CHAPTER 1

AMBIENT
TEMPERATURE
PROCESSING
BY DR. NOR ZANARIAH SAFIEI

1
CHAPTER OUTLINE

1.1 Size reduction

1.2 Mixing
1.3 Separation
1.4 Irradiation
1.5 Fermentation
 1.1 SIZE REDUCTION

The concept of size reduction is to reduce the size of

raw materials by applying forces.
Common techniques: blending, shearing, grating,
cutting, slicing, grinding, chopping, dicing, flaking, milling,
beating and etc.
Various type of equipment are available however the
usage is depends on the input materials and purpose
of the process.
 1.1 SIZE REDUCTION

What is the meaning of size reduction?

• Size refers to physical dimension of an object.
• Reduction refers to decrement or the process of
decreasing the size.
• Operation carried out for reducing the size of
the bigger particles into smaller one of desired
size and shape with the help of external forces.
 MECHANISM

1) Shear (cutting or cleaving) : cutting particles into 2 by

sharp blades. Eg rotary knife cutters/granulator
2) Attrition : Rubbing action between two particles or a
particle and a surface in an opposing parallel motion. Eg
attrition mills
3) Compression
All types of cutting equipment requires blades to be forced
through the food with as little resistance as possible. Blades
must be kept sharp, to both minimise the force needed to cut
the food and to reduce cell rupture and consequent product
damage.
 1.1 SIZE REDUCTION

Why size reduction is important?

• Aids the extraction of a desired constituents
from raw material, e.g flour from wheat grains
and juice from sugar cane.
• Increases surface area of the solid and
increases the rates of many processes.
 SIZE REDUCTION

3 TYPES OF FORCES:
• 1) Compressive force : Crushing hard materials such as nuts in roller
crushers
• 2) Impact force : hammer mills for coarse, medium and fine grinding
operations.
• 3) shear or attrition force : used for grinding of softer, non-abrasive
materials.

• The characteristics of the feed material (mechanical structure,

hardness, toughness, abrasiveness, stickiness) decide the nature of
forces and the type of equipment used.
 SIZE REDUCTION

• Many food raw materials have a fibrous structure as well as

appreciable amounts of liquid (e.g. fruits, vegetables and
meat). Size reduction of such material is achieved by impact
and shear forces.
• Common techniques: Slicing, dicing, shredding, pulping.
• Various type of equipment are available however the usage
is depends on the input materials and purpose of the
process.
 SIZE REDUCTION
is accomplished via MILLS for dry foods (cereals,
grains) typically via compression and/or shear force
application
Example: roller milling Feed

Two or more steel rollers revolve towards

each other and pull particles of food
through the nip (the space between
rollers).
The main force is compression, but if the
rollers are rotated at different speeds,
there is and additional shear force exerted
on the food
Size of the nip is adjustable for different
foods
Product

MURANO FSTC 311

 1.2 MIXING

Mixing (or blending) is a fundamental unit in most food industries. which

is used to increase homogeneity by reducing non-uniformity or gradients
in composition of two or more components.

Mixing of liquids. solids and/or gases has very wide applications: e.g. to
combine ingredients; prepare syrups and brines; and dissolve or disperse
materials.

The operation has no preservative effect and is intended solely as a

processing aid to achieve different functional properties or sensory
characteristics.
 SOLID MIXING

The degree of mixing (dry powders or particulate solids) that can be achieved depends
on:
 the relative particle size, shape and density of each component.
 the moisture content. surface characteristics and now characteristics of each
component
 the tendency of the particles to aggregate;
 the efficiency of a particular mixer for mixing those components.
In general, materials that are similar in size. shape and density are able to form a more
uniform mixture than are dissimilar materials.
#not possible to achieve completely uniform mixture.
 LIQUID MIXING

The component velocities induced by a mixer in low-viscosity

liquids are as follows;

1) Longitudinal velocity (parallel to the mixer shaft)

2) Rotational velocity (tangential to mixer shaft)
3) Radial velocity that acts in a direction perpendicular to the
mixer shaft.
LOW VISCOSITY LIQUIDS MIXER
LOW OR MEDIUM VISCOSITY LIQUIDS
MIXER
POWDER-LIQUID MIXER
Mixer is also used for distribution of heat homogenously
(multi purpose processing vessel “MPPV” or conventional
pasteurizer).
 1.3 SEPARATION

• The main purpose is to separate input materials based on size, shape,

density, charge etc
• Fundamental for preparation of ingredients to be used in other
processes (e.g. cooking oils from oil seeds or gelation from gelatin
tissue)
• Some of the technique used the concept of centrifugal:-
1. Cream separator in milk industry (cream-skim). Skim is non fat
milk will be retained while cream will be removed due to less
density.
 1.4 IRRADIATION

• Food irradiation is a cold, non-chemical process that

exposes food to ionizing radiation that can penetrate food
to kill, or prevent reproduction of microorganism,insects
and pests.
o The ray damages the bonds in the DNA molecules, causing
disruption in the genetic makeup of microbes beyond its
ability to repair.

o The target organism ceases all the process of maturation

and reproduction.
• Maximum average dosage of 20 kGy “presents no
toxicological hazard and no special nutritional or
microbiological problems in foods”.
 KILLING EFFECT : Exists in form of waves.

 Shorter wavelength = greater energy

 Light, radio, microwave, television = long wavelength, low energy

cannot alter structure of an atom.

 Shorter wavelengths have enough energy to “knock off” an electron

to form a “free radical”.

 Interaction between free radicals and DNA responsible for “killing

effect” of irradiation.
Main advantages of irradiation:

Little or no heating
Packaged and It can kill
of the food, no
frozen foods may dangerous mo in
change to sensory
be treated foods
characteristics

Energy It can delay or stop

requirement are normal ripening
very low and decay process
 Main disadvantages of irradiation :

High capital cost of Spoilage mo’ are

irradiation plant / destroyed but
relatively expensive pathogenic bacteria
technoloy are not!

Can be used on a
Inefficient against
very limited range
viruses
of foods
APPLICATION OF FOOD IRRADIATION
EFFECT OF IRRADIATION ON FOODS

30
TYPE OF FOODS APPROVED BY FDA/USDA
1963 – 1999
 1.4 FERMENTATION

• Local fermented food products

• Bread
• Dairy products
• Other Fermented Foods
 WHAT IS FERMENTATION?

• Fermented foods are foods that have been through a

process of lactofermentation in which natural bacteria feed
on the sugar and starch in the food creating lactic acid. This
process preserves the food, and creates beneficial enzymes,
b-vitamins, Omega-3 fatty acids, and various strains of
probiotics.

• Natural fermentation of foods has also been shown to

preserve nutrients in food and break the food down to a
more digestible form
 ADVANTAGES OF FERMENTATION
PROCESS
• the use of mild conditions of pH and temperature which maintain
(and often improve) the nutritional properties and sensory
characteristics of the food

• the production of foods which have flavours or textures that

cannot be achieved by other methods

• low energy consumption due to the mild operating conditions

• relatively low capital and operating costs

• relatively simple technologies.

 LOCAL FERMENTED FOODS
• Tempeh – using soaked, dehulled and boiled soy beans.
Inoculate with Rhizopus sp. or “tempeh starter”, pack
and incubate at room temperature for 26-48 hours.

 Tempeh can be packed either in

perforated plastic or using natural tree
leaves (i.e. banana).
 LOCAL FERMENTED FOOD

• Tapai – The cooked rice will be mixed with yeast/ragi and wrapped
with banana/giant elephant ear leaves, which then will be kept in cool
and dry place for the fermentation to take place.
• The process will take couple of days, until the rice will be soft and
fermented, but not to the stage where it produces alcohol.
 FERMENTED FOODS
Bread
 involves growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s
yeast) under aerobic conditions.
 maximizes CO2 production, which leavens bread.
FERMENTED FOODS
• Cheese
• Milk is treated with lactic acid bacteria and an enzyme called rennin that
partially hydrolyses the protein and causes it to coagulate into “curds.” The
liquid portion of the milk at this time is called “whey.”

• The whey is separated from the curds, and the curds are aged (“ripened”)

• Different microbes in the early and late stages of processing give rise to
cheeses with different characteristics.