Language
Development
C
alifornia is experiencing a dra content and curricular areas. For all
matic increase in the number children, the home language is the
of children from birth to five vehicle by which they are socialized
years of age whose home language is into their families and communities.
not English. Currently, one in four Children’s identity and sense of self
California students—25 percent—in are inextricably linked to the language
kindergarten through grade twelve are they speak and the culture in which
identified as English learners (Califor they have been socialized, which takes
nia Department of Education [CDE] place in a specific family context (Cra-
2006a, b). The term “English learners” go 1988; Johnston and Wong 2002;
refers to children whose first language Ochs and Schieffelin 1995; Vasquez,
is not English and encompasses chil Pease-Alvarez, and Shannon 1994).
dren learning English for the first time In addition, in most families, children
in the preschool setting as well as chil are first introduced to language and
dren who have developed various levels literacy in the home language, and
of English proficiency (Rivera and Col those experiences provide an impor
lum 2006). For the majority of these tant foundation for success in learning
children, Spanish is the home lan literacy in English (Durgunoglu and
guage, followed by Vietnamese, Can öney 2000; Jiménez, García, and Pear
tonese, Hmong, Tagalog, Korean, and son 1995; Lanauze and Snow 1989;
other languages (CDE 2006a). Whereas Lopez and Greenfield 2004).
25 percent of California children in Researchers have documented the
kindergarten through grade twelve are fragility of a child’s home language and
identified as English learners, English cultural practices when they do not
learners represent 39 percent of chil represent the mainstream or are not
dren in California between three and highly valued. Genesee, Paradis, and
five years of age (Children Now 2007). Crago (2004) caution that, “dual-lan
Given this reality, the development guage children are particularly at risk
of preschool learning foundations must for both cultural and linguistic identity
take into consideration how young displacement.” Loss of the home lan
children whose home language is guage may diminish parent-child
not English negotiate learning in all communication, reducing a parent’s

104
ability to transmit familial values, early literacy skills, such as concepts

beliefs, and understandings (Wong about print, phonological awareness,
Fillmore 1991b), all of which form an alphabet knowledge, and writing in
important part of a young child’s so alphabetic script (Cárdenas-Hagan,
cialization and identity. Regardless of Carlson, and Pollard-Durodola 2007;
which language or languages young Cisero and Royer 1995; Durgunoglu
children are exposed to at home, they 2002; Durgunoglu, Nagy, and Hancin-
have, at best, only partially mastered Bhatt 1993; Gottardo and others 2001;
the language when they enter the pre Mumtaz and Humphreys 2001).
school setting (Bialystok 2001). The ex Recent research suggests that the
tent to which a child’s home language development of two languages ben
and home culture can be included in efits the brain through the increase in
the preschool classroom as a resource density of brain tissue in areas related
impacts a child’s sense of self-efficacy to language, memory, and attention
and social and cognitive development (Mechelli and others 2004). Although
(Chang and others 2007; Duke and the brain structures of bilingual chil
Purcell-Gates 2003; Moll 1992; Riojas- dren and monolingual children are
Cortez 2001; Vygotsky and Education similar and process language in basi
1990). cally the same way, bilingual children
The development of language and lit have higher rates of engagement in
eracy skills in a child’s first language is particular parts of the brain (Kovel
important for the development of skills man, Baker, and Petitto 2006). This
in a second language and, therefore, increased brain activity may have long-
should be considered the first step in term positive effects (Bialystok, Craik,
the range of expectations for children and Ryan 2006). In addition, it is im
learning English as a second language portant to acknowledge the heteroge
(International Reading Association and neity of the English learner population
National Association for the Education and, in particular, the parameters of
of Young Children 1998). Learning by variation within the population, such
these children is not confined to one as the age of the child and the amount
language. Children who have the skills of exposure to the home language and
to understand and communicate in English; the relative dominance of each
their home language will transfer that language; and the similarities and dif
knowledge to their learning of a second ferences between the two languages.
language, resulting in a more effective These same parameters systematically
and efficient second-language learn affect the language and literacy devel
ing process (Cummins 1979; Wong opment of English learners (Childhood
ENGLISH-LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Fillmore 1991a). For example, building Bilingualism 2006).

Spanish-speaking children’s language The preschool learning foundations
skills in their first language directly in English-language development are
enhances their literacy development foundations in language and literacy
in English (Bialystok 2001; Child for preschool children whose home
hood Bilingualism 2006; Preventing language is not English. These founda
Reading Difficulties in Young Children tions for English learners are intended
1998). The transfer of knowledge ap for use with children who arrive at
plies to the structure of language and preschool functioning predominantly

105
in their home language, not English, Stires 2000). The first stage for young
and set the stage for further English- English learners occurs when they
language acquisition described within attempt to use their home language to
the foundations. These foundations communicate with teachers and peers
are organized to align with the content (Saville-Troike 1987; Tabors 1997).
categories of California’s English-lan During this stage, children gradually
guage development standards, which realize they are not being understood
cover kindergarten through grade and must adapt to their new language
twelve (K–12) and are divided into the environment.
following three categories: (1) listening Over time—for some children, a mat
and speaking; (2) reading; and (3) writ ter of days; for some, months—a shift
ing. As with the K–12 standards, the occurs, and the child begins to actively
preschool learning foundations in attend to the new language, observing
English-language development are and silently processing the features
designed to assist classroom teachers of the English language. This is con
in their understanding of children’s sidered the second stage (Ervin-Tripp
progress toward English-language pro 1974; Hakuta 1987, Itoh and Hatch
ficiency. They are meant to be used 1978; Tabors 1997). This observational
along with the language and literacy period is normal in second-language
foundations, not in place of them. The learners. The children are not shut
foundations can be demonstrated in ting down; rather, they are attending
a variety of settings, and children will to the language interactions occurring
often demonstrate their language abili around them. Typically, the child will
ties when engaged in authentic, natu attempt to communicate nonverbally,
ral, child-initiated activities. using gestures, facial expressions,
and often some vocalizations, such as
Stages of Sequential Bilingual crying or laughing.
Language Development The third stage occurs when the
child is ready to “go public” with the
Children entering a preschool pro
new language. The child typically
gram with little or no knowledge of
masters the rhythm and the intona
English typically move through several
tion of the second language as well as
stages on their journey to achieving
some key phrases, using telegraphic
success in the second language (Ta
and formulaic speech to communicate
bors 1997). Both the length of time the
(Tabors 1997; Wong Fillmore 1976).
child remains at a stage and the level
“Telegraphic speech” refers to the use
of expectation for second-language
of a few content words without func
learning depend on several impor
tional words or specific grammatical
tant characteristics of the child and
markers. For example, a child might
the child’s language environment. For
use one word combined with nonver
example, the age of a child may help
bal communication, intonation, facial
determine the child’s developmental
expressions, and so forth to commu
level, while the child’s temperament
nicate different ideas. So a child say
may influence her motivation to learn
ing, “Up!” while pointing at a plane in
a new language (Genesee, Paradis, and
the sky might mean, “Look, there’s a
Crago 2004; Genishi, Yung-Chan, and
plane!” or a child saying, “Up?” while

106
pointing to or otherwise indicating a (Bialystok 2001; Hakuta, Butler, and

toy on a shelf might mean, “Can you Witt 2000). In addition, the speed of
get me that toy? I can’t reach it.” acquisition is influenced by a broad
Formulaic speech is a related strategy range of factors (Snow 2006). There
that refers to children’s use of memo fore, for three- and four-year-old
rized chunks or phrases of language children, it is important to provide a
without completely understanding the continuum that moves them toward a
function of those phrases. Sometimes reasonable, and desirable, set of lan
children add new vocabulary as well. guage and literacy expectations that
For example, “I want ________,” is a can be achieved over the span of the
formula that allows for a host of possi one to two years that a child spends in
bilities: “I want play.” “I want doll.” the preschool classroom.
“I want go.” Children use such formu English learners will vary substan
las as a strategy to expand their tially in their acquisition of language
communication. competencies, depending on a num
In the fourth stage the child is in ber of background factors (i.e., the
troduced to new vocabulary words and degree of exposure to English outside
moves into the productive language the classroom, the individual child’s
stage, at which she is able to express motivation to acquire English, and so
herself by using her own words (Ta forth). Because of the wide range of
bors 1997). The child demonstrates a language capability found in children
general understanding of the rules of prior to their entering school (Ehrman,
English and is able to apply them more Leaver, and Oxford 2003), the use
accurately to achieve increasing con of developmental markers, such as
trol over the language. However, this “beginning,” “middle,” and “later,” are
does not mean that the child commu used to provide for a range of expecta
nicates as does a native speaker of the tions for performance. These mark
language. The child may mispronounce ers are used in the preschool learning
words as well as make errors in vocab foundations for English-language
ulary choice and grammar. Such errors development to designate a develop
are indicative of the typical process of mental progression for children who
learning a language (Genesee, Paradis, have made significant progress toward
and Crago 2004). acquisition of the home language
Movement through the four stages before beginning to acquire English
may take anywhere from six months (sequential bilingualism) (Genesee,
to two years, depending on the child Paradis, and Crago 2004).
and the quality of that child’s language The use of these terms should not
environment. The stages of second- be confused with the terms “early,”

language development should be con “middle,” and “later,” as used in the
sidered when determining expectations resource guide Preschool English
for individual children during their Learners: Principles and Practices to
preschool years. Promote Language, Literacy, and Learn
It should be noted that full fluency ing (2007) to describe typical phases of
(e.g., comprehension, expression, language development for children who
reading, and writing) in any language are monolingual speakers and children
takes anywhere from four to ten years who acquire two languages from birth

107
or sometime during the first year of life Beginning Level

(simultaneous bilingualism). This is when typically developing
children will have acquired age-
Structure of This Domain:
appropriate language skills in their
A Developmental Progression
home language and, once introduced
The continuum of “beginning,” to English, will begin to develop recep
“middle,” and “later” levels provides tive English abilities. Children at this
a framework for understanding chil level are actively processing the fea
dren’s second-language development tures of the English language, includ
in listening, speaking, reading, and ing vocabulary, grammar, phonology,
writing. The first and second stages of and pragmatics. Most children speak
sequential bilingual language develop little during this stage. They may be
ment are combined in the “beginning” able to listen, point, match, move,
level in this domain. Young English draw, copy, mime, act out, choose,
learners may demonstrate uneven respond with gestures, and follow pre
development across these foundations dictable routines. They will begin to
and may show higher levels of mastery develop an understanding of English
in certain areas than in others. For based on their home language. Fre
example, while children may be able to quently, children will spontaneously
understand certain words in the read use their home language even when
ing and writing areas, their productive not understood.
control over grammar, pronunciation,
Middle Level
and articulation in speaking may de
velop last. Related to this developmen Expressive language marks the mid
tal variability across particular founda dle level of early speech production in
tion domains is the rate of progression English. Children may repeat familiar
through the continuum of “beginning,” phrases that have been functionally
“middle,” and “later.” Progression effective, such as “lookit” or “Iwant”
through the continuum is highly con throughout the day. It is expected that
tingent on the quantity and quality of vocabulary use increases and that
language experience in both the home children will begin to combine words
and the classroom. Research on the and phrases in English. Comprehen
quality of preschool environments has sion will continue to develop, and
found that learning is influenced by a children will likely use telegraphic and
number of important classroom fac formulaic speech in English. At the
tors (Pianta and others 2005). Chief same time, they may continue to use
among them are the amount and type their home language and may insert ENGLISH-LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
of verbal input provided by teachers of words from their home language into
young children (Peisner-Feinberg and English-language utterances; this is
others 2001). Wong Fillmore and Snow known as code-switching and is a nor
(2000) point out that children need di mal part of second-language acquisi
rect and frequent interaction with indi tion. This period is analogous to the
viduals who know the second language third stage of sequential bilingualism.
very well and can provide the English
learner accurate feedback.

108
Later Level California preschool learning founda

Children at the later level in the tions. The foundations are not meant
continuum will have much stronger to be assessment items or a checklist
comprehension skills. Children will of behavioral indicators of the knowl
begin to use English to learn differ edge and skills that must be observed
ent concepts across the curriculum. before a teacher can decide that the
Their use of age-appropriate English competency is present. Children are
grammar improves. They use their first different from one another and will
and second languages to acquire new vary in the extent to which they dem
knowledge at home and at school. Al onstrate the behaviors described in the
though children are improving during examples.
this period, it should not be assumed Listening
that they have complete age-appropri
Children’s language development is
ate mastery of English; they are, how
based on active listening. For example,
ever, able to engage in a majority of
children’s receptive control precedes
classroom activities in English. Errors
their productive control of language.
in English usage are common at this
That is, they understand more than
point because children are continuing
they can produce at the onset of lan
to experiment with the new language
guage learning in both their home
and are still learning its rules and
language (or languages) and English.
structure.
When children understand, they
exhibit gestures, behaviors, and non
Categories of English-Language
verbal responses that indicate they
Development understand what they have heard.
The preschool learning foundations Listening and understanding in
in English-language development de English will depend on children’s re
scribe a typical developmental progres ceptive comprehension in their home
sion for preschool English learners language. In other words, children’s
in four general categories: listening, listening strategies in their home lan
speaking, reading, and writing. These guage will be applied to their strategies
foundations illustrate a developmental for learning English (Bialystok 2001).
progression for children who come to Overall, the development of early lit
preschool knowing very little, if any, eracy foundations is built on the devel
English. As children move through opment of active listening, the social
this progression, they are developing uses of language, and nonverbal
the underlying linguistic knowledge communication (Scott-Little, Kagan,
needed to learn from a curriculum and Frelow 2005).

that is taught in a language they are
Speaking
just learning, English. As such, these
foundations—especially the examples Within the classroom environment,
following each foundation—are intend daily routines and classroom rituals,
ed to provide guidance to adults who such as organized circle time or peer
are working to help preschool Eng to-peer interaction on the playground,
lish learners gain the knowledge and provide opportunities for English
skills necessary in all domains of the learners to use oral language in both

109
the home language and English (Geni 1978). For example, in Chinese there
shi, Stires, and Yung-Chan 2001). are no words that end with “-ing” as
Initially, children may use telegraphic compared to English. In Spanish,
and formulaic speech in English along the descriptive adjective is placed
with gestures, nonverbal behavior, after the noun, whereas in English the
and turn-taking. Then, the use of adjective is placed before the noun.
nonverbal communication, in com Furthermore, the development of oral
bination with elaborated verbal com language skills in a second language
munication, will mark their progress is closely tied to vocabulary expan
in learning a second language. When sion (Saunders and O’Brien 2006). In
speaking, children may code-switch; turn, English vocabulary development
that is, combine English with their plays an important role in support
home language to make themselves ing later English literacy development
understood. In fact, the vast major (August and others 2005). The produc
ity of instances of code-switching are tive vocabulary of English learners is
systematic and follow the grammatical typically composed of nouns; as time
rules of the two languages (Allen and passes, the vocabulary incorporates a
others 2002; Genesee and Sauve 2000; wider variety of words, such as action
Köppe [in press]; Lanza 1997; Meisel verbs, adjectives, and adverbs (Jia and
1994; Paradis, Nicoladis, and Genesee others 2006).
2000; Vihman 1998). It is important to note that differ
Asking questions, responding to ent languages possess different so
complex grammatical patterns, and cial conventions, or rules of how and
making commentaries are indicators when to use language, that reflect a
of later development. The creative use culture’s orientation toward the role of
of language and creative expression adults and children as conversational
through narrative also indicate a grow partners. In addition, social conven
ing sophistication of formal language tions guide a culture’s use of verbal
use. Research has found that narrative and nonverbal communication strate
skills developed in the first language gies (Rogoff 2003). Therefore, social
transfer to the second language (Miller conventions influence such things as
and others 2006; Pearson 2002; a child’s expectations to initiate dur
Uccelli and Paez 2007). Young Eng ing conversation, the amount of talk
lish learners can distinguish between considered appropriate, and when and
their home language and the language how to ask questions or interrupt
used in the classroom, and this may during conversation (Cultural Diversity
be demonstrated by the children’s use and Early Education 1994; Genishi, ENGLISH-LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
of either the home language or Eng Stires, and Yung-Chan 2001). In ad
lish when responding to their peers dition, the narrative structure of dis
and teachers. It should be noted that course may vary in different cultures
the development of grammatical se and language groups. In U.S. class
quences varies among the different rooms, narrative discourse focuses
language populations, and this may primarily on the communication of
influence their development of gram information; in other cultures and lan
mar in English (Childhood Bilingualism guage groups, oral narrative stresses
2006; Huang and Hatch 1978; Yoshida social engagement and the importance

110
of family interaction (Greenfield 1994; According to Scott-Little, Kagan, and

Heath 1983). Frelow (2005), early learning founda
tions in literacy should include book
Reading
awareness and story sense, literature
Reading in the preschool classroom awareness and comprehension, and
often begins as a social act that engag phonological and alphabetic aware
es children in a meaningful language ness.
exchange. Reading is learned on the
basis of need, purpose, and function. Writing
Children come to know the complexity Children come to know written lan
of the act of reading by being read to, guage from their perspectives, and
by reading with others, and by reading their conceptual interpretations are
by themselves (Espinosa and Burns developmental in nature (Clay 2001;
2003; Halliday 2006). This culture is Ferreiro and Teberosky 1982). For ex
rich with environmental print, such ample, children initially will begin to
as newspapers, books, and maga distinguish drawing from writing. Next
zines; television; and home products, they will progress to using facsimiles,
brand names, signs, and billboards. or imitations, of letter shapes and will
Increasingly, children may have access eventually use the symbols from their
to print in their home language and home language to represent meaning.
in English. Thus, children may enter Then they begin to use letters to repre
preschool with some knowledge of the sent meaning. These strings of letters
written symbol system of their home are the beginning of the alphabetic
language and its associations with real principles that govern alphabetic lan
life. Children’s oral language in both guages, such as English and Spanish.
their home language and English will Children’s knowledge of the written
facilitate their ability to tell and retell language is facilitated by their engage
stories. As their oral language devel ment with letters and practice in writ
ops, one of the first steps in reading ing their names on their own or with
is the development of an appreciation help from others (Handbook of Early
and enjoyment of reading. As children Literacy Research 2006). Children will
demonstrate an awareness that print come to know that writing is used for
carries meaning, they may begin to different functions, that it is associ
show progress in their knowledge of ated with oral language, that it names
the alphabet in English, phonological objects in their environments, that it is
awareness, and aspects of book han used to communicate ideas, and that
dling and book reading (Developing it is used creatively to express their
Literacy in Second-Language Learners feelings, experiences, and needs. In

2006; Handbook of Early Literacy Re the early childhood practice, the devel
search 2006). Parents can assist their opment of early literacy in writing be
children on the path to competency in gins with children understanding that
reading by reading to their children in the writing process is a mechanism
their home language as well as by pro to communicate their ideas, express
viding appropriate reading experiences themselves, and name objects in their
in English (Hammer, Miccio, and Wag- world (Scott-Little, Kagan, and Frelow
staff 2003; Tabors and Snow 2001). 2005).

111
Overall, the teacher plays a crucial opportunities will support children’s

role, providing opportunities for chil literacy development as well. The
dren to develop their oral language and teacher can also engage children in
literacy skills. For example, the teacher storybook reading, create a print-rich
can foster development in the area of environment, structure opportuni
listening and speaking through the ties to use writing for a variety of pur
use of questioning strategies, language poses, and provide other activities to
elaboration and feedback (Cazden further enhance literacy development
1988; Lyster and Ranta 1997), and (Dickinson and Tabors 2002; Espinosa
the facilitation of informal peer inter and Burns 2003; Genishi, Stires, and
actions with monolingual English- Yung-Chan 2001).
speaking peers (Tabors 1997). Those

112
Listening*
1.0 Children listen with understanding.
Focus: Beginning words
Beginning Middle Later
1.1 Attend to English oral 1.1 Demonstrate under 1.1 Begin to demonstrate
language in both real standing of words in an understanding of
and pretend activity, English for objects a larger set of words
relying on intonation, and actions as well as in English (for objects
facial expressions, or phrases encountered and actions, personal
the gestures of the frequently in both real pronouns, and pos
speaker. and pretend activity. sessives) in both real
and pretend activity.
Examples Examples Examples
• Listens attentively and nods • Upon hearing, “I’m finished” or • In response to the teacher
her head in response to the “Good-bye,” uses appropriate holding up a jacket and asking
teacher’s asking, “Is this your actions, such as waving good the child, “Does this belong to
coat, Samantha?” while hold bye to an English-speaking you? Or is it Lai’s jacket?” as
ing up a coat. peer who says “Good-bye!” the children are getting ready
• Looks at a cup and nods or as she leaves at the end of the to go outside, takes the jacket
smiles when another child day. and gives it to his friend.
says, “More milk?” during • Goes to the door when the • While playing with a dollhouse
snack time. teacher says, “outside time.” and props with an English-
• Pays attention to the teacher • Stands up and gets a toy speaking peer, puts the pants
during circle time, raising his monkey from the shelf while on the doll when the peer says,
hand when the teacher asks his peers sing “Five Little Mon “Put the pants on the doll.”
a question, but just looks and keys” during circle time. • In response to the teacher ask
smiles when called upon. • Reaches for a small carton of ing an open-ended question
• Focuses intently on English- milk when asked by another while holding up a photograph
speaking children while they child, “Pass the milk, please.” (e.g., “What could you do at
are playing with blocks, dolls, this park?”), runs in place or
puzzles, and so forth and hops.
conversing in English. • Responds by patting his chest
• Points to a picture of a dog and smiling when the teacher
on the page of a book when asks, “Whose hat is this?”
asked in English, “Where is (communicates possession)
the dog?” • During small group outdoor
play, responds to the teacher’s
input (“Throw the ball,” “Kick
the ball,” “Catch the ball”) with

appropriate actions.
* Any means available to the child for attending to and processing oral language information could be considered “listening.”
For example, a child might read lips or interpret facial expressions and other nonverbal gestures within the context of
spoken language to develop understanding. This pertains to all examples in the foundations related to listening, even if
attending to oral language is not explicitly stated.

Listening | 113

Focus: Requests and directions
1.2 Begin to follow simple 1.2 Respond appropri 1.2 Follow directions that
directions in English, ately to requests in involve a one- or
especially when there volving one step when two-step sequence,
are contextual cues. personally directed relying less on
by others, which may contextual cues.
occur with or without
contextual cues.
• Moves with other children • Cleans up in an activity center • Chooses a book and brings
to an activity area when the when the teacher says, “Alicia, it to the teacher when the
teacher ends morning circle it’s time to clean up.” teacher says, “Go get a book
time. • Sits by a peer when the peer and bring it to me. I’ll read it
• Responds appropriately to says, “Come sit here,” and with you.”
simple requests, such as “Pass points to a place on the carpet. • “Pours” something into a
the napkins” at snack time or • Nods her head “yes” and runs pot and stirs the “soup” in
“Pick up the crayon.” to pick up a truck when asked response to another child who
• Washes his hands after seeing by another child if she wants says, “Put some milk in the
others do so and in response to play with the trucks. soup. And stir, stir, stir,” while
to the teacher’s saying his in the kitchen area.
• Raises his hand when the
name and gesturing to wash teacher asks, “Who wants • Takes off her coat and places it
hands. more apple slices?” at snack in her cubby after the teacher
• Joins peers in line when she time. says, “It’s hot in here. Why
sees others do so during a don’t you take off your coat
• Participates in a “Simon Says” and put it in your cubby?”
practice emergency evacua game (e.g., jumps when the
tion drill. teacher says, “Simon says
jump!”).

114 | Listening

Focus: Basic and advanced concepts
1.3 Demonstrate an 1.3 Begin to demonstrate 1.3 Demonstrate an un

understanding of an understanding of derstanding of words
words related to basic words in English in English related to
and advanced con related to basic more advanced
cepts in the home concepts. concepts.
language that are
appropriate for the
age (as reported by
parents, teachers,
assistants, or others,
with the assistance
of an interpreter if
necessary).
• Tells his grandfather in Hmong • When the teacher says, “It’s • After looking for his favorite
at the end of the day about the your turn, Jorge. Go up the toy lion in the zoo animal
class trip to the petting zoo, stairs and go down the slide,” basket and not finding it,
talking about the baby animals, climbs the stairs and goes responds to the teacher’s sug
what they eat, what they like to down the slide. gestion, “It’s not on top. Look
do, and so forth (as heard by • Wearing a red T-shirt, leaves under the other animals,” by
the bilingual assistant). the circle for snack time in reaching down deeper in the
• During open house, tells her response to the teacher sing basket, finding the toy, and
older sister in Farsi how she ing, “All the kids who are wear smiling.
planted a seed that grew into a ing red, wearing red, wearing • Responds appropriately to the
plant, after which her parents red, all the kids who are wear directions, “First, wash your
share with the teacher, ”She’s ing red, can go have snack.” hands and then come to the
telling her sister Frough about • Passes several blocks to table,” at snack time.
her plant.” another child in response to • Brings the teacher the book
• Responds appropriately to that child communicating, from the previous day’s “read-
directions relating spatial con “Let’s use a lot of blocks for aloud” in response to the
cepts in the home language our castle! We need more!” teacher’s question, “Lai-Wan,
(e.g., can identify which ball is • Gives a peer the “big” baby can you bring me the book we
bigger when shown two balls). in response to the peer com read yesterday about fish?”
municating, “You have the little • Passes the bigger cup
baby. I want the big baby,” during water play when
while playing in the dramatic another child says, “Give me
play area. the bigger cup, please.”

• Communicates, “Ride bike,” in • Touches spilled juice and
response to the teacher asking, makes a face when a peer
“What happened before you says, “Ooh, it’s still sticky!”
fell down?”

115
Speaking*
1.0 Children use nonverbal and verbal strategies to communicate
with others.
Focus: Communication of needs
1.1 Use nonverbal com 1.1 Combine nonverbal 1.1 Show increasing
munication, such as and some verbal reliance on verbal
gestures or behaviors, communication to communication in
to seek attention, be understood by English to be under
request objects, or others (may code stood by others.
initiate a response switch—that is, use
from others. the home language
and English—and use
telegraphic and/or
formulaic speech).
• Uses gestures, such as extend • Says memorized phrases, such • Says, “Wanna wash my
ing the hand, pointing, tapping as, “Let’s go!” or “Come on!” hands,” after showing the
on a person’s shoulder, or an • Says in English and Spanish, teacher his fingers cov
intentional eye gaze, to get a “Want más! Más red paint!” ered with glue, to which
person’s attention. (Want more! More red paint!) the teacher has responded,
• Uses her home language to when she runs out of red while “What do you need?”
express her wants and needs. painting at an easel. • Communicates to another
• Looks at the teacher and indi • Says in English and Mandarin child, “Help me?” or “How do
cates or points to a toy she Chinese,† “Diana play you do that?” while trying to
wants that is on a shelf. ground or ” (Diana put a puzzle together.
• Cries or withdraws to show he wants to go to the playground • Communicates, “Move over.

is not sure how to express him or the zoo) when talking about Move over some more,” to
self effectively (e.g., communi weekend plans during circle another child who is sitting
cates discontent by grimacing time. next to him during circle time.
or whimpering when an Eng • Sings the routine song for an • Learns new, more abstract
lish-speaking peer picks up a activity (e.g., “Clean up, clean words, such as “busy,”
crayon the child was using and up, everybody clean up!”). “stinky,” or “grouchy,” from a
had put down on the table). • Pulls the teacher’s hand and story that has been repeated
• Uses props, photos, or draw communicates, “Come.” and is heard using that word.
ings that represent an item to • Begins to string together words • Communicates, “You have
indicate her needs. in English, such as “Me today to share,” when she wants ENGLISH-LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
yes,” and “Mama doctor.” a crayon another child is
holding.
* Any means available to the child for communicating could be considered “speaking” English (e.g., Signed Exact English,
American Sign Language, electronic communication devices). For some children, the home language may be a signed
language (e.g., signed Spanish).
†
For the English-language development foundation examples, all Chinese characters are written in the simplified writing
system used in mainland China.

116 | Speaking

with others.
Focus: Vocabulary production
1.2 Use vocabulary in the 1.2 Begin to use English 1.2 Use new English
home language that vocabulary, mainly vocabulary to share
is age-appropriate (as consisting of concrete knowledge of
reported by parents, nouns and with some concepts.
teachers, assistants, verbs and pronouns
or others and with the (telegraphic speech).
assistance of an inter
preter if necessary).
• As reported to the teacher by a • Mouths “tar” after peers • Communicates, “My mommy
parent or other family member, chorally say “star” when the had a baby. He cries, cries”
uses her home language to teacher points to a picture of when talking to a peer about
name familiar items at home a star during circle time and a new baby brother.
and make requests (with assis asks, “What is this?” • Says, “Bà [“Grandmother” in
tance of interpreter if neces • Says, “Me paint” and smiles Vietnamese], come see the
sary), such as, “Tengo hambre” in response to another child’s tadpoles! They have two legs
(I’m hungry) in Spanish. statement, “I like your paint now!” at the end of the day.
• Uses his home language ing.” • Communicates, “I’m sticky,”
appropriately with other chil • Names many animals featured to a peer during an art activity
dren in the dramatic play area in the book Brown Bear, Brown that requires the use of glue.
(as heard by the bilingual Bear, What Do You See? after
assistant). hearing it read aloud several
• Spontaneously uses her home times.
language during unstructured • Begins to refer to friends by
school activities. their first name.
• Interacts with ease while using • Names common objects aloud
his home language with his in English, such as “juice,”
parents during drop-off and “blocks,” and “music.”
pick-up times.

Speaking | 117

with others.
Focus: Conversation*
1.3 Converse in the home 1.3 Begin to converse 1.3 Sustain a conversa
language (as reported with others, using tion in English about
by parents, teachers, English vocabulary a variety of topics.
assistants, or others, but may code-switch
with the assistance (i.e., use the home
of an interpreter if language and English).
necessary).
• Communicates, as follows, • Says in English and Vietnam • Converses, as follows, with

with a peer in their home lan ese, “My dì [maternal aunt] a peer about their play situa
guage about the toys they gave me,” when a peer asks tion in the block area, where
have at home: Says, “I have a who has given the child a new they have built a bus, using
truck like this one,” to which backpack. large wooden blocks for seats:
the peer responds, “I have one, • Stays in the conversation with The peer says, “I want to be
too;” then asks “Is yours red?” an English speaker by using the driver;” to which the child
to which the peer responds, the words “huh” or “what” responds, “I want to sit here;”
“Yeah, mine is red.” and possibly combining those the peer says, “OK;” and the
• Describes what he did at words with matching gestures child smiles.
school in detail at home, and facial expressions. • While playing outside,
using his home language (as • Says in English and Span answers, “I jump and then
reported by a family member). ish, “Uh-oh! ¡Se cayó! [It fell] run fast. We play ball,” when
• Prefers to speak with teachers, Blocks!” after a block tower the teacher asks, “What are
peers, or other individuals who tumbles down, and another you doing with your friend?”
speak her home language. child responds, “Yeah, uh-oh, • Communicates, “No, I be
• After attempting to play with it fell down.” the daddy,” in response to a
others while using his home • Responds, “Mommy and me” peer who says, “You be the
language, observes them when a peer painting next to mommy,” while in the dramatic
quietly as they play and speak him asks, “What is that?” play area.
English. • Says, “Play sand,” to peer in • In response to the teacher,
sand play area after peer says, who asks during a family-
“I’m going to play in the sand.” style lunch, “What do you
want to eat?” communicates,
“Want juice and crackers and
banana,” then later communi
cates “Want more crackers.”
* Children with oral motor involvement who may have difficulty saying words or syllables as they learn to match, synthesize,
or analyze syllables and sounds may demonstrate their knowledge by indicating “yes” or “no” in response to an adult’s
production of sounds or words or by identifying pictures that represent the products of these manipulations.

118 | Speaking

with others.
Focus: Utterance length and complexity
1.4 Use a range of utter 1.4 Use two- and three- 1.4 Increase utterance
ance lengths in the word utterances length in English by
home language that in English to adding appropriate
is age-appropriate (as communicate. possessive pronouns
reported by parents, (e.g., his, her); con
teachers, assistants, junctions (e.g., and,
or others, with the or); or other elements
assistance of an inter (e.g., adjectives,
preter if necessary). adverbs).
• Communicates in Hmong, • Communicates, “Me book,” • Communicates, “I give it to

“I like to go to the park to play when she wants a particular her” or “I like the little one
on the slide and the swings.” book. better,” while pointing to dif
• Communicates in Tagalog, “We • Communicates, “No touch,” ferent props in the dramatic
went to the shops with grandfa when he does not want play area.
ther and we bought a cake. We anyone to touch his toy. • Communicates, “My dog got
had grandfather’s birthday and • Communicates, “I want juice” hurt. So I take him to the doc
there were lots of people.” or “I want crackers” or “I want tor,” while in the dramatic play
apples” during snack time. area.
• Communicates, “I do letter A,” • Communicates, “I went to the

while writing with markers at a park and had fun!”
table with other children.

Speaking | 119

with others.
Focus: Grammar
1.5 Use age-appropri 1.5 Begin to use some 1.5 Expand the use of
ate grammar in the English grammatical different forms of
home language (e.g., markers (e.g., -ing grammar in English
plurals; simple past or plural –s) and, at (e.g., plurals; simple
tense; use of subject, times, apply the rules past tense; use of
verb, object), some of grammar of the subject, verb and
times with errors home language to object), sometimes
(as reported by English. with errors.
parents, teachers,
with the assistance
necessary).
• Says in Spanish, “Yo fui a • Says in English, “I have two • Says, “I didn’t weared that,”
la tienda con mi mamá y mi friends.” while in the dramatic play area.
papá. Y compramos pan y • Says, “He leaving,” as a peer • Says, “She gave to me the
leche.” (I went to the store with puts his jacket on to leave with cookie,” at snack time.
my mom and my dad. And we his grandmother at the end of
bought bread and milk.) • Says, “My pants is red” in
the day. response to the teacher say
• Says in Spanish, “Yo sabo.” • Says, “There is two childrens,” ing, “The bear’s pants are blue.
(I know.) (This is a common while pointing at a picture she What color are your pants?”
mistake for Spanish-speak drew. while reading a book at circle
ing children, who often use time.
“sabo” for “sé” when learning • Says in Spanish and English,
to conjugate the verb “saber” “Yo quiero el truck red.” (“I • While gesturing toward a peer,
[to know]). want the truck red.”) (In Span says, “Sarah don’t want to
ish, the descriptive adjective is play blocks,” in response to
• Says in Mandarin Chinese, usually placed after the noun it the teacher saying, “Why don’t
“ ” (Daddy is describes.) you build a tower with her?”
already gone to work) to a peer
in the dramatic play area (as • Responds, “We’re playing
reported by a bilingual assis house,” when another child
tant). asks, “What are you doing?”

120 | Speaking

with others.
Focus: Inquiry
1.6 Ask a variety of types 1.6 Begin to use “what” 1.6 Begin to use “what,”
of questions (e.g., and “why” questions “why,” “how,”
“what,” “why,” “how,” in English, sometimes “when,” and “where”
“when,” and “where”) with errors. questions in more
in the home language complete forms in
(as reported by English, sometimes
parents, teachers, with errors.
with the assistance
necessary.
• Asks in Mandarin Chinese, • Asks, “Why no?” after hearing • Says, “Why you did that?” to
a peer say, “I don’t want to go a peer who pours water from
(Can I go to play at auntie’s to the playground.” a pitcher at the water table.
house?) or • Asks, “What you doing?” as he • Says, “And what is for that?”
(Where approaches a group of children pointing to a cement truck
is the new toothbrush that you playing in the sand box. while on a walk in the neigh
bought with Daddy?), demon borhood.
strating the use of a variety of • Asks, “Why gone?” after notic
types of questions (as reported ing that the teacher is out for • Says, “How do you do this?”
by parents or others). the day. or “How do you make the
• Points to an item and asks, sun?” to a peer who is painting
• While going on a neighbor at the easel next to him.
hood walk, asks in Spanish, “What’s that?”
“¿Adónde vamos, maestra?” • Asks another child, “Where do
(Where are we going, teacher?) you put this?” while holding up
or “¿Por qué? ¿Por qué tengo a pair of rain boots.
que llevar mi chaqueta?” • Asks, “When do we go
(Why? Why do I have to bring home?” or “When mommy
my jacket?) to a teacher who coming?” toward the end of
understands the child’s home the school day.
language.

Speaking | 121
2.0 Children begin to understand and use social conventions

in English.
Focus: Social conventions
2.1 Use social conven 2.1 Demonstrate a 2.1 Appropriately use

tions of the home beginning under words and tone of
language (as reported standing of English voice associated
by teachers, parents, social conventions. with social conven
assistants, or others, tions in English.
with the assistance
necessary).
• If considered a sign of respect • Communicates “please” and • Says, “Close the door,” to a
in her culture, lowers gaze “thank you” during snack time peer while playing with doll-
when speaking with an adult. after observing other children house props; follows up with,
• If considered appropriate in his saying “please” to request “Pleeease!” if the peer does
culture, stands in close prox food and “thank you” when not respond.
imity to others when engaged receiving food. • Communicates, “Sorry” or
in conversation. • Communicates, “Hi!” or “Excuse me” when she bumps
• Uses the formal form of his “Hello!” to greet the teacher into a peer.
home language (e.g., Spanish, when arriving at school. • If another child gets hurt,
Korean, Japanese*) with unfa • Responds, “Thank you,” to asks, “Are you OK?” with a
miliar adults and familiar form a peer who has said, “That’s concerned tone of voice.
with relatives and friends. (In pretty,” while pointing to the • Uses the slang, idioms, and
Spanish the familiar form uses child’s painting. colloquialisms of peers, such
“Tú” and the formal form uses as, “I have to go potty.”
“Usted” and the correspond
ing verb form. A child would
say, “Buenos días, ¿Cómo
estás?” [Good morning, how
are you?] [informal] to a peer,
but to a teacher, “Buenos días,
¿Cómo está usted, maestra?”
[Good morning, how are you,
teacher?] [formal]. In Japa
nese, the formal uses “desu,”
and the informal does not use
it. A child says to a classmate,
“Ohayoo” [good morning] ENGLISH-LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
[informal] but to a teacher,
“Ohayoo gozaimasu” [good
morning] [formal].)
* In this example, Japanese is phonologically represented in written form using the English alphabet.

122 | Speaking
3.0 Children use language to create oral narratives about their

personal experiences.*
Focus: Narrative development
3.1 Create a narrative in 3.1 Begin to use English 3.1 Produce simple
the home language (as to talk about personal narratives in English
reported by parents, experiences; may that are real or
teachers, assistants, complete a narrative fictional.
or others, with the in the home language
assistance of an inter while using some
preter if necessary). English (i.e., code-
switching).
• Talks to other children in Span • Talks in English and Spanish • Dictates a story to the teacher,
ish about a family gathering: about what she saw on the gesturing with his hands, “The
“Vino mi abuelita. Y vino mi recent nature walk: “I see bird. pony was big. The pony flew.
tía. Y vino mi tío. Y comimos I see bug, y una mariposa Flew up into the sky. Really,
sopa. Y me quemé la boca. Y muy bonita. Y regresamos a really high!” after painting a
mi mami me dio hielo pa’ que la escuela.” (A butterfly, really pony sitting on a cloud.
no me doliera.” (My grandma pretty. And we went back to • Draws a lizard and tells the
came. And my aunt came. And school.) teacher about a lizard she
my uncle came. And we ate • Draws a picture of her family found outside, “I saw a lizard
soup. And I burned my mouth. and says in English and Viet outside. It was a baby lizard.
And my mom gave me some namese, “Bà (grandma), ba He didn’t have a tail. He ran
ice so it wouldn’t hurt) (as (dad), me (mom). We go park. away.”
reported by a parent). Lotta fun.” • Tells the teacher about a con
• Says in Mandarin Chinese, flict that came up while playing
“ “family” with two peers, “I was
” (So I went to the the mommy and Mai was the
airport, got on an airplane, and baby. I told her to sleep and be
visited grandma.) (as reported quiet. But she not listen. I got
by the bilingual assistant). mad at her.”
• Draws a picture and tells a
peer, “Look, the car goes fast.
And the bus goes fast. The
police say, ‘Stop!’”
* Producing narratives many vary at these ages for children who are communicating through sign language or other alternate
communication systems. Teachers can support all young children’s communication knowledge and skills by repeating and
extending what children communicate in conversations. Teachers can also provide opportunities for children to repeat or
tell stories as a way of encouraging them to produce narratives.

123
Reading
1.0 Children demonstrate an appreciation and enjoyment of reading
and literature.
Focus: Participate in read-aloud activity
1.1 Attend to an adult 1.1 Begin to participate 1.1 Participate in read

reading a short in reading activities, ing activities, using a
storybook written in using books written variety of genres that
the home language or in English when are written in English
a storybook written the language is (e.g., poetry, fairy
in English if the story predictable. tales, concept books,
has been read in the and informational
home language. books).
• Moves closer in an attempt • Responds with other children • Brings a stack of books to a
to see props as the teacher to questions in the text, using classroom volunteer and com
reviews the English vocabulary appropriate animal names municates, “First read Rain
before reading a story and during a class read-aloud of bow Fish, and then the ABC
then reads the story aloud. Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What farm book.”
• Attends to the story and Do You See? • Communicates, “Humpty
responds to questions when • Communicates, “honk, honk, Dumpty is my favorite! Read
a storybook written in her honk” when the teacher pauses that one after the egg book,
home language is read aloud after saying, “The horn on the OK?” during circle time.
in a small group by a visiting bus goes . . . ” while reading • Calls out, “I like that one! It
parent who speaks the home The Wheels on the Bus. has black and white,” point
language. • Counts “one, two, three, ing to the orca whale during a
• Looks at the teacher’s hand four” with the group when the read-aloud of a big book about
and pages in the book as teacher counts the number of whales.
teacher uses a mouse puppet strawberries illustrated on a • Role-plays a simple poem
during a read-aloud of a book page. about how plants grow outside
about mice. • Participates in choral response after hearing the poem during
• Points to familiar objects and when the teacher invites the circle time.
names them in the home lan children to participate in a • When the teacher asks, “What
guage while the teacher reads class read-aloud of There Was does the boy see?” during
aloud, in English, a book that an Old Lady Who Swallowed a a small group read-aloud,
she read aloud in the child’s Fly or The Three Little Pigs. responds, “a dog!” while
home language the day before. • Imitates the motions the pointing at a picture of a dog
• Responds in relation to the teacher makes to illustrate a on a page in the book.
teacher and peers during a story read aloud in English

big-book read-aloud at circle (e.g., pretends to run like the
time (e.g., laughs along with Gingerbread Man).
others).

124 | Reading
1.0 Children demonstrate an appreciation and enjoyment of reading

and literature.
Focus: Interest in books and reading
1.2 “Read” familiar books 1.2 Choose to “read” 1.2 Choose to “read”
written in the home familiar books written familiar books
language or in English in the home language written in English
when encouraged or in English with in with increasing
by others and, in the creasing independence independence and
home language, talk and, in the home talk about the books
about the books. language or in English, in English.
talk about the books.
• When playing in the block cor • Chooses a book about ani • Chooses a familiar book
ner with cars and trucks, finds mals to “read” with another in English, A Pocket for
a picture book on transporta child while playing “zoo” in the Corduroy, settles down again
tion in a basket and commu block area, pretends to be an on a pile of pillows, turns the
nicates in her home language, elephant, and says, “Look it. pages of the book, and says,
“Look! A big truck!” My big trunk.” “Look, bear want pocket.
• Looks on as a peer “reads,” • Selects a familiar book written Girl make pocket.”
then selects a book in her in the home language (e.g., Pío • Selects and “reads” a class
home language and sits next Peep) from the shelf without book about a recent walk in
to the peer to “read” too. help and sings the lyrics to a the neighborhood (with pho
• When asked by a bilingual song in Spanish and in English. tographs captioned in Eng
assistant, “What is your favorite • Chooses to “read” a book that lish) and, using English, talks
book?” picks up La oruga muy was read aloud by the teacher about the photographs.
hambrienta (The Very Hungry earlier the same day or on the
Caterpillar) and asks the assis previous day and talks with a
tant to read it to her. peer about the book in any
language.
• When building a block tower,
looks at a book about construc
tion after a teacher prompts,
“What a great tower! Do you
think you could find a building in
this book that looks like yours?”
to which he responds by talking
about the book in any language.

Reading | 125
2.0 Children show an increasing understanding of book reading.

Focus: Personal connections to the story
2.1 Begin to identify and 2.1 Describe their own 2.1 Begin to engage
relate to a story from experiences related in extended
their own life experi to the topic of the conversations
ences in the home story, using tele in English
language (as reported graphic and/or about stories.
by parents, teachers, formulaic speech
assistants, or others, in English.
with the assistance
of an interpreter
if necessary).
• Tells the teacher in Spanish • In response to hearing a book • After hearing Goodnight Moon,
how the story reminds her of about the zoo, starts her own talks about his own house,
an experience she has had: story with “Mommy zoo” leading to a conversation with
“Mi papá dice que yo soy su because her mother went on a the teacher about bedtime rou
princesa.” (My dad says that class trip to the zoo along with tines and where he lives.
I am his princess.) a small group and the teacher. • When the teacher asks, “Has
• Brings items from home to • Calls out during a read-aloud of anyone seen a train? What did
share that are related to a a story about the dentist, “Me it look like?” says, “I saw a
storybook read aloud the too! Me too!” while pointing at train. I saw a big train (empha
previous day. her mouth. sizing “big” and using hand
• Says to a peer in Vietnamese, • Communicates, “I love cereal— gestures). It was blue. I like
“ not hot,” after hearing the blue,” after a read-aloud of a
story Goldilocks and the Three storybook about a train ride.
” (I pet a dog, Bears.
Coco, just a little bit. After
that, I washed my hands with
soap.) during a read-aloud
of a big book about animals
(as reported by a bilingual
assistant or interpreter).

126 | Reading

Focus: Story structure
2.2 Retell a story in the 2.2 Retell a story using 2.2 Retell in English the
home language when the home language majority of a story
read or told a story in and some English read or told in
the home language when read or told a English.
(as reported by par story in English.
ents, teachers, assis
tants, or others, with
the assistance of an
interpreter if neces
sary).
• Begins to put the pictures of a • Says in Spanish and English, • Says, “First he go to the
simple story in sequence when “Se sentó en la silla de [she house . . . straw. Then the
told the beginning, middle, and sat in the chair of] Papa Bear, house . . . sticks . . . then the
end in the home language as and then Mama Bear, and then house . . . bricks” in a small
part of a small group activity Baby Bear” to a peer in the group conversation after a
with a bilingual assistant; retells dramatic play area. read-aloud.
the story in his home language. • Participates in a whole-class • Flips through the pages of a
• Says to her mother in Spanish reenactment of The Little Red picture book of Goldilocks
while looking at a book at the Hen, using such props as a and The Three Bears and
end of the day, “Primero, la flannel board or finger puppets; communicates, “Baby, Mama,
casa de paja se cayó, después retells some of story sequence Papa bear. Food is hot.
la casa de palo, y después la primarily in his home lan Go outside. . . . [continues
de ladrillo.” (First, the straw guage, using some key English through sequence] Girl see
house fell, next the stick house, phrases, such as, “‘Not I,’ said bear and she run. The end.”
and then the brick one.) the duck” or “Then I will.” (This is a story the teacher
has told on many occasions.)

Reading | 127
3.0 Children demonstrate an understanding of print conventions.

Focus: Book handling*
3.1 Begin to understand 3.1 Continue to develop 3.1 Demonstrate an

that books are read an understanding of understanding that
in a consistent man how to read a book, print in English is
ner (e.g., in English, sometimes applying organized from left to
pages are turned knowledge of print right, top to bottom,
from right to left and conventions from the and that pages are
the print is read from home language. turned from right to
top to bottom, left to left when a book is
right; this may vary in read.
other languages).
• Rotates and flips the book • Turns the pages of a book and • Turns an upside-down book
over until the picture of talks about illustrations in either right side up and says, “Let’s
George is right side up on English or his home language. start here,” when sitting and
the cover of Jorge el curioso • Turns the pages of a book, “reading” with a peer in a
(Curious George) and begins although not necessarily one at rocking chair.
to look at the book. a time, talking quietly to herself • Imitates the teacher reading
• A Cantonese-speaking child in Arabic; tracks the print with to children by sitting next to a
picks up a book, and flips the her finger, moving from top to peer, holding up a book written
pages from left to right, look bottom, right to left (the appro in English that has been read
ing at the pictures (the appro priate way to write and read in aloud several times; turns the
priate way to read a book in Arabic). pages and points to words,
Chinese). • During circle time, turns the tracking the print with her fin
page of a big book written in ger, moving from left to right
English in the appropriate direc and top to bottom.
tion when the teacher indicates • Communicates in Spanish,
it is time to turn the page. “Había una vez” (Once upon a
time) when looking at the first
page of a book, looks through
the book, and communicates,
“The end” when reaching the
last page.
* Some children may need assistance in holding a book or turning the pages, either through assistive technology or through
the help of an adult or peer. For example, a book can be mounted so it will not have to be held, and sturdy tabs can be
placed on the pages so they are easier to turn. Some children may need to have an adult or peer hold the book and turn
the pages. ENGLISH-LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

128 | Reading
4.0 Children demonstrate awareness that print carries meaning.

Focus: Environmental print
4.1 Begin to recognize 4.1 Recognize in the 4.1 Recognize in the

that symbols in the environment (class environment (class
environment (class room, community, or room, community, or
room, community, home) some familiar home) an increasing
or home) carry a symbols, words, and number of familiar
consistent meaning print labels in the symbols, words,
in the home language home language or and print labels
or in English. in English. in English.
• Sees the pedestrian-cross • Recognizes “stop” signs: • Takes a peer’s jacket from the
ing sign at a stoplight signal Communicates, “Stop!” when floor, finds the owner’s name
(showing a green hand) and seeing a stop sign while walk label on the cubby, and puts
communicates in his home ing home from school (as the jacket there.
language, “We can go, reported by parent); stops the • Moves toward the women’s
teacher!” while on a tricycle on the playground and bathroom, indicates or points
neighborhood walk. raises his hand to indicate at the sign on the door with
• During cleanup time, finds the “stop” when a peer holds up only the word “Women”
shelf with a big block picture a paper stop sign. labeled on it, and says, “This
label and puts big blocks on • Says in Spanish, “¡Mami, cóm one is for girls,” while visiting
the shelf or puts away musical prame pan dulce!” (Mommy, the public library.
instruments on the shelf that buy me a pastry) while pointing • Names the exit sign or the
has a label showing musical at the sign for a Mexican bakery signs for various areas, such
notes. that has a picture of a pastry. as “library area,” “science
• Recognizes logos for familiar • Recognizes the label and pic area,” and so forth.
grocery stores, restaurants, ture on a package and says, • Says, “Teacher, this is my
and so forth in the community “mac ’n cheese” in the kitchen book,” and puts her book in
(as reported by parents or play area. the trunk labeled “Show and
others). • Finds more spoons for snack Tell” as the children gather for
• Points to picture labels on a time in a drawer labeled with a sharing time on the rug.
chart representing daily class picture of spoons and the word
routines and communicates in “spoons.”
her home language, “book” • Recognizes her own printed
or “blocks.” name on signs in the classroom
(e.g., on a chart that lists how
children get to school or on a
label on her cubby).

Reading | 129
5.0 Children demonstrate progress in their knowledge

of the alphabet in English.
Focus: Letter awareness
5.1 Interact with mate 5.1 Begin to talk about the 5.1 Begin to demonstrate
rial representing the letters of the English understanding that
letters of the English alphabet while play the letters of the
alphabet. ing and interacting English alphabet are
with them; may code- symbols used
switch (use the home to make words.
language and English).
• Plays with alphabet puzzles or • Names individual letters while • Asks the teacher to write the
magnets with a peer. tracing them in the sand and word “tree” on his paper after
• Prints letters on paper, using says a friend’s name that starts drawing a tree.
alphabet stamps. with one of the letters. • Asks, “What letter, teacher?”
• Indicates or points at individual indicating or pointing at the
letters in an alphabet book in first letter of the first word in
English and communicates, the title of a big book during
“That’s my letter!” while point circle time.
ing at the letter “M,” the first • Indicates or points to words
letter in her name, Minh. under a drawing of the sun
• Communicates, “C, O, L” as and says, “That says ‘sun’”
she puts letters into the appro (even if the text says some
priate spaces in the alphabet thing else).
puzzle.
• Communicates, “A, B, C, D” to
a peer while indicating or point
ing to one of the piles of letters
in front of him on the table dur
ing a game of ABC Bingo.
• Says in Spanish, “Maestra, ‘T’
(says letter name in English)
es la mía. ¡Es mi nombre!”
(Teacher, ‘T’ is mine. It’s my
name.) while pointing at the first
letter of the name label for his
cubby (his name is Tomás). La

130 | Reading

Focus: Letter recognition
5.2 Begin to recognize the 5.2 Identify some letters 5.2 Identify ten or
first letter in their own of the alphabet in more letters of the
name or the character English. alphabet in English.
for their own name in
the home language
or English.
• Shows her parents her cubby • Recognizes several letters in • Identifies different letters of
and says in Spanish, “Mi nom his classmates’ names or in his friends’ names on a name
bre empieza con esta letra, parents’ names. chart.
la ‘m’.” (My name begins with • Identifies five letters on an • Names ten individual letters
this letter, ‘m’.) (The child’s alphabet poster when high as a friend writes them with
name is Manuela.) lighted by the teacher. chalk outside.
• Indicates or points to her name • When looking through an
label written in Mandarin “alphabet storybook” or
Chinese on her cubby and children’s illustrated alphabet
communicates to her parents book, names five or more
in Chinese, “That’s my name.” letters.

Reading | 131
6.0 Children demonstrate phonological awareness.

Focus: Rhyming
6.1 Listen attentively and 6.1 Begin to repeat or 6.1 Repeat, recite,
begin to participate in recite simple songs, produce, or initiate
simple songs, poems, poems, and finger simple songs, poems,
and finger plays that plays that emphasize and finger plays that
emphasize rhyme in rhyme in the home emphasize rhyme
the home language language or in in English.
or in English. English.
• Participates in a class chant • Sings some key words and • Produces a word that rhymes
of “Humpty Dumpty” or class perhaps makes some gestures with the target word during
sing-along of “Itsy Bitsy Spi for the Spanish-language chants, such as “Eddie spa
der” by making some gestures songs “Pimpón” or “Aserrín, ghetti” or “Ana banana.”
and smiling with peers. Aserrán” with a peer while • Participates in a class sing-
• Imitates a frog jumping into playing outside (as reported along of “Down by the Bay,”
water while listening to this by a bilingual assistant). repeating most of the song
rhyme in Mandarin Chinese: • Participates with a peer who and almost all of the rhym
“ is chanting “One, two buckle ing words in phrases (e.g.,
my shoe, three, four shut the “a whale with a polka-dot
” (One frog has one mouth, door . . . ” by joining in for the tail” and “a moose kissing a
two eyes, and four legs. It rhyming words, such as “two, goose”).
jumps into the water and shoe” and “four, door” and • Plays a word-matching game
makes a “splash” sound.) clapping while playing in the involving rhyming (e.g., “I say
(as reported by teachers, sandbox. no, you say go,” “I say boo,
parents, assistants, or others, • Participates in a class sing- you say too,” or “I say cat,
with the assistance of an along of “Twinkle, Twinkle you say rat”).
interpreter, if necessary). Little Star,” singing rhyming • Says, “Cindy. Bindy. They’re
words and key phrases (e.g., the same!” when talking to
“Twinkle, twinkle, little star” a peer about her own name
and “what you are,” but not (Bindy) and her peer’s name
the entire song). (Cindy).
• Says spontaneously to a
friend, “Mother and brother
sound the same—they rhyme!”
while in the dramatic play area.

132 | Reading

Focus: Onset (initial sound)
6.2 Listen attentively and 6.2 Begin to recognize 6.2 Recognize and
begin to participate in words that have a produce words that
simple songs, poems, similar onset (initial have a similar onset
and finger plays in sound) in the home (initial sound) in
the home language language or in Eng English.
or in English. lish, with support.
• Imitates motions in finger • During a read-aloud of a big • Says words that start with the
plays, following the teacher’s book about bugs, indicates or same sound as her own name
rhythm, such as “Los elefan points to a butterfly or a beetle (e.g., Sara, sock, scissors).
tes” (The Elephants) in Spanish on a page and says “butterfly” • Draws a picture of a cat and
or “This Is the Way We Wash or “beetle” in response to the tells a child, “That’s a cat.
Our Hands” in English. teacher asking, while pointing Cat is like me. Catalina.”
• Participates, using appropriate to the corresponding images,
“Which bugs start with the “b” • Generates words that start
gestures only, in a class sing- with the same initial sound
along of “Where Is Thumbkin?” letter sound? Butterfly, cater
pillar, or beetle?” during a word game while
or the Spanish version of the being pushed on a swing by
song “Pulgarcito.” • Cuts out pictures of things that the teacher; for example, “m”
• Listens to the “days of the begin with the “p” letter sound (letter sound) “mom, man, me,
week” song in English, clap for a class book on things that mine,” in response to teacher
ping along with peers when begin with the “p” letter sound. saying, “I’m thinking of a word
the current day of the week is The pictures include things that begins with “m” (letter
named. that begin with “p” letter sound sound); mouse begins with
in Spanish and English (e.g., “m” (letter sound); what else
• Sings along and uses some palo—stick, perro—dog,
gestures for a song in Vietnam begins with “m” (letter sound)?
pencil).
ese (as reported by parents,
teachers, assistants, or
others, with the assistance of
an interpreter if necessary):
“
” (There’s the
yellow butterfly. There’s the
yellow butterfly. Spreads its
wings. Spreads its wings.
Takes its flight to the sky. Takes

its flight to the sky. We con
template it. We contemplate it.)

Reading | 133

Focus: Sound differences in the home language and English
6.3 Attend to and manip 6.3 Begin to use words 6.3 Begin to orally
ulate different sounds in English with manipulate sounds
or tones in words in phonemes (individual (onsets, rimes, and
the home language units of meaningful phonemes) in words
(as reported by sound in a word or in English, with
parents, teachers, syllable) that are support.
assistants, or others, different from the
with the assistance home language.
necessary.)
• Repeats parts of tongue twist • Listens as the teacher sounds • Sings along with other children
ers in the home language, out words while writing a list during circle time to songs,
such as “Mi mamá me mima on chart paper; mouths letter such as “Willaby Wallaby Woo”
mucho” (My mom really pam sounds silently, imitating the or “Apples and Bananas,” that
pers me), as reported by the teacher. emphasize the oral manipula
grandmother, with the assis • Utters new words with English tion of sounds.
tance of an interpreter. (Using sounds that do not exist in • While pointing at her untied
tongue twisters is a common Mandarin Chinese or Korean, shoelaces, says, “Teacher,
practice in Spanish-speaking such as “uh oh” when seeing tie my shoes [saying “chüz”],
families.) a classmate spill juice or “yum please,” to which the teacher
• Recites parts of poems in the yum” when eating a favorite responds, “You want me to
home language, such as “ snack. tie your shoes?” emphasizing
• Participates in activities, such the “sh” in the word “shoes,”
as games and songs, that after which the child nods and
” (Little kitty goes to stress sounds in English (e.g., responds, “Yes, my shoes
school, when the teacher talks sings along to “The Ants Go [saying “shüz”].”
he goes to sleep. Words spo Marching” or “This Old Man”
ken by the teacher go into his with peers while marching
left ear, but soon come out of outside).
his right ear. Don’t you think
it’s really silly?) as reported by
the father. (Reciting poetry is a
common practice in Chinese-
speaking families.)
• Participates in the chant “Uno
dos tres cho-, Uno dos tres
co-, Uno dos tres la-, Uno dos ENGLISH-LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
tres te-. Cho-co-la-te, Cho-co
la-te, Bate, bate, chocolate!”
(One two three cho-, one two
three co-, one two three la-,
one two three te. Chocolate,
Chocolate, Whip, Whip the
chocolate!) as observed by the
teacher when an older sibling
picks up the child at the end
of the day. (This is a common
chant in Spanish that empha
sizes syllables.)

134
Writing
1.0 Children use writing to communicate their ideas.*
Focus: Writing as communication
1.1 Begin to understand 1.1 Begin to understand 1.1 Develop an increasing

that writing can that what is said in understanding that
be used to the home language what is said in English
communicate. or in English can be can be written down
written down and and read by others.
read by others.
• Makes marks (e.g., scribbles, • Asks the teacher to write in • Dictates a simple letter to his
draws lines) and, by gesturing, Spanish and English, “No se mother in English when he is
engages a peer to share her toca. [Don’t touch.] No touch,” very excited about something
writing. on a piece of paper to place in he was able to do.
• Communicates “rain, rain,” front of a block tower he has • Pointing to the top of a paint
in the home language while just finished building. ing she has just finished at the
painting spirals and then dots • Cuts a shape out of red paper easel, says to the teacher, “I’m
at the easel. that resembles a stop sign and done! Write my name here,
• Dictates, to a bilingual asks the teacher to write the OK?”
assistant, a simple letter in word “stop” on it so he can use • “Writes” on a paper after mak
Vietnamese addressed to his it outside when riding tricycles. ing a drawing, gives it to the
dì (maternal aunt). • While playing doctor, “writes” teacher, and requests, “Read
on a paper, hands it to a peer, my story.”
and communicates in Span • “Writes” while saying, “Eggs.
ish, “Necesitas esta medicina.” Milk. Ice Cream,” while playing
(You need this medicine.) restaurant in the kitchen play
area with other children.
* Some children may need assistance in emergent writing to communicate their ideas. Assistive technology may be used
to facilitate “writing.” This may be as simple as building up the width of a marker or pencil so it is easier to grasp or as
sophisticated as using a computer. Another possibility would be for an adult or peer to “write” for a child with motor
challenges, who would then agree or disagree by indicating “yes” or “no” (Preschool English Learners 2007).

Writing | 135
1.0 Children use writing to communicate their ideas.*

Focus: Writing to represent words or ideas
1.2 Begin to demonstrate 1.2 Begin to use marks or 1.2 Continue to develop
an awareness that symbols to represent writing by using
written language can spoken language in letters or letter-like
be in the home lan the home language marks to represent
guage or in English. or in English. their ideas in English.
• Makes scribbles of lines and • While pretend-writing with • Writes a grocery list in the
shapes that may resemble the crayons and paper, communi housekeeping center, using
home language. cates, “Teacher, this Korean.” forms that approximate letters
• Gestures to a bilingual poster • As a speaker of Ukranian, in English.
on the wall and asks a peer, writes marks with crayons on • Writes “blocks,” with some
“¿Es español o inglés?” (Is paper and communicates, errors, on a daily plan for cen
this Spanish or English?) “This like Mommy writes.” ter time while saying, “I am
• Says, “That says, ‘Chinese,’” • Writes marks from the bottom going to play with the blocks.”
in Cantonese while pointing to the top and from right to • Writes letter-like marks while
to a calendar with Chinese left on a paper and communi saying “lizard” after drawing
characters. cates in English and Mandarin a picture of a lizard for her
Chinese, “I write like my yí.” own page in a class book on
(maternal aunt). lizards.
• Writes marks that resemble
Chinese characters in his jour
nal next to a picture he has
drawn of a little boy with a man
and says, “Me. Daddy.”
* Some children may need assistance in emergent writing either through assistive technology or through the help of an adult.
Assistive technology (either low tech or high tech) may be as simple as building up the width of a marker or pencil so that
it is easier to grasp or it may be as sophisticated as using a computer. Another possibility would be for an adult or peer to
“write” for the child who would then approve or disapprove by indicating “yes” or “no.” (Preschool English Learners 2007)

136 | Writing
1.0 Children use writing to communicate their ideas.

Focus: Writing their name
1.3 Write marks to repre 1.3 Attempt to copy their 1.3 Write their first name
sent their own name own name in English on their own in Eng
in a way that may or in the writing lish nearly correctly,
resemble how it is system of their using letters of the
written in the home home language. English alphabet to
language. accurately represent
pronunciation in their
home language.
• Uses circles, lines, graphics, • Copies her name in English • Writes his name in English on
or figures that resemble the from her name card with some a painting, with some errors.
writing system for her home errors, using a whiteboard • While outside, writes his name
language to represent her own and markers. in English and then in Japa
name and communicates in • From a card with his name nese next to a self-portrait,
the home language, “That’s written in Korean by his with some errors, using
my name!” mother, copies his name in sidewalk chalk.
• “Writes” his name on a card he Korean at the bottom of a • Traces her name in English
has made for his parent and picture he wants to send to while drawing with crayons,
communicates his name in the his grandma, who does not then writes her name on
home language. speak English. her own.
• Makes marks in the sand and • Writes an approximation of
communicates in her home her name in Vietnamese on
language, “Teacher, this my the sign-in sheet when arriving
name.” at school and communicates,
“I’m here!”

137
Glossary
chunks. Short phrases used as units; expressive language. Other means to

patterned language acquired through express language include using sign
redundant use, such as refrains and language, pointing to words and pic
repetition phrases in stories tures on a communication board, and
code-switching. A normal part of second- producing written messages on a
language acquisition in which the child computer screen.)
combines English with the home receptive language. The process of receiv
language ing and understanding communication
English learner. Children whose first through language (Speech is one way
language is not English, encompassing to receive messages through language.
children learning English for the first Other means to receive language are
time in the preschool setting as well as sign language, words and pictures on a
children who have developed various communication board, and written
levels of English proficiency messages on a computer screen.)
formulaic speech. The use of memorized rime. Everything left in a syllable after the
chunks or phrases of language, without onset is removed; the vowel and coda of
a complete understanding of their func a syllable (e.g., the “at” in the single-
tion (e.g., the formula, “I want . . . ” syllable word “hat”; the “in” in the
allows for a host of possibilities, such single-syllable word “in”)
as “I want play,” “I want doll,” or “I want sequential bilingualism. The process of
go”) beginning to acquire English after mak
onset. The first consonant or consonant ing significant progress toward acquisi
cluster in a syllable (e.g., the “h” in the tion of the home language
one-syllable word “hat”; the “m” and “k” simultaneous bilingualism. The process
in the two syllables in the word “mon of acquiring two languages beginning at
key”) birth or sometime during the first year
orally blend. To combine sound elements of life
to make a word or syllable (e.g., combin social conventions. A culture’s rules for
ing the phonemes “k” “a” “t” to make the how and when to use language
word “cat”) telegraphic speech. The use of a few
phoneme. The individual unit of mean content words without functional words
ingful sound in a word or syllable or specific grammatical markers (e.g.,
phonological awareness. The ability one word combined with nonverbal
to detect or manipulate the sound communication, intonation, or facial
structure of spoken words, independent expressions to communicate different
of meaning. It is an increasingly ideas; saying, “up!” while pointing at a ENGLISH-LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
sophisticated capability that is highly plane in the sky to mean, “Look, there’s
predictive of, and causally related to, a plane!”)
children’s later ability to read utterance. Any speech sequence consist
productive language. The process of ing of one or more words preceded and
formulating and sending a message followed by silence. May be equivalent
(communicating) using language to a phrase or a sentence.
(Speech is one form of productive or

138
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FOUNDATIONS IN
Mathematics
T
he preschool learning founda place in everyday environments:
tions identify for teachers and through interactions, relationships,
other educational stakeholders activities, and play that are part of a
a set of behaviors in mathematics beneficial preschool experience. The
learning that are typical of children foundations are meant to describe what
who will be ready to learn what is is typically expected to be observed
expected of them in kindergarten. The from young children in their everyday
foundations provide age-appropriate contexts, under conditions appropriate
competencies expected for older three for healthy development, not as aspi
year-olds (i.e., at around 48 months rational expectations under the best
of age) and for older four-year-olds possible conditions. They are meant as
(i.e., at around 60 months of age). That guidelines and tools to support teach
is, the preschool learning foundations ing, not as a list of items to be taught
represent goals to be reached by the as isolated skills and not to be used for
time a three-year-old is just turning assessment.
four and a four-year-old is just turn Some mathematics foundations men
ing five. Focusing on the child’s tion specific expectations, using exact
readiness for school in the domain of numbers to describe a counting range
mathematics learning acknowledges (e.g., “up to three,” or “up to four”) at
that there must also be appropriate different ages or to set a minimum cri
social-emotional, cognitive, and lan terion for a particular area (e.g., “com
guage development as well as appro pare two groups of up to five objects”).
priate motivation. Many such comple However, some children may exhibit
mentary and mutually supporting competencies that go beyond the level
aspects of the child’s overall develop described in a particular foundation,
ment are addressed in the preschool while others may need more time to
learning foundations for other domains reach that level. The foundations are
(e.g., social-emotional development, meant to give teachers a general idea of
language and literacy, and English- what is typically expected from children
language development). at around 48 or 60 months of age and
These preschool learning founda are not intended to set limits on the
tions are designed with the assump way teachers support children’s learn
tion that children’s learning takes ing at different levels.

144
Children with special needs can surement and Geometry are two sepa
demonstrate mathematical knowledge rate strands rather than one combined
in various ways and do not necessar strand of Measurement and Geometry.
ily need to engage in motor behavior. Also, the preschool learning founda
For example, a child might indicate tions, unlike the K–12 mathematics
to an adult or another child where to content standards, do not include a
MATHEMATICS
place each object in a sorting task. Or separate strand for statistics, data
a child might ask a teacher to place analysis, and probability. The founda
objects in a particular order to make a tions for Patterning are included in the
repeating pattern. Children with visual strand for Algebra and Functions, along
impairments might be offered materi with the foundations for Classification.
als for counting, sorting, problem solv The numbering system for the
ing, and so forth that are easily dis mathematics foundations follows the
tinguishable by touch. Any means of same numbering system used in the
expression and engagement available California K–12 mathematics content
to the child should be encouraged. standards. The major divisions within
a strand are referred to as substrands
Organization of the and are numbered 1.0, 2.0, and so
Mathematics Foundations forth. Each substrand is divided into
a column for children “around 48
The California preschool learning
months of age” and a column for chil
foundations in mathematics cover five
dren “around 60 months of age” on
main developmental strands: Number
each page. The description for younger
Sense, Algebra and Functions (Classi
preschool children is different from
fication and Patterning), Measurement,
the one for older preschool children.
Geometry, and Mathematical Reason
The separate foundations are written
ing. These strands were identified
under their substrand column by age
after a careful review of research, the
range and are numbered sequentially.
Principles and Standards for School
Where a substrand is numbered 1.0,
Mathematics (NCTM 2000), and the
the foundations under the substrand
California mathematics content stan
would be 1.1, 1.2, and so forth, where
dards for kindergarten through grade
a substrand is numbered 2.0, the foun
twelve (K–12).
dations under the substrand would be
The preschool mathematics founda
2.1, 2.2, and so forth for both columns.
tions expand on the standards identi
Immediately below each foundation,
fied by the NCTM (2000) for the pre
a few examples are given. The examples
school age to include more detailed,
are meant to clarify the foundation
age-specific expectations in the key
by illustrating how the competency
mathematics content areas. In addi
described in the foundation might be
tion, the preschool foundations for
observed in the preschool environment.
mathematics are closely aligned with
They are not meant to be used as a
the California K–12 mathematics
checklist of the knowledge and skills
content standards, yet there are some
that a child must demonstrate before
particular differences in the organiza
the teacher can decide that a compe
tion of the mathematics strands. In the
tency is present.
preschool learning foundations, Mea

145
A developmental progression by age to,” “putting together,” “taking apart,”

range is articulated within each sub- “taking away,” and so forth. Preschool
strand. That is, the substrand descrip is the time when children learn to recite
tion and foundations for children at the numbers in order, recognize numer
around 60 months of age are written to als, and begin to incorporate the idea
indicate a higher level of development of one-to-one-correspondence and true
MATHEMATICS
than the foundations for children at counting. This is also a time when pre
around 48 months of age in that same school children begin to learn about
substrand. For some foundations, the cardinality, which is the concept of
change between 48- and 60-month knowing the last number named is the
old children is more pronounced than quantity of objects counted.
for other foundations. Although there
is a developmental progression from Algebra and Functions
around 48 months of age to around (Classification and Patterning)—
60 months of age within a substrand, sorting and classifying objects;
the order in which the strands are recognizing, extending, and
presented is not meant to indicate any creating patterns
sense of developmental progression
from strand to strand or from sub- Classification involves sorting, group
strand to substrand within a strand. ing, or categorizing objects according
At the end of the foundations, bib to established criteria. Analyzing, com
liographic notes provide a review of paring, and classifying objects provide
the research base for the foundations. a foundation for algebraic thinking.
Following the bibliographic notes, a list Although preschool children may not
of references for the entire set of math know how all the objects in a mixed set
ematics foundations is provided. Brief can be sorted or be able to say much
explanations of each strand are as about why some objects go together,
follows: they do begin to group like with like at
around 48 months of age and will do so
Number Sense—important aspects more completely at around 60 months
of counting, number relationships, of age. These foundations use the idea
and operations of sorting objects by some attribute.
The term “attribute” is used here to
Preschool children develop an initial indicate a property of objects, such
qualitative understanding of a quan as color or shape, that would be appar
tity of small groups of objects without ent to a preschooler and that the pre
actually counting the objects. This schooler could use as a basis for group
understanding is referred to as visually ing or sorting. A younger preschool
knowing or “subitizing.” It supports child is expected to show some sorting
the ability to compare small groups of of a group of objects, but not necessar
objects: to know if the groups are the ily do so completely or without errors.
same, if one group is larger (smaller), A young preschooler might sort farm
or which has more (fewer). Also devel animals but remove only the cows and
oping is the ability to approach simple leave the rest ungrouped, and there
arithmetic-like operations on groups may be a pig or two or a horse mixed
of objects with ideas such as “adding in. But an older preschool child might

146
make a group of all cows and a group activities, and encouraging the child’s
of all pigs and a group of all horses. attempts to create patterns.
This competency is the precursor to
many important mathematics abilities
Measurement—comparing and
that will come later (e.g., the logic of ordering objects by length,
what belongs in a set and what does weight, or capacity; precursors
of measurement
MATHEMATICS
not, grouping terms in an algebraic

expression, data analysis, and graph Measuring is assigning a number
ing). Sorting and grouping in preschool of units to some property, such as
will help prepare children for those length, area, or weight, of an object.
later steps. Researchers Seo and Gins- Although much more learning will
burg (2004) point out that preschool take place later as children become
children do not often spontaneously increasingly competent with core mea
choose to do sorting activities on their surement concepts, preschool is when
own. Therefore, sorting is an area in children gain many of the precursors
which teacher facilitation and model to this kind of understanding about
ing across a range of situations and comparing, ordering, and measuring
contexts is particularly important. The things. For example, young preschool
teacher should note that how a child children are becoming aware that
sorts depends on the situation and the objects can be compared by weight,
child’s perception of the activity. height, or length and use such words
Thinking about patterns is another as “heavier,” “taller,” or “longer” to
important precursor for learning math make comparisons. They begin to
ematics in general and for learning compare objects directly to find out
algebra in particular (Clements 2004a). which is heavier, taller, and so forth.
During the preschool years, children They can compare length by placing
develop their abilities to recognize, objects side by side and order three or
identify, and duplicate patterns and more objects by size. By the time chil
to extend and create simple repeating dren are around 60 months old, they
patterns. Although less research has develop the understanding that mea
been conducted for preschoolers in suring length involves repeating equal-
patterning than in other areas, such size units and counting the number
as numbers and counting, recent stud of units. They may start measuring
ies (Klein and Starkey 2004; Starkey, length by laying multiple copies of
Klein, and Wakelely 2004) provide same-size units end to end (Clements
information about the development of 2004a).
patterning skills. Children first learn
to identify the core unit in a repeat Geometry—properties of objects
ing pattern. Once they are able to (shape, size, position) and the
identify the initial unit of a pattern, relation of objects in space
they can extend a pattern by predict Geometry is a tool for understand
ing what comes next. Teacher facili ing relations among shapes and spatial
tation and modeling are particularly properties mathematically. Preschool
important in introducing the notion of children learn to recognize and name
patterns, extending it to more aspects two-dimensional shapes, such as a
of the child’s environment and daily circle, square, rectangle, triangle, and

147
other shapes. At first, they recognize that require them to adapt and change
geometric shapes by their overall holis their course of action. Although they
tic physical appearance. As they gain may not realize it, some situations
more experience comparing, sorting, call for mathematical reasoning—to
and analyzing shapes, children learn determine a quantity (e.g., how many
to attend to individual attributes and spoons?) or to reason geometrically
MATHEMATICS
characteristics of different shapes. (e.g., what shape will fit?). Other
Younger preschool children use shapes situations require general reasoning.
in isolation, while older preschool chil For preschoolers, when the context
dren use shapes to create images of is familiar and comfortable enough,
things they know and may combine a simple strategy may be applied to
shapes into new shapes (Clements solve an immediate problem—even
2004a, 2004b). In the early preschool something as simple as counting the
years, children also develop spatial number of objects held in the hand or
reasoning. They can visualize shapes carrying a block over to see if there
in different positions and learn to are others like it. A young preschool
describe the direction, distance, and child may begin this process by trying
location of objects in space. Teachers a strategy that is not always effective.
can facilitate children’s development An older preschool child may try sev
of geometry and spatial thinking by eral strategies, finally finding one that
offering many opportunities to explore works. The important point is that
attributes of different shapes and to both younger and older preschool
use vocabulary words about the posi children learn through reasoning
tion of objects in space. mathematically. As the above examples
suggest, encouraging young children
Mathematical Reasoning—using to engage in mathematical reasoning
mathematical thinking to solve is not only beneficial in itself, it also
problems in play and everyday opens the door to children’s explora
activities tion of the other mathematics foun
Children in preschool encounter sit dations, such as geometric shapes,
uations in play and everyday activities counting, and classification.

148
Number Sense*
1.0 Children begin to understand 1.0 Children expand their under

numbers and quantities in their standing of numbers and
everyday environment. quantities in their everyday
MATHEMATICS
environment.
1.1 Recite numbers in order to ten with 1.1 Recite numbers in order to twenty
increasing accuracy.† with increasing accuracy.†
Examples Examples
• Recites one to ten incompletely or with errors • Recites one to twenty incompletely or with errors
while playing (e.g., “one, two, three, four, five, (e.g., “one, two, three, four, five, . . . nine, ten,
seven, ten”). eleven, twelve, thirteen, fifteen , seventeen,
• Recites one to ten while walking. eighteen, twenty”).
• Recites one to ten while singing. • Chants one to twenty in order while swinging.
• Recites one to twenty to show her friend how high
she can count.
1.2 Begin to recognize and name 1.2 Recognize and know the name
a few written numerals. of some written numerals.
Examples Examples
• Communicates, “That’s a one,” when playing • Names some numerals found in books or during
with magnetic numerals. a game.
• Indicates or points to the numerals on a cube • Points to numerals in a number puzzle as the
and names, “three, two, five.” teacher names them.
• Identifies the numeral 3 on the page of the Five
Little Speckled Frogs book while sitting with a
teacher.
* Throughout these mathematics foundations many examples describe the child manipulating objects. Children with motor
impairments may need assistance from an adult or peer to manipulate objects in order to do things such as count, sort,
compare, order, measure, create patterns, or solve problems. A child might also use adaptive materials (e.g., large manipula
tives that are easy to grasp). Alternately, a child might demonstrate knowledge in these areas without directly manipulating
objects. For example, a child might direct a peer or teacher to place several objects in order from smallest to largest.
Children with visual impairments might be offered materials for counting, sorting, or problem solving that are easily distin
guishable by touch. Their engagement is also facilitated by using containers, trays, and so forth that contain their materials
and clearly define their work space.
†
Some children may not be able to count by either saying the numbers or signing them. Any means available to the child for
demonstrating knowledge of numbers in order should be encouraged. For example, a child may indicate or touch number
cards or might respond yes or no when an adult counts.

Number Sense | 149
1.3 Identify, without counting, the 1.3 Identify, without counting, the number
number of objects in a collection of of objects in a collection of up to four
up to three objects (i.e., subitize). objects (i.e., subitize).
Examples Examples
MATHEMATICS
• Perceives directly (visually, tactilely, or auditorily) • Perceives directly (visually, tactilely, or auditorily)
the number of objects in a small group without the number of objects in a small group without
needing to count them. needing to count them.
• Indicates or points to a pile of blocks and • Looks briefly at a picture of four frogs and immedi
communicates, “Three of them.” ately communicates the quantity four.
• Attends to the child next to her at snack time • During storytime, puts her hand on the picture
and communicates, “Clovey has two.” of four ladybugs and communicates, “Four lady
• Looks briefly at a picture with three cats and bugs.”
immediately communicates the quantity by • Correctly points out, “That’s three cars there.”
saying “three” or showing three fingers.
1.4 Count up to five objects, using 1.4 Count up to ten objects, using
one-to-one correspondence (one one-to-one correspondence
object for each number word) with (one object for each number word)
increasing accuracy.* with increasing accuracy.*
Examples Examples
• After building a block tower, counts the number • Indicates or points to a flower in the garden and
of blocks by pointing to the first block and com communicates, “one,” then points to another
municating “one,” then pointing to the next block flower and communicates, “two.” The child counts
and communicating “two.” The child counts up up to seven different flowers.
to five blocks. • Counts ten children by identifying them one by
• Indicates or points to each toy in a line while one during circle time.
communicating, “One, two, three, four, five.” • Counts the blocks in a pile, keeping track of which
blocks have already been counted.
• Counts out eight napkins in preparation for snack
time.
* Children with motor disabilities may need assistance manipulating objects in order to count them. Children may also
demonstrate knowledge of object counting by using eye-pointing or by counting while an adult or another child touches or
moves the objects.

150 | Number Sense
1.5 Use the number name of the last 1.5 Understand, when counting, that
object counted to answer the the number name of the last object
question, “How many . . . ?” counted represents the total
number of objects in the group
MATHEMATICS
(i.e., cardinality).
Examples Examples
• Counts the number of sticks in her hand, com • After giving away some bears, counts the
municating, “one, two, three, four, five.” The remaining bears to find out how many are left
teacher asks, “How many sticks do you have?” and communicates, “I now have six bears.”
and the child communicates “five.” • Lines up cars on a track and counts, then
• When asked, “How many cars do you have?” communicates, “My train has seven cars!”
counts, “one, two three, four” and communi • Counts dolls, “one, two, three, four” and
cates, “four.” communicates, “There are four dolls.”
• Counts the beads in her necklace, communicat • Counts her sticks and communicates, “I have
ing, “one, two, three, four, five, six.” A friend five,” when the teacher asks during an activity,
asks, “How many beads do you have?” and the “Does everyone have five sticks?”
child replies, “six.”
• Counts five apple slices and recognizes there is
one slice of apple for each of the five children
around the table.

Number Sense | 151

number relationships and standing of number relation
operations in their everyday ships and operations in their
environment. everyday environment.
MATHEMATICS
2.1 Compare visually (with or without 2.1 Compare, by counting or matching,
counting) two groups of objects that two groups of up to five objects and
are obviously equal or nonequal and communicate, “more,” “same as,”
communicate, “more” or “same.”* or “fewer” (or “less”).*
Examples Examples
• Examines two groups of counting bears, one • Counts the number of rocks he has and the num
with two bears and the other with six bears, ber a friend has and communicates, “Five and five,
and indicates or points to the group of six bears you have the same as me.”
when asked which group has more. • Compares a group of four bears to a group of five
• Communicates, “I want more—she’s got more bears and communicates, “This one has less.”
stamps than me” during a small group activity. • Counts her own sand toys, then counts a friend’s
• Communicates, “We have the same,” when and communicates, “You have more.”
referring to apple slices during snack time.
2.2 Understand that adding to (or taking 2.2 Understand that adding one or taking
away) one or more objects from a away one changes the number in a
group will increase (or decrease) the small group of objects by exactly one.
number of objects in the group.
Examples Examples
• Has three beads, takes another, and communi • Adds another car to a pile of five to have six, just
cates, “Now I have more beads.” like his friend.
• When the teacher adds more cats on the flannel • Removes one animal from a collection of eight
board, indicates that there are now more cats. animals and communicates, “She has seven now.”
• While playing bakery, communicates that after • Correctly predicts that if one more car is added to
selling some bagels there are now fewer bagels a group of four cars, there will be five.
in the bakery shop.
• Gives away two dolls and communicates that
now she has fewer.
*Comparison may be done visually, tactilely, or auditorily.

152 | Number Sense
2.3 Understand that putting two groups 2.3 Understand that putting two groups
of objects together will make a of objects together will make a bigger
bigger group. group and that a group of objects can
be taken apart into smaller groups.
MATHEMATICS
Examples Examples
• Combines his blocks with a pile of his friend’s • Refers to a collection of six balloons and com
blocks and communicates, “Now we have municates, “Three red balloons for me and three
more.” green ones for you.”
• Puts together crayons from two separate boxes • Indicates seven by holding up five fingers on one
to have more. hand and two fingers on another.
• Puts together the red bears and the yellow bears • Removes three (of five) ducks from the flannel
to have a bigger group of bears. board, communicating, “Three left, and only two
stay” when acting a story.
2.4 Solve simple addition and subtrac 2.4 Solve simple addition and subtrac
tion problems nonverbally (and often tion problems with a small number of
verbally) with a very small number of objects (sums up to 10), usually by
objects (sums up to 4 or 5). counting.
Examples Examples
• Recognizes that one ball together with another • During a small group activity, count oranges on
one makes a total of two balls. The child may the flannel board and communicate, “There are six
create a matching collection or say or indicate oranges.” The teacher puts one more orange on
“two.” the board and asks, “How many oranges do we
• Adds one car to a train with two cars and have now?” Some say seven; others first count,
indicates the total number of cars in train by “One, two three, four, five, six, seven” and then
showing three fingers. say seven.
• Recognizes that only two bananas are left after • Adds two more cups to a group of two, says that
giving away one of three bananas to a friend. there are four cups.
• Takes away one flower from a group of four • Takes two boats away from a group of five boats
flowers on the flannel board, while acting out and communicates, “One, two, three—three boats
a story, and communicates that only three left” while playing with friends.
flowers are left. • Watches a friend connect a train with three cars
to a second train with three cars. Counts the cars
and communicates, “Now our train has six cars.”
• Builds a stack of five blocks and adds two more
saying, “One, two, three, four, five, six, seven.
I have seven blocks now.”

153
Algebra and Functions

(Classification and Patterning)*
1.0 Children begin to sort 1.0 Children expand their
MATHEMATICS
and classify objects in their understanding of sorting
everyday environment. and classifying objects in their
everyday environment.
1.1 Sort and classify objects by one 1.1 Sort and classify objects by one or
attribute into two or more groups, more attributes, into two or more
with increasing accuracy. groups, with increasing accuracy
(e.g., may sort first by one attribute
and then by another attribute).†
Examples Examples
• Selects some red cars for himself and some • Sorts the large blue beads into one container and
green cars for his friend, leaving the rest of the the small red beads in another.
cars unsorted. • Puts black beans, red kidney beans, and pinto
• Chooses the blue plates from a variety of plates beans into separate bowls during a cooking
to set the table in the kitchen play area. activity.
• Sorts through laundry in the basket and takes • Arranges blocks on the shelf according to shape.
out all the socks. • Sorts a variety of animal photographs into two
• Places all the square tiles in one bucket and all groups: those that fly and those that swim.
the round tiles in another bucket. • Sorts buttons first by size and then each subgroup
• Attempts to arrange blocks by size and commu by color into muffin tin cups.
nicates, “I put all the big blocks here and all
the small ones there.”
†
Attributes include, but are not limited to, size, shape, or color.

154 | Algebra and Functions
2.0 Children begin to recognize 2.0 Children expand their

simple, repeating patterns.* understanding of simple,
repeating patterns.*
MATHEMATICS
2.1 Begin to identify or recognize a 2.1 Recognize and duplicate simple

simple repeating pattern. repeating patterns.
Examples Examples
• Recognizes a simple repeating pattern made • Fills in an item missing from a pattern (e.g., apple,
with interlocking cubes, such as yellow, green, pear, apple, pear), with guidance.
yellow, green. • Copies simple repeating patterns, using the same
• Sings, moves, or claps through part of a pattern kind of objects as the original pattern.
song (e.g., the teacher begins a “clap-pat-clap • Attempts to sing, sign, move, or clap through a
pat” pattern, and the child repeats with guid pattern song, trying to maintain the pattern.
ance).
• Anticipates a repeating pattern in a storybook,
with support.
2.2 Attempt to create a simple 2.2 Begin to extend and create simple
repeating pattern or participate repeating patterns.
in making one.
Examples Examples
• Puts together connecting blocks in alternating • Adds a red bead and then a blue bead in a
colors to form a repeating pattern, with guid red-blue-red-blue pattern to complete a bead
ance. necklace.
• Demonstrates a pattern of claps, signs, or • Alternates short and tall blocks to make a fence
movements, with guidance. around a farm.
• Lines up pretzel sticks and cheese slices to • Makes up a clapping or action pattern, “clap,
make patterns at snack time. clap, hop, hop” in rhythm to a song.
• Uses different materials such as buttons, beads,
or sequins to create patterns.
* A simple repeating pattern has two repeating elements. Examples are as follows: A-B-A-B (e.g., red-blue-red-blue);
A-A-B-B (e.g., dog-dog-cat-cat); A-B-B-A-B-B (e.g., clap-stomp-stomp-clap-stomp-stomp); and so forth.

155
Measurement*
1.0 Children begin to compare 1.0 Children expand their

and order objects. understanding of comparing,
ordering, and measuring
MATHEMATICS
objects.
1.1 Demonstrate awareness that 1.1 Compare two objects by length,

objects can be compared by length, weight, or capacity directly
weight, or capacity, by noting gross (e.g., putting objects side by side)
differences, using words such as or indirectly (e.g., using a third
bigger, longer, heavier, or taller, or object).
by placing objects side by side to
compare length.
Examples Examples
• Communicates, “I’m big like my daddy.” • Tries to determine if he is taller than another
• Communicates, “This one’s heavier” when child by standing next to the child.
choosing from a variety of beanbags in a basket. • Uses a balance scale to find out which of two
• Communicates, “He has more clay than me.” rocks is heavier.
• Communicates, “Mine is longer than yours” • Pours water into different size containers at the
when placing trains side by side to check which water table to find out which one holds more.
is longer. • Shows that the blue pencil is longer than the
• Builds a tower beside another child, attempting red pencil by placing them side by side.
to make her tower taller. • Compares the length of two tables by using a
string to represent the length of one table and
then laying the string against the second table.
• Uses a paper strip to mark the distance from knee
to foot and compares it to the distance
from elbow to fingertip.

156 | Measurement
1.2 Order three objects by size. 1.2 Order four or more objects by size.
Examples Examples
• Sets bowls by size in dramatic play area, the • Arranges four dolls from smallest to largest in
MATHEMATICS
biggest bowl for daddy bear, the medium bowl pretend play with dolls.
for mommy bear, and the smallest bowl for • In sandbox, lines up buckets by size, from the
baby bear. bucket that holds the most sand to one that holds
• Lines up three animal figures by size. the least.
• Attempts to arrange nesting cups or ring • On a playground, orders different kinds of balls
stackers in correct order by size. (e.g., beach ball, basketball, soccer ball, tennis
ball) by size.
1.3 Measure length using multiple

duplicates of the same-size
concrete units laid end to end.*
Examples
• Uses paper clips laid end to end to measure

the length of different size blocks, with adult
guidance.
• Measures the length of a rug by laying same-size
block units end to end and communicating, “The
rug is ten blocks long,” with adult guidance.
• Measures the length of a table using inch
“worms,” with adult guidance.
• Measures the distance from the reading area to
the block area by using meter sticks, with adult
guidance.
* A foundation for measurement is written only for children at around 60 months of age, because the development of the
ability to use same-size units to measure quantity typically occurs between 48 months and 60 months of age.

157
Geometry*
1.0 Children begin to identify and 1.0 Children identify and use
use common shapes in their a variety of shapes in their
everyday environment. everyday environment.
MATHEMATICS
1.1 Identify simple two-dimensional 1.1 Identify, describe, and construct a
shapes, such as a circle and variety of different shapes, including
square. variations of a circle, triangle, rect
angle, square, and other shapes.
Examples Examples
• When playing a matching game, communicates, • While playing the “I Spy the Shape” game,
“This is a circle.” communicates, “I see a circle—the clock.”
• While playing shape bingo, indicates or points Later, says, “I see a rectangle—the table.”
to the correct shape. • Correctly identifies shapes as the teacher calls
• Indicates a shape block and communicates, them out in a game of shape bingo.
“This is a square.” • Uses play dough to construct rectangles of
• Sorts shape manipulatives of varying sizes into different sizes and orientations.
different shape groups (e.g., points to the group • Sorts manipulatives of different sizes and orienta
of triangles and communicates, “Here are the tions by shape and explains why a particular shape
triangles: big, small, and very small triangles”). does or does not belong in a group.
• Tears paper shape and communicates, “Look!
A triangle” while making a collage.
1.2 Use individual shapes to represent 1.2 Combine different shapes to create
different elements of a picture a picture or design.
or design.
Examples Examples
• Uses a circle for a sun and a square for a house • Uses a variety of shapes to construct different
in a picture. parts of a building.
• Puts together a foam shape puzzle in which • Uses flannel pieces of different shapes to create
each shape is outlined. a design.
• Creates a design by putting shape tiles • Creates a house, from different shapes, using
together. a computer program.

158 | Geometry
2.0 Children begin to understand 2.0 Children expand their

positions in space. understanding of positions
in space.
MATHEMATICS
2.1 Identify positions of objects and 2.1 Identify positions of objects and
people in space, such as in/on/ people in space, including in/on/
under, up/down, and inside/outside. under, up/down, inside/outside,
beside/between, and in front/behind.
Examples Examples
• Goes under the table when the teacher commu • During a treasure hunt, gives or follows directions
nicates, “ Pick up the cup. It’s under the table.” to find something behind the doll bed or under
• Communicates to another child in the play the mat.
house, “Put the pan on the stove.” • Follows directions when asked by the teacher to
• Requests that another child put the balls inside stand in front of or behind another child.
the box. • Communicates, “Where’s my book?” A friend says,
• Looks up when the teacher says, “If you look “It’s over there on the table.” She finds the book.
up, you’ll see your coat.” • Follows along with the directions during a game
of “Simon Says” (e.g., “Put your hands in front of
your legs”).

159
Mathematical Reasoning*
1.0 Children use mathematical 1.0 Children expand the use of

thinking to solve problems mathematical thinking to solve
that arise in their everyday problems that arise in their
MATHEMATICS
1.1 Begin to apply simple mathematical 1.1 Identify and apply a variety of math
strategies to solve problems in their ematical strategies to solve problems
environment. in their environment.
Examples Examples
• Reconfigures blocks to build a balanced, tall • After placing plates and napkins around the snack
tower by placing the rectangular blocks at the table, recognizes that he needs one more napkin
bottom and triangular blocks at the top. for the last place and asks the teacher for another
• Asks for one more paintbrush so he can put one napkin.
brush in each paint cup while helping to set up • Following a discussion about the size of the room,
an easel for painting. works with other children to measure the length of
• Gives a friend two flowers and keeps two for the room using block units, lay blocks of the same
himself, so they both have the same number of size along the wall end to end, and count the
flowers. number of blocks.
• Compares the length of her shoe to her friend’s • Predicts the number of small balls in a closed box
shoe by placing them side by side to check who and then communicates, “Let’s count.”
has a longer shoe. • Has run out of long blocks to complete a road and
• Classifies objects according to whether they solves the problem by using two smaller blocks to
can roll or not. “fill in” for a longer block.
• Pours sand from a big bucket to a smaller • When in need of six cones to set up an obstacle
bucket and realizes that not all the sand can fit. course but having only four, communicates,
The child looks for a bigger bucket. “I need two more cones.”
• Sorts the animal figures into two groups, wild ani
mals for him and pets for his friend, when asked to
share the animal figures with a friend.

160
Bibliographic Notes
Number Sense of counting at different times and in

MATHEMATICS
different contexts. As they gain more

Research suggests that children experience, they start to connect and
start developing number sense in early coordinate these individual concepts
infancy (Feigenson, Dehaene, and and develop skill in counting with flu
Spelke 2004). Much of what preschool ency. The specific ways in which these
children know about number is closely different aspects of counting develop
related to and depends on their under depend largely on individual children
standing and mastery of counting and their experiences. Research, how
(Adding It Up 2001). Counting builds a ever, is in agreement that very young
foundation for children’s future under children (ages up to three) may be able
standing of mathematics, and this to handle small quantities first (groups
basic skill becomes the reference point of two to three), and as they grow
as children learn to manipulate larger older, they are more likely to be able to
quantities in the future. manage larger sets (by age five, groups
Children’s understanding of num of 10). Cardinality is typically devel
bers is initially qualitative, as they gain oped between the ages of three and
an understanding of “number-ness” four years (Fuson 1988). The preschool
(e.g., three-ness, four-ness) with small years are a critical time for children
quantities, using subitizing: visually to master the art of counting small
knowing “how many” are in a set with numbers of objects.
out actually counting them (Clements Young children’s understanding
2004a; Fuson 1988, 1992a). Counting of quantities and numbers is largely
is a natural activity for young children related to counting, as noted in the
as their everyday contexts often involve previous section. Another important
numbers and quantities, although it factor in children’s development of
requires them to have a sophisticated number sense is early experience with
set of skills based on many experi number operations (Adding It Up 2001;
ences to be able to count accurately. Clements 2004a; Hiebert and others
Literature suggests that the three 1997; Principles and Standards for
major basic building blocks for count School Mathematics 2000). Research
ing are learning of (1) the sequence of shows that counting and number
number words, (2) one-to-one corre operations are related and that chil
spondence, and (3) cardinality (know dren as young as three years are able
ing that the last number assigned to to understand simple visual number
the last object counted gives the total patterns that involve number opera
number in the set) (Adding It Up 2001; tions such as, “two fingers and two fin
Becker 1989; Clements 2004a; Fuson gers make four” (Fuson 1988, 1992a).
1988, 1992a, 1992b; Hiebert and When children enter elementary
others 1997; Sophian 1988). Children schools, much of their engagement
are likely to experience the aspects

161
with mathematics will be devoted to numbers is the beginning of an impor

learning how quantitative and logical tant development in mathematical
relationships work in the world, and reasoning. Learning the concept that
number operations hold a key to such groups or chunks of numbers make up
learning (Adding It Up 2001; Principles larger numbers supports the under
and Standards for School Mathematics standing of arithmetic operations. For
MATHEMATICS
2000). Although standard mathemati example, children’s emerging under
cal and abstract symbols (e.g., +, =) are standing of different ways the number
absent from those early experiences 10 can be decomposed into groups
with math operations, informal and (e.g., 5 + 5, 4 + 6) contributes to their
early mathematics experience becomes future learning of multidigit addition
the foundation for children’s later and subtraction (i.e., the operation of
learning in this area. Children gener making 10 and moving it to the next
ally use a diverse range of strategies to position to the left of a multidigit
make sense of mathematical situations number).
around them, and this diversity of
thinking usually becomes a feature of Algebra and Functions
their subsequent mathematical devel
During the preschool years chil
opment (Adding It Up 2001).
dren develop beginning algebraic con
Young children initially understand
cepts as they sort and classify objects,
a quantity as an aggregate of single
observe patterns in their environment,
units (Fuson 1988, 1992a, 1992b;
and begin to predict what comes next
Carpenter and Moser 1988; Hiebert
based on a recognized pattern. Sorting
and others 1997; Geary 1994). Thus,
items, classifying them, and working
when asked to combine two sets of
with patterns help children to bring
objects, they count the two different
order, organization, and predictability
sets starting from “one” to determine
to their world. Classification and the
the answer (the counting-all strategy);
analysis of patterns provide a foun
therefore, the development of num
dation for algebraic thinking as chil
ber operations is closely related to
dren develop the ability to recognize
the way they learn to count. As chil
relationships, form generalizations,
dren gain experiences, they gradually
and see the connection between com
develop more sophisticated methods
mon underlying structures (Principles
by abstracting the quantity of one of
and Standards for School Mathematics
the two groups (one of the addends)
2000; Clements 2004a).
and starting to count on (or count
Classification is the systematic
up, in subtraction) from that number.
arrangement of objects into groups
Children eventually become adept at
according to established criteria and
decomposing numbers into smaller
involves sorting, grouping, and cat
chunks for the purpose of adding and
egorizing. Classification is at the heart
subtracting, although this method is
of identifying what is invariant across
usually not formally taught in U.S.
groups of mathematical objects or
classrooms (Fuson, 1992a). Never
mathematical processes. Clements
theless, preschool children’s first expe
(2004a) suggests that analyzing, com
riences with the concept of decomposi
paring, and classifying objects help
tion of a number into smaller groups of

162
create new knowledge of objects and compared with counting, little is known
their relationships; in Developmental about young children’s knowledge of
Guidelines for Geometry, he recom patterns.
mends a classification activity in Patterns involve replication, comple
which four-year-olds match shapes to tion, prediction, extension, and descrip
identify congruent and noncongruent tion or generalization (Greenes 1999).
MATHEMATICS
two-dimensional shapes. Certainly, In preschool years, young children

identifying triangles from within a set gradually develop the concept of pat
of figures that include examples and terns that includes recognizing a pat
nonexamples of triangles is essentially tern, describing a pattern, creating a
a classification exercise. But classifica pattern, and extending a pattern. To
tion should not be reserved solely for understand a pattern, children should
work with shapes; rather, it should be be able to identify similarities and dif
included in young children’s math ferences among elements of a pattern,
ematical activities as it also facilitates note the number of elements in the
work with patterns and data analysis. repeatable group, identify when the
The developmental continuum for data first group of elements begins to repli
analysis starts with classification and cate itself, and make predictions about
counting and evolves into data repre the order of elements based on given
sentation (e.g., graphing). information.
Seo and Ginsburg (2004) were inter Klein and Starkey (2004) report that
ested in how frequently four- and young children experience difficulty
five-year-olds engaged in mathemati at the beginning of the year with a
cal activities during play. Interestingly fundamental property of repeating pat
enough, after studying 90 of these terns: identifying the core unit of the
children the researchers report that pattern. However, experiences can have
classification activities were the least a positive impact on young children’s
frequently occurring of the mathemati knowledge of duplication and extension
cal activities observed. Only 2 percent of patterns (Klein and Starkey 2004;
of the mathematical activities observed Starkey, Klein, and Wakeley 2004).
could be categorized as classification In a study about the kinds of mathe
activities. matical activities in which young
Patterns help children learn to find children engage during play, Seo and
order, cohesion, and predictability in Ginsburg (2004) found that four- and
seemingly disorganized situations. five-year-old children most often engage
The recognition and analysis of pat in “pattern and shape” activities, which
terns clearly provide a foundation for the authors describe as “. . . identifying
the development of algebraic think or creating patterns or shapes or
ing (Clements 2004a). Identifying and exploring geometric properties and
extending patterns are important pre relationships. For example, Jennie
school activities. For example, Gins- makes a bead necklace, putting plastic
burg, Inoue, and Seo (1999) report that beads into a string one by one. She
the detection, prediction, and creation uses only yellow and red beads for her
of patterns with shapes are the most necklace and makes a yellow-red color
frequent mathematical activities in pattern” (Seo and Ginsburg 2004, 94).
preschool. However,

163
These researchers provide some height, weight, volume, and nonphysi

evidence that young children, when cal quantities such as time, and tem
engaged in play, do generate their own perature (Smith 2001).
repeating patterns. In preschool set Measurement is one of the main
tings, teachers can encourage chil real-world applications of mathemat
dren to share their patterns created ics. Shaw and Blake (1998) note that
MATHEMATICS
with objects, bodies, and sounds in in children’s mathematics curricula,
relation to music, art, and movement measurement is an integration of
(Smith 2001). Although the cited work number operation and geometry in
is invaluable to the education of young everyday mathematical experiences.
children and the development of pre A typical developmental trajectory
school learning foundations, much involves children first learning to use
research remains to be done. words that represent quantities or
The developmental trajectory of magnitude of a certain attribute. Then,
patterns has been characterized as children begin to demonstrate an abil
evolving from three-year-old children’s ity to compare two objects directly
ability to identify repeating pattern and recognize equality or inequality.
to four-year-old children’s ability to For example, they may compare two
engage in pattern duplication and objects to determine which is longer
pattern extension (Klein and Starkey or heavier. After comparing two items,
2004). The perception of the initial unit children develop the ability to compare
plays a fundamental role in both the three or more objects and to order
duplication and extension of them by size (e.g. from shortest to lon
patterns. gest) or by other attributes. Finally,
children learn to measure, connecting
Measurement numbers to attributes of objects, such
as length, weight, amount, and area
Measurement is defined as a mathe
(Clements 2004a; Ginsburg, Inoue,
matical process that involves assigning
and Seo 1999).
numbers to a set of continuous quan
This theoretical sequence estab
tities (Clements and Stephen 2004).
lishes the basis for the measurement
Technically, measurement is a number
strand. Children’s familiarity with the
that indicates a comparison between
language required to describe mea
the attribute of the object being
surement relationships—such as lon
measured and the same attribute of
ger, taller, shorter, the same length,
a given unit of measure. To under
holds less, holds the same amount—is
stand the concept of measurement,
an important foundation for the con
children must be able to decide on the
cept of measurement (Greenes 1999)
attribute of objects to measure, select
that should be directly addressed in
the units to measure the attribute,
preschool and, thus, is incorporated as
and use measuring skills and tools to
part of the mathematics foundations
compare the units (Clements 2004a;
for children at around 48 months of
Van de Walle 2001). To accomplish
age. Young preschoolers learn to use
this task, children should understand
words that describe measurement rela
the different units that are assigned
tionships as they compare two objects
to physical quantities such as length,

164
directly to determine equality or “nonexamples” of a particular shape

inequality, and as they order three or (Clements 2004a). For example,
more objects by size. Older preschool children need to experience examples
children begin to make progress in of triangles that are not just isosce
reasoning about measuring quantities les triangles. They need to experience
with less dependence on perceptual triangles that are skewed—that is, a
MATHEMATICS
cues (Clements 2004a, Clements and triangle where the “top” is not “in the
Stephen 2004). Children start to com middle,” as in an isosceles triangle.
pare the length of objects, indirectly, They need also to experience triangles
using transitive reasoning, and to with a varying aspect ratio—the ratio
measure the length of objects often by of height to base. Without the opportu
using nonstandard units. They develop nity to experience a wide range of
the ability to think of the length of a triangles, children may come to
small unit (i.e., a block) as part of the “expect” triangles to have an aspect
length of the object being measured ratio that is close to 1 and, conse
and to place the smaller unit repeat quently, often reject appropriate exam
edly along the length of the larger ples of triangles because they are too
object. “pointy” or too “flat.” In addition, chil
dren need to experience nonexamples
Geometry of triangles so that they can develop a
Geometry is the study of space and robust and explicit sense of the prop
shape (Clements 1999). Geometry erties of a triangle.
and spatial reasoning offer a way to In 1959, Van Hiele developed a hier
describe, interpret, and imagine the archy of ways of understanding spatial
world. They also provide an important ideas (Van Hiele 1986). The hierarchy
tool for the study of mathematics and consists of the following
science. The research literature shows levels: 1—Visualization, 2—Analysis,
that young children bring to kinder 3—Abstraction, 4—Deduction, and
garten a great deal of knowledge about 5—Rigor. Van Hiele’s theory has
shapes. This finding is important become the most influential fac
because teachers and curriculum tor in geometry curricula. Recently,
writers seem to underestimate the researchers have suggested a level of
knowledge about geometric figures that geometric thinking that exists before
students bring to school. This under the visual level: a “precognition” level
estimation and teachers’ lack of confi in which children cannot yet reliably
dence in their own geometry knowledge identify circles, triangles, and squares
usually result in teachers’ minimizing (Clements 2004b; Clements and others
the time dedicated to teaching geom 1999).
etry concepts to children (Clements Shape knowledge involves not only
2004a; Lehrer, Jenkins, and Osana recognition and naming but also an
1998). understanding of shape characteristics
The literature recommends that and properties. One way in which chil
young children be given the opportu dren demonstrate this understanding
nity to work with many varied exam is through their ability to put together
ples of a particular shape and many shapes into new shapes (Clements

165
2004a). The developmental trajec Children’s growth in understanding

tory for the composition of geometric and knowledge about shape and space
figures evolves as children begin to is thought to develop through educa
use shapes individually to represent tion and experience rather than merely
objects, progress to covering an outline through maturational factors. There
with shapes, and eventually be able fore, it is important not only to create
MATHEMATICS
to combine shapes without an outline a foundation for addressing this math
and make shape units (i.e., smaller ematics area, but also to encourage
shapes that make up a larger shape preschool programs to provide children
that is itself a part of a larger pic with plenty of rich and varied opportu
ture) (Clements 2004a; Clements and nities to engage with various aspects of
Sarama 2000). geometry. Engagement should be done
Developing a sense of space is as in such a way that it grounds young
important as developing spatial sense. children’s experiences with shapes
Spatial sense allows people to get in action. As a result, the preschool
around in the world and know the rel foundations tend to de-emphasize the
ative positions of artifacts in the physi “naming” of shapes in this foundation;
cal environment (Smith 2001). Spatial rather, they focus on children’s ability
reasoning involves location, direction, to identify shapes, whether verbally or
distance, and identification of objects nonverbally.
(Clements 1999). Very young children
do develop an initial spatial sense to Mathematical Reasoning
get around in the world. For example,
Mathematical proficiency entails
young preschoolers learn to navigate
strategic competence, adaptive rea
their way around their school and
soning, conceptual understanding,
classroom, and this ability suggests
productive disposition, and procedural
that they have created a mental map of
fluency (Adding It Up 2001). Each of
those places. In the beginning stages
these competencies sets the founda
of spatial reasoning, children use their
tion for what is often called problem
own position as a point of reference for
solving or mathematical reasoning.
locating positions and orientations of
Most preschool children by at least
objects in space, such as in/out and
three years of age show that they can
above/below. Then, children develop
solve problems involving simple addi
the ability to relate positions of two
tion and subtraction, often by model
objects external to themselves or in
ing with real objects or thinking about
themselves such as in front/in back,
sets of objects. In a study by Huttenlo
forward/backward, near/far, close
cher, Jordan, and Levine (1994), pre
to/far from (Greenes 1999). There is
schoolers were presented with a set of
evidence that even preschool children
objects of a given size that were then
develop mapping skills. They can build
hidden in a box, followed by another
maps using familiar objects and as
set of objects that were also placed in
they get older, build imagery maps in
the box. The children were asked to
familiar classroom settings (Blaut and
produce a set of objects correspond
Stea 1974; Gouteux and Spelke 2004;
ing to the total number of objects
Rieser, Garing, and Young 1994).
contained in the box. The majority

166
of three-year-olds were able to solve solvers (Wason and Johnson-Laird

these types of problems when they 1972; Shannon 1999).
involved adding or subtracting a single Researchers indicate that four- and
item, but their performance decreased five-year-olds engage in advanced
rapidly as the size of the second set mathematical explorations spontane
increased. ously in their play (Ginsburg, Inoue,
MATHEMATICS
Preschoolers demonstrate the con and Seo 1999; Seo and Ginsburg
ceptual understanding and procedural 2004). In their everyday activities,
fluency necessary for them to solve young children spontaneously engage
simple word problems (Fuson 1992b). in a variety of mathematical explora
Simple word problems are thought tions and applications such as pattern
to be easier for preschool children to analysis, change and transforma
solve than number problems that are tion, comparison of magnitude, and
not cast in a context (Carpenter and estimations. Any logical thinking that
others 1993). All ages of problem- children exhibit to solve real-life prob
solvers are influenced by the context lems could potentially be considered
of the problem and tend to perform beginning mathematical reasoning.
better with more contextual informa For example, children distributing
tion (Wason and Johnson-Laird 1972; the same (or almost same) amount of
Shannon 1999). However, preschool snack to classmates or using strate
children tend to be more heavily influ gies to solve immediate situations in
enced by the context of the problem play are situations in which children
than do older children and adults, begin to demonstrate their ability to
thus limiting their ability to solve num solve mathematical problems. Thus,
ber problems that are not presented in it is crucial for teachers to be attuned
context. to the fact that mathematical reason
Alexander, White, and Daugherty ing happens all the time in children’s
(1997) propose three conditions for lives, and teachers would do well to
reasoning in young children: the chil use those occasions to nurture chil
dren must have a sufficient knowledge dren’s mathematical thinking skills.
base, the task must be understandable The examples illustrate the authentic
and motivating, and the context of the problems that occur in preschoolers’
task must be familiar and comfortable everyday activities and all the different
to the problem-solver. These conditions skills involved in mathematical reason
probably apply to all ages of problem- ing and problem solving.

167
Glossary
attribute. A property or characteristic of one-to-one correspondence. One and

an object or a person; attributes such only one number word is used for each
MATHEMATICS
as size, color, or shape would be appar object in the array of objects being
ent to a preschool child and would be counted
used in grouping or sorting simple repeating pattern. A pattern with
cardinality. The concept that the number two repeating elements: A-B-A-B, A-A
name applied to the last object counted B-B, A-B-B-A-B-B
represents the total number of objects subitize. The ability to quickly and accu
in the group (the quantity of objects rately determine the quantity of objects
counted) in a small group (of up to five objects)
classification. The sorting, grouping, or without actually counting the objects
categorizing of objects according to
established criteria
168
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APPENDIX
The Foundations
Self
1.0 Self-Awareness
1.1 Describe their physical characteristics, 1.1 Compare their characteristics with
behavior, and abilities positively. those of others and display a grow
ing awareness of their psychological
characteristics, such as thoughts
and feelings.
2.0 Self-Regulation
2.1 Need adult guidance in managing 2.1 Regulate their attention, thoughts,
their attention, feelings, and impulses feelings, and impulses more con
and show some effort at self-control. sistently, although adult guidance is
sometimes necessary.
3.0 Social and Emotional Understanding

3.1 Seek to understand people’s feelings 3.1 Begin to comprehend the mental and
and behavior, notice diversity psychological reasons people act as
in human characteristics, and are they do and how they contribute to
interested in how people are similar differences between people.
and different.
4.0 Empathy and Caring

4.1 Demonstrate concern for the needs 4.1 Respond to another’s distress and
of others and people in distress. needs with sympathetic caring and
are more likely to assist.
5.0 Initiative in Learning

5.1 Enjoy learning and are confident in 5.1 Take greater initiative in making new
their abilities to make new discoveries discoveries, identifying new solutions,
although may not persist at solving and persisting in trying to figure
difficult problems. things out.

174 | Social-Emotional Development
Social Interaction
1.0 Interactions with Familiar Adults

1.1 Interact with familiar adults comfort 1.1 Participate in longer and more
ably and competently, especially in reciprocal interactions with familiar
familiar settings. adults and take greater initiative in
social interaction.
2.0 Interactions with Peers

2.1 Interact easily with peers in shared 2.1 More actively and intentionally
activities that occasionally become cooperate with each other.
cooperative efforts.
2.2 Participate in simple sequences 2.2 Create more complex sequences of

of pretend play. pretend play that involve planning,
coordination of roles, and coopera
tion.
2.3 Seek assistance in resolving peer 2.3 Negotiate with each other, seeking
conflict, especially when disagree adult assistance when needed, and
ments have escalated into physical increasingly use words to respond to
aggression. conflict. Disagreements may be
expressed with verbal taunting in
addition to physical aggression.
3.0 Group Participation

3.1 Participate in group activities and are 3.1 Participate positively and coopera
beginning to understand and cooper tively as group members.
ate with social expectations, group
rules, and roles.
4.0 Cooperation and Responsibility

4.1 Seek to cooperate with adult instruc 4.1 Have growing capacities for self-
tions but their capacities for self- control and are motivated to cooper
control are limited, especially when ate in order to receive adult approval
they are frustrated or upset. and think approvingly of themselves.

Social-Emotional Development | 175
Relationships
1.0 Attachments to Parents

1.1 Seek security and support from their 1.1 Take greater initiative in seeking
primary family attachment figures. support from their primary family
attachment figures.
1.2 Contribute to maintaining positive 1.2 Contribute to positive mutual cooper

relationships with their primary family ation with their primary family attach
attachment figures. ment figures.
1.3 After experience with out-of-home 1.3 After experience with out-of-home
care, manage departures and separa care, comfortably depart from their
tions from primary family attachment primary family attachment figures.
figures with the teacher’s assistance. Also maintain well-being while apart
from primary family attachment
figures during the day.
2.0 Close Relationships with Teachers and Caregivers

2.1 Seek security and support from their 2.1 Take greater initiative in seeking the
primary teachers and caregivers. support of their primary teachers
and caregivers.
2.2 Contribute to maintaining positive 2.2 Contribute to positive mutual cooper

relationships with their primary ation with their primary teachers and
teachers and caregivers. caregivers.
3.0 Friendships
3.1 Choose to play with one or two 3.1 Friendships are more reciprocal,
special peers whom they identify as exclusive, and enduring.
friends.

176

Listening and Speaking
1.0 Language Use and Conventions
1.1 Use language to communicate with 1.1 Use language to communicate with
others in familiar social situations for others in both familiar and unfamiliar
a variety of basic purposes, including social situations for a variety of basic
describing, requesting, commenting, and advanced purposes, including
acknowledging, greeting, and reasoning, predicting, problem solv
rejecting. ing, and seeking new information.
1.2 Speak clearly enough to be under 1.2 Speak clearly enough to be understood
stood by familiar adults and children. by both familiar and unfamiliar adults
and children.
1.3 Use accepted language and style 1.3 Use accepted language and style
during communication with familiar during communication with both
adults and children. familiar and unfamiliar adults and
children.
1.4 Use language to construct short 1.4 Use language to construct extended
narratives that are real or fictional. narratives that are real or fictional.
2.0 Vocabulary
2.1 Understand and use accepted words 2.1 Understand and use an increasing
for objects, actions, and attributes variety and specificity of accepted
encountered frequently in both real words for objects, actions, and
and symbolic contexts. attributes encountered in both real
and symbolic contexts.
2.2 Understand and use accepted words 2.2 Understand and use accepted words
for categories of objects encountered for categories of objects encountered
and used frequently in everyday life. in everyday life.
2.3 Understand and use simple words 2.3 Understand and use both simple
that describe the relations between and complex words that describe the
objects. relations between objects.

Language and Literacy | 177
3.0 Grammar
3.1 Understand and use increasingly 3.1 Understand and use increasingly
complex and longer sentences, complex and longer sentences,
including sentences that combine including sentences that combine
two phrases or two to three two to three phrases or three to four
concepts to communicate ideas. concepts to communicate ideas.
3.2 Understand and typically use 3.2 Understand and typically use
age-appropriate grammar, including age-appropriate grammar, including
accepted word forms, such as accepted word forms, such as
subject-verb agreement, progressive subject-verb agreement, progres
tense, regular past tense, regular sive tense, regular and irregular past
plurals, pronouns, and possessives. tense, regular and irregular plurals,
pronouns, and possessives.
Reading
1.0 Concepts about Print

1.1 Begin to display appropriate 1.1 Display appropriate book-handling

book-handling behaviors and begin behaviors and knowledge of print
to recognize print conventions. conventions.
1.2 Recognize print as something that 1.2 Understand that print is something
can be read. that is read and has specific
meaning.
2.0 Phonological Awareness

2.1 Orally blend and delete words and
syllables without the support of
pictures or objects.
2.2 Orally blend the onsets, rimes, and

phonemes of words and orally delete
the onsets of words, with the support
of pictures or objects.

178 | Language and Literacy
3.0 Alphabetics and Word/Print Recognition

3.1 Recognize the first letter of own 3.1 Recognize own name or other
name. common words in print.
3.2 Match some letter names to their 3.2 Match more than half of uppercase
printed form. letter names and more than half of
lowercase letter names to their
printed form.
3.3 Begin to recognize that letters have

sounds.
4.0 Comprehension and Analysis of Age-Appropriate Text

4.1 Demonstrate knowledge of main 4.1 Demonstrate knowledge of details
characters or events in a familiar in a familiar story, including charac
story (e.g., who, what, where) through ters, events, and ordering of events
answering questions (e.g., recall through answering questions
and simple inferencing), retelling, (particularly summarizing, predicting,
reenacting, or creating artwork. and inferencing), retelling, reenacting,
or creating artwork.
4.2 Demonstrate knowledge from 4.2 Use information from informational

informational text through labeling, text in a variety of ways, including
describing, playing, or creating describing, relating, categorizing,
artwork. or comparing and contrasting.
5.0 Literacy Interest and Response

5.1 Demonstrate enjoyment of literacy and 5.1 Demonstrate, with increasing
literacy-related activities. independence, enjoyment of
literacy and literacy-related
activities.
5.2 Engage in routines associated with lit 5.2 Engage in more complex routines
eracy activities. associated with literacy activities.

Language and Literacy | 179
Writing
1.0 Writing Strategies

1.1 Experiment with grasp and body 1.1 Adjust grasp and body position
position using a variety of drawing for increased control in drawing
and writing tools. and writing.
1.2 Write using scribbles that are 1.2 Write letters or letter-like shapes to
different from pictures. represent words or ideas.
1.3 Write marks to represent own name. 1.3 Write first name nearly correctly.

180
Listening
Focus: Beginning words

1.1 Attend to English oral 1.1 Demonstrate under 1.1 Begin to demonstrate
language in both real standing of words in an understanding of
and pretend activity, English for objects a larger set of words
relying on intonation, and actions as well as in English (for objects
facial expressions, or phrases encountered and actions, personal
the gestures of the frequently in both real pronouns, and posses
speaker. and pretend activity. sives) in both real and
pretend activity.
Focus: Requests and directions

1.2 Begin to follow simple 1.2 Respond appropriately 1.2 Follow directions that
directions in English, to requests involving involve a one- or
especially when there one step when person two-step sequence,
are contextual cues. ally directed by others, relying less on
which may occur with contextual cues.
or without contextual
cues.
Focus: Basic and advanced concepts

1.3 Demonstrate an 1.3 Begin to demonstrate 1.3 Demonstrate an
understanding of an understanding understanding of
words related to basic of words in English words in English
and advanced con related to basic related to more
cepts in the home concepts. advanced concepts.
language that are
appropriate for the
age (as reported by
parents, teachers,
with the assistance
necessary).

English-Language Development | 181
Speaking
1.0 Children use nonverbal and verbal strategies

to communicate with others.
Focus: Communication of needs

1.1 Use nonverbal com 1.1 Combine nonver 1.1 Show increasing
munication, such as bal and some verbal reliance on verbal
gestures or behaviors, communication to communication in
to seek attention, be understood by English to be under
request objects, or others (may code stood by others.
initiate a response from switch—that is, use the
others. home language and
English—and use tele
graphic and/or
formulaic speech).
Focus: Vocabulary production

1.2 Use vocabulary in the 1.2 Begin to use English 1.2 Use new English
home language that vocabulary, mainly vocabulary to share
is age-appropriate (as consisting of concrete knowledge of
reported by parents, nouns and with some concepts.
teachers, assistants, verbs and pronouns
or others and with the (telegraphic speech).
assistance of an inter
preter if necessary).
Focus: Conversation
1.3 Converse in the home 1.3 Begin to converse with 1.3 Sustain a conversation
language (as reported others, using English in English about a
by parents, teachers, vocabulary but may variety of topics.
assistants, or others, code-switch (i.e., use
with the assistance the home language
of an interpreter if and English).
necessary).

182 | English-Language Development
1.0 Children use nonverbal and verbal strategies

to communicate with others.
Focus: Utterance length and complexity

1.4 Use a range of utter 1.4 Use two- and three 1.4 Increase utterance
ance lengths in the word utterances length in English by
home language that in English to adding appropriate
is age-appropriate (as communicate. possessive pronouns
reported by parents, (e.g., his, her); con
teachers, assistants, or junctions (e.g., and,
others, with the assis or); or other elements
tance of an interpreter (e.g., adjectives,
if necessary). adverbs).
Focus: Grammar
1.5 Use age-appropriate 1.5 Begin to use some 1.5 Expand the use of
grammar in the home English grammatical different forms of
language (e.g., plurals; markers (e.g., -ing or grammar in English
simple past tense; use plural –s) and, at times, (e.g., plurals; simple
of subject, verb, ob apply the rules of past tense; use of
ject), sometimes with grammar of the home subject, verb and
errors (as reported language to English. object), sometimes
by parents, teachers, with errors.
with the assistance of
an interpreter if neces
sary).
Focus: Inquiry
1.6 Ask a variety of types 1.6 Begin to use “what” 1.6 Begin to use “what,”
of questions (e.g., and “why” questions “why,” “how,” “when,”
“what,” “why,” “how,” in English, sometimes and “where” ques
“when,” and “where”) with errors. tions in more com
in the home language plete forms in English,
(as reported by par sometimes with errors.
ents, teachers, assis
tants, or others, with
the assistance of an
sary.

2.0 Children begin to understand and use social conventions

in English.
Focus: Social conventions

2.1 Use social conventions 2.1 Demonstrate a 2.1 Appropriately use

of the home language beginning under words and tone of
(as reported by standing of English voice associated
teachers, parents, social conventions. with social conven
assistants, or others, tions in English.
with the assistance
necessary).
3.0 Children use language to create oral narratives about their

personal experiences.
Focus: Narrative development

3.1 Create a narrative in 3.1 Begin to use English 3.1 Produce simple
the home language (as to talk about personal narratives in English
reported by parents, experiences; may that are real or
teachers, assistants, or complete a narrative fictional.
others, with the assis in the home language
tance of an interpreter while using some
if necessary). English (i.e., code
switching).

Reading
1.0 Children demonstrate an appreciation and enjoyment

of reading and literature.
Focus: Participate in read-aloud activity

1.1 Attend to an adult 1.1 Begin to participate 1.1 Participate in reading

reading a short in reading activities, activities, using a vari
storybook written in using books written ety of genres that are
the home language or in English when written in English
a storybook written in the language is (e.g., poetry, fairy
English if the story has predictable. tales, concept books,
been read in the home and informational
language. books).
Focus: Interest in books and reading

1.2 “Read” familiar books 1.2 Choose to “read” 1.2 Choose to “read”
written in the home familiar books written in familiar books
language or in Eng the home language or written in English
lish when encouraged in English with increas with increasing
by others and, in the ing independence independence and
home language, talk and, in the home talk about the books
about the books. language or in English, in English.
talk about the books.

Focus: Personal connections to the story

2.1 Begin to identify and 2.1 Describe their own 2.1 Begin to engage
relate to a story from experiences related in extended
their own life experi to the topic of the conversations
ences in the home story, using telegraphic in English
language (as reported and/or formulaic about stories.
by parents, teachers, speech in English.
with the assistance
of an interpreter
if necessary).
Focus: Story structure

2.2 Retell a story in the 2.2 Retell a story using 2.2 Retell in English the
home language when the home language majority of a story
read or told a story in and some English read or told in
the home language (as when read or told English.
reported by parents, a story in English.
teachers, assistants,
or others, with the
assistance of an
sary).
3.0 Children demonstrate an understanding of print conventions.
Focus: Book handling

3.1 Begin to understand 3.1 Continue to develop 3.1 Demonstrate an
that books are read in an understanding of understanding that
a consistent manner how to read a book, print in English is
(e.g., in English, pages sometimes applying organized from left
are turned from right knowledge of print to right, top to bot
to left and the print is conventions from the tom, and that pages
read from top to bot home language. are turned from right
tom, left to right; this to left when a book is
may vary in other read.
languages).

4.0 Children demonstrate awareness that print carries meaning.
Focus: Environmental print

4.1 Begin to recognize 4.1 Recognize in the 4.1 Recognize in the

that symbols in the environment (class environment (class
environment (class room, community, or room, community, or
room, community, or home) some familiar home) an increasing
home) carry a consis symbols, words, and number of familiar
tent meaning in the print labels in the home symbols, words, and
home language or language or in English. print labels in English.
in English.

Focus: Letter awareness

5.1 Interact with mate 5.1 Begin to talk about the 5.1 Begin to demonstrate
rial representing the letters of the English understanding that the
letters of the English alphabet while playing letters of the English
alphabet. and interacting with alphabet are symbols
them; may code-switch used to make words.
(use the home lan
guage and English).
Focus: Letter recognition

5.2 Begin to recognize the 5.2 Identify some letters 5.2 Identify ten or more
first letter in their own of the alphabet in letters of the alphabet
name or the character English. in English.
for their own name in
the home language
or English.

Focus: Rhyming
6.1 Listen attentively and 6.1 Begin to repeat or 6.1 Repeat, recite,
begin to participate in recite simple songs, produce, or initiate
simple songs, poems, poems, and finger simple songs, poems,
and finger plays that plays that emphasize and finger plays that
emphasize rhyme in rhyme in the home emphasize rhyme
the home language language or in English. in English.
or in English.
Focus: Onset (initial sound)

6.2 Listen attentively and 6.2 Begin to recognize 6.2 Recognize and
begin to participate in words that have a sim produce words that
simple songs, poems, ilar onset (initial sound) have a similar onset
and finger plays in in the home language (initial sound) in
the home language or in English, with English.
or in English. support.
Focus: Sound differences in the home language and English

6.3 Attend to and manipu 6.3 Begin to use words 6.3 Begin to orally
late different sounds in English with manipulate sounds
or tones in words in phonemes (individual (onsets, rimes, and
the home language units of meaningful phonemes) in words
(as reported by sound in a word or in English, with
parents, teachers, syllable) that are support.
assistants, or others, different from the
with the assistance of home language.
an interpreter if
necessary.)

Writing
1.0 Children use writing to communicate their ideas.
Focus: Writing as communication

1.1 Begin to understand 1.1 Begin to understand 1.1 Develop an increas

that writing can that what is said in ing understanding that
be used to the home language what is said in English
communicate. or in English can be can be written down
written down and and read by others.
read by others.
Focus: Writing to represent words or ideas

1.2 Begin to demonstrate 1.2 Begin to use marks or 1.2 Continue to develop
an awareness that symbols to represent writing by using
written language can spoken language in letters or letter-like
be in the home lan the home language marks to represent
guage or in English. or in English. their ideas in English.
Focus: Writing their name

1.3 Write marks to repre 1.3 Attempt to copy their 1.3 Write their first name
sent their own name own name in English on their own in English
in a way that may or in the writing nearly correctly, using
resemble how it is system of their letters of the English
written in the home home language. alphabet to accurately
language. represent pronuncia
tion in their home
language.

189
Mathematics
Number Sense

numbers and quantities in standing of numbers and
their everyday environment. quantities in their everyday
environment.
1.1 Recite numbers in order to ten with 1.1 Recite numbers in order to twenty
increasing accuracy. with increasing accuracy.
1.2 Begin to recognize and name 1.2 Recognize and know the name
a few written numerals. of some written numerals.
1.3 Identify, without counting, the 1.3 Identify, without counting, the number
number of objects in a collection of of objects in a collection of up to four
up to three objects (i.e., subitize). objects (i.e., subitize).
1.4 Count up to five objects, using 1.4 Count up to ten objects, using
one-to-one correspondence (one one-to-one correspondence
object for each number word) with (one object for each number word)
increasing accuracy. with increasing accuracy.
1.5 Use the number name of the last 1.5 Understand, when counting, that the
object counted to answer the number name of the last object counted
question, “How many . . . ?” represents the total number of
objects in the group (i.e., cardinality).

number relationships and standing of number relationships
operations in their everyday and operations in their everyday
environment. environment.
2.1 Compare visually (with or without 2.1 Compare, by counting or matching,

counting) two groups of objects that two groups of up to five objects and
are obviously equal or nonequal and communicate, “more,” “same as,”
communicate, “more” or “same.” or “fewer” (or “less”).
2.2 Understand that adding to (or taking 2.2 Understand that adding one or taking
away) one or more objects from a away one changes the number in a
group will increase (or decrease) the small group of objects by exactly one.
number of objects in the group.

190 | Mathematics
2.3 Understand that putting two groups 2.3 Understand that putting two groups
of objects together will make a of objects together will make a bigger
bigger group. group and that a group of objects can
be taken apart into smaller groups.
2.4 Solve simple addition and subtrac 2.4 Solve simple addition and subtrac
tion problems nonverbally (and often tion problems with a small number of
verbally) with a very small number of objects (sums up to 10), usually by
objects (sums up to 4 or 5). counting.
Algebra and Functions

(Classification and Patterning)
1.0 Children begin to sort 1.0 Children expand their under

and classify objects in their standing of sorting and
everyday environment. classifying objects in their
everyday environment.
1.1 Sort and classify objects by one 1.1 Sort and classify objects by one or
attribute into two or more groups, more attributes, into two or more
with increasing accuracy. groups, with increasing accuracy
(e.g., may sort first by one attribute
and then by another attribute).
2.0 Children begin to recognize 2.0 Children expand their

simple, repeating patterns. understanding of simple,
repeating patterns.
2.1 Begin to identify or recognize a 2.1 Recognize and duplicate simple

simple repeating pattern. repeating patterns.
2.2 Attempt to create a simple 2.2 Begin to extend and create simple
repeating pattern or participate repeating patterns.
in making one.

Mathematics | 191
Measurement
1.0 Children begin to compare 1.0 Children expand their under

and order objects. standing of comparing, ordering,
and measuring objects.
1.1 Demonstrate awareness that 1.1 Compare two objects by length,

objects can be compared by length, weight, or capacity directly
weight, or capacity, by noting gross (e.g., putting objects side by side)
differences, using words such as or indirectly (e.g., using a third
bigger, longer, heavier, or taller, or object).
by placing objects side by side to
compare length.
1.2 Order three objects by size. 1.2 Order four or more objects by size.
1.3 Measure length using multiple

duplicates of the same-size concrete
units laid end to end.
Geometry
1.0 Children begin to identify and 1.0 Children identify and use a variety
use common shapes in their of shapes in their everyday
everyday environment. environment.
1.1 Identify simple two-dimensional 1.1 Identify, describe, and construct a vari
shapes, such as a circle and ety of different shapes, including varia
square. tions of a circle, triangle, rectangle,
square, and other shapes.
1.2 Use individual shapes to represent 1.2 Combine different shapes to create
different elements of a picture a picture or design.
or design.

positions in space. standing of positions in space.
2.1 Identify positions of objects and 2.1 Identify positions of objects and people
people in space, such as in/on/ in space, including in/on/under, up/
under, up/down, and inside/outside. down, inside/outside, beside/between,
and in front/behind.

192 | Mathematics
Mathematical Reasoning
1.0 Children use mathematical 1.0 Children expand the use of

thinking to solve problems mathematical thinking to solve
that arise in their everyday problems that arise in their
1.1 Begin to apply simple mathematical 1.1 Identify and apply a variety of math
strategies to solve problems in their ematical strategies to solve problems
environment. in their environment.

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California

Language and Literacy

The California Preschool Learning Foundations (Volume 1) was

© 2008 by the California Department of Education

A Message from the State Superintendent

Language and Literacy

Appendix: The Foundations

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 iii

State Superintendent of Public

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 

foundations was guided by a research

Berkeley English-Language Development

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 ii

Expanded Research Consortia Rena Hallam, University of Tennessee,

Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 • California Department of Education

English-Language Development Aki Murata, Mills College and Stanford

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1

Early Childhood Education California Tomorrow

Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 • California Department of Education

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 xi

of domains, the term “foundations” Overview of the Foundations

practice. It is anticipated that teach­

ers, administrators, parents, and poli­

cymakers will use the foundations as

a springboard to augment efforts to

Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 • California Department of Education

recognition, comprehension and ask questions, use social conven­

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1

and recognizing and understand­ The DRDP-R gives teachers a means

Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 • California Department of Education

tions incorporate a concept known as inclusive of any language and any

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1

Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 • California Department of Education

as foundations for children “at around social-emotional competencies as

60 months of age,” respectively. In competencies required for success

focusing on the social and emotional in school.

foundations of school readiness, a

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 

greater challenges to healthy develop­ 60 months of age will find themselves

Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 • California Department of Education

SOCI AL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1

Likewise, these foundations must well-designed preschool environment.

experience, such as shared conversa­ and emotional development

tion, warm nurturance, and guided in early childhood.

assistance in learning capacities for

Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 • California Department of Education

SOCI AL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1

Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 • California Department of Education

SOCI AL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1

3.0 Social and Emotional Understanding

Children are interested in people’s feelings Children have a better understanding of

Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 • California Department of Education

SOCI AL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1

5.0 Initiative in Learning

Children become engaged in learning Children are self­confident learners who

Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 • California Department of Education

SOCI AL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1

2.0 Interactions with Peers

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1 ii

practice. It is anticipated that teach

ers, administrators, parents, and poli

recognition, comprehension and ask questions, use social conven

and recognizing and understand The DRDP-R gives teachers a means

California Department of Education • Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 1

greater challenges to healthy develop 60 months of age will find themselves

experience, such as shared conversa and emotional development

Children become engaged in learning Children are selfconfident learners who

memory development and self-aware and emotional self-control to learn

way in which successful peer relation years later.

approaches to learning. Children’s class family caregiver. A mother, father,

Aboud, Frances E. 2005. “The Develop Young Children’s School Adjustment: