CE 468: Geosynthetics

Term 2: 2019
 Glossary and abbreviations
• geosynthetic: polymeric material used in contact with soil/rock and/or any other geotechnical material in civil engineering applications.1
• geomembrane (GMB): planar, impermeable, polymeric sheet used in civil eng. applications.1
• geosynthetic clay liner (GCL): assembled structure of geosynthetic materials and low hydraulic conductivity earth material (clay), in the form
of a manufactured sheet, used in civil eng. applications.1
• advection: physical process where contaminants introduced into a groundwater system migrate in solution (as solutes) with the movement
of groundwater.2
• compacted clay liner (CCL): engineered earth liner with at least 20% by dry mass finer than 2 µm with a thickness of 0.6 to 1 m and minimum
k of 1x10-9 m/s.2
• construction quality control (CQC): Measures taken by the installer or contractor to demonstrate compliance for materials and
workmanship as per project specifications.
• construction quality assurance (CQA): Measures taken to assess whether construction was completed as per project specifications.
• geotextile (GTX): planar, permeable, polymeric textile material, which may be nonwoven, knitted or woven, used in contact with soil/rock
and/or any other geotechnical material in civil eng. applications.1
• hydraulic conductivity (k): ability of soil to transmit water.2

• interface transmissivity (θ): ability of space between GMB and underlying material to convey fluid2.
• leakage (Q): fluid flow through a hole in a GMB.2
• municipal solid waste (MSW): domestic, commercial and industrial waste (but not hazardous solid or liquid waste).2
• protection layer: geosynthetic or natural material placed on top of GMB to prevent puncture and limit local indentations in the GMB.2
• wrinkle: unevenness of GMB when placed on flat surface. Mostly occurs from solar exposure. Increases the leakage through holes in
geomembranes and local tensions in the GMB.2

1 International Geosynthetics Society, Recommended Descriptions of Geosynthetics, 5th Edition September 2009.
2 Rowe, Quigley, Brachman and Booker, Barrier Systems for Waste Disposal, Spon Press, 2004.
Geosynthetics
• Geosynthetics are typically synthetic materials that are used in
combination with geo materials to enhance the performance of the
system
• Common geosynthetics include
• Geotextiles
• Geomembranes
• Geogrids
• Geonets
• Geocomposites
• Geosythetic clay liners
• Geopipes
• Geoothers
Geotextiles
• Geotextiles are textiles in the traditional sense, but consist of
synthetic fibres (HDPE, PP, PE PET) rather than natural fibres (cotton,
wool, or silk) thus biodegradation is less of a concern.
• The synthetic fibres are made into a flexible, porous fabric using
standard weaving machinery or are matted together in a random
structure to form nonwoven textiles.
• The major point is that they allow cross-plane water flow and to
varying degrees can transmit water in-plane as well.
 calendered woven monofilament
Woven monofilament

Geotextiles
• Geotextiles ALWAYS perform as
serperation woven multifilament woven slit film
• Geotextiles MAY perform as
reinforcement
• Woven = reinforcement possible
• Non-woven = never reinforcement
nonwoven needle-punched nonwoven heat-bonded
Geotextile Uses
• There are dozens or hundreds of applications for geotextiles; however, the
fabric performs at least one of several discrete functions:
1. Separation (always)
• Retain integrity and functioning of two dissimilar materials
2. Reinforcement (Only Wovens)
• Improve system strength by introducing a material good in tension (is soil?)
3. Filtration
• Allow movement of water without movement of “others” (soil etc)
4. Drainage

5. Cushion (i.e. over geomembrane)

Designing With Geotextiles
• Determine Critical Function FILTRATION, REINFORCEMENT,
SEPARATION or DRAINAGE
• If FILTRATION  FOS (AOS/EOS)
• If REINFORCEMENT  Tensile Strength and Modulus
• If SEPARATION  ? Survivability
• Consider long-term performance
• Consider damage during construction
Geomembranes
• Geomembranes represent in dollar volume the largest class of
geosynthetics.
• The materials themselves are "impervious" thin sheets of rubber or
plastic material used primarily for containment or covers for liquid- or
solid-storage or disposal facilities. Thus the primary function is always
as a liquid or vapour barrier.
• They serve no reinforcing function, and indeed, actually represent a
slip surface.
Geomembranes
1-2.5
mm
• 1 to 2.5 mm thick
• flexible plastic sheet
• impermeable to water if no leaks through seams or holes
Costuras
• hence, good seams, preventing holes and detecting & fixing any holes
are essential to minimizing leakage
• keys: material selection, design details, workmanship, inspection and
operation
• can use alone or as part of a composite
Geomembranes
• Geomembranes can have different types of:
• polymers
• high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
• linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)
• polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• flexible polypropylene (fPP)
• chlorosulphonated polyethylene (CSPE)
• bituminous
• thicknesses
• 1 to 2.5 mm (40 to 100 mil; 1 mil = 1x10-3 in.)
• surface roughness
• smooth Liso
• textured (one side / both sides / different types)
• colours
• black, white, green, brown
Designing with Geomembranes
• Only function is separation (NO reinforcement)
• Leakage Rates are determined by Quality Control. SEAMS
• Consider compatibility with retained liquid or waste.
• Consider GM as potential slip-surface on slopes Try to avoid GM in slopes
• Consider exposure to long-term environmental agents of weathering
(sunlight, air, burrowing rodents)
• Consider Damage During Construction
Geogrids
• Rather than being a woven, nonwoven
or knit textile or textile-like fabric,
geogrids are plastics formed into a very
open, gridlike configuration, i.e., they
have large apertures.
• Geogrids are either stretched in one or
two directions for improved physical
properties or made on weaving
machinery by unique methods.
• Their function is exclusively for
reinforcement.
Designing with Geogrids
• Consider Tensile Modulus and Strength E and P, axial load and stress
Enclavamiento mecánico
• Mechanical Interlock with granular fills
• Consider Damage During Construction
• Consider APPLICATION
• Roads (Stiffness important) vs MSE (Strength + stiffness
important) walls
Geonets
• Geonets are a specialized segment of
the geosynthetics industry. They are
usually formed by a continuous
extrusion of parallel sets of polymeric
ribs at acute angles to one another.
When the ribs are opened, relatively
large apertures are formed into a
netlike configuration.
• Their design function is in-plane
drainage. They have been used to
convey various types of liquids and
gasses.
Geosynthetic Clay Liners
• We have gone over these
• Consider:
• Leakage Rate
• Compatibility of Bentonite with
retained waste or liquid (potential for
deleterious mineralogical alteration)
• Consider slip-surface on slopes
• Consider damage during construction
 Geopipe
• Perhaps the original geosynthetic material
still available today is buried plastic pipe.
• This "orphan" of Civil Engineering materials is
included in the list due to an awareness that
plastic pipe is being used in all aspects of
geotechnical, transportation and
environmental engineering with little design
and testing awareness.
• The critical nature of leachate collection
pipes coupled with high compressive loads
makes geopipe a bona-fide member of the
geosynthetics family. The function is clearly
drainage.
 Geocomposites
• A geocomposite consists of a combination of
geotextile and geogrid; or geogrid and
geomembrane; or geotextile, geogrid, and
geomembrane; or any one of these three materials
with another material (e.g., deformed plastic sheets,
steel cables, or steel anchors).
• This exciting area brings out the best creative efforts
of the engineer, manufacturer, and contractor.
• The application areas are numerous and growing
steadily. The major functions encompass the entire
range of functions listed for geosynthetics discussed
previously: separation, reinforcement,
filtration, drainage, and liquid barrier.
Geo-Others
• The general area of geosynthetics has exhibited such innovation that
many systems defy categorization. For want of a better phrase, geo-
others, describes items such as threaded soil masses, polymeric
anchors, and encapsulated soil cells.
• As with geocomposites their primary function is product-dependent
and can be any of the five major functions of geosynthetics.
Mechanical Properties of HDPE
• There are many types of
polymers used in different
geosynthetic materials
• For now, we are only going to
evaluate High Density
PolyEthylene (HDPE)
• HDPE exhibits time and
temperature dependent
behavior
• Viscoelastic material
 Mechanical Properties of Polymers

Visco - Elastic

Viscous Instantaneous
“Flow of a liquid” Time Independent
Time Dependent Strain
Strain
Mechanical Properties of Polymers
Mechanical Properties of Polymers
• Contribution of viscous and elastic contributions depend on polymer
• HDPE vs LLDPE
Mechanical Properties of Polymers
• Applying a fixed strain
to a polymer, and then
measuring the resulting
stress required to keep
the strain is stress
relaxation
• This stress relaxation is
a function of
temperature, as well as
the polymer
Designing with Creep Curves
• Design for strength (Smax) or
stiffness (εmax)
• Define design lifetime (tL)
• Intersection between stress curves
and time
• How do we get these curves for
timelines of our engineered
structures (>100 years)?

• Something similar will be

evaluated in the geosynthetic lab
Stepped Isothermal Method
• Can perform short tests (8 hours) to simulate dozens to hundreds of
years (Zornberg et al. 2004)
• Arrhenius equation describes relation between reaction rate and
temperature
• Shifting data obtained at elevated temperatures can be performed
using the procedure by Ferry et al. 1980 (WLF equation)
Stepped Isothermal Method
• Can perform short tests (8 hours) to simulate dozens to hundreds of
years (Zornberg et al. 2004)
• Arrhenius equation describes relation between reaction rate and
temperature
• Shifting data obtained at elevated temperatures can be performed
using the procedure by Ferry et al. 1980 (WLF equation)
Stepped Isothermal
Method

• Test completed at 30% of Tult for

the material
• Data from Zornberg et al. 2004
• Can be individual specimens at
different temperatures or single
specimens at stepped
temperatures
Stepped Isothermal Method
• Key points for designing with polymer materials
• Think about Stiffness vs Strength and the application in which you
are using the material for
• Be weary about what the geosynthetic manufacture is telling you:
• Tult does not equal mean design load – you may not need a strong
geosynthetic, but rather a stiff (high small strain modulus) one
Designing by Function
• Assess primary function that the geotextile will serve
• Determine allowable design property
• Assign factor of safety
• Find required design property

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Designing by Function
• We also need to account for the long term degradation of geosynthetic
properties, which could include:
• Installation damage (ID)
• Creep (CR)
• Chemical and Biological Degradation (CBD)
• Soil clogging (filters)
• These in turn are reduction factor, which modifys the laboratory value to
account for field conditions
• For example, if designing for a tensile strength, this may become:
1 1
𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑇𝑇𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑥𝑥𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑥𝑥𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
• Similar equations could be used for flow, modulus, etc. Choose geotextile
based on dominating required property (modulus vs strength)
Designing by Function: Geotextiles: Filtration
• Filtration
• Allow free flow of water
• Retain particles Depends on the woven. No holes, allow to retain particles
• Avoid clogging
• Avoid piping
• Select based on
• Strength (survivability)
• Soil retention
• Permeability
Designing by Function: Geotextiles: Filtration
• Filtration O95 means holes with 95mm or 95nm??
• Need to consider size of geotextile openings (sometimes O95 and soil size)
• May need to consider other tests (gradient ratio etc.) to assess performance

• Simple estimates:
Designing by Function: Geotextiles: Filtration
Designing by Function: Geotextiles: Filtration
• Geotextile filters must allow water or leachate to pass unimpeded,
but retain overlying material and prevent fines migration acts as a strainer
• Often reported as permittivity 𝜓𝜓 (cross plane) and transmissivity (in-
plane)
• Vary based on applied load (geotextiles thickness decreased – as does void
raio)
• k0 = sat. conductivity of overlying material
• Minimum FOS of 5 recommended for landfills (Daniel et al. 2002)

𝑘𝑘𝑜𝑜
𝜓𝜓𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑥𝑥 𝜓𝜓𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜓𝜓𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝑡𝑡
Designing by Function - Geomembranes
• Geomembranes act as impermeable barriers in waste containment
applications, whether it be covers or liners
• Performance is governed on the likelihood that they remain “intact” –
that is to say – no holes
• If geomembranes never had holes – no liners would leak. This is not
the case
Geomembrane Defects

Long Term Degradation

Short Term Punctures
& Stress Cracking
Applications in MSW landfills
Geomembrane Holes
hw Hole
• An intact GMB is essential GMB
impermeable to water
• However, holes can develop: H
Q Soil
• during installation
• while placing cover material
• during service life from physical stress
• Leakage – fluid flow through holes in
GMB under hydraulic gradient
• What factors may influence leakage
Q through holes in a GMB?
Geomembrane Holes
hw Hole
• Leakage depends on: GMB
• number and size of holes
• head above and below liner H
Q Soil
• k and H of layer beneath GMB
• interface transmissivity q between GMB
and underlying layer
• contact conditions
• voids or irregularities in underlying soil
• wrinkles (or waves) in GMB
 … from overliner

Number of holes during placement

depends on:
• type of GMB
• effectiveness of protection layer
• materials above and below GMB
• construction practices
• extent of a quality assurance / Courtesy: TRI
Environmental
liner integrity program
Overliner

GMB

Underliner … from over or underliner

under vertical pressure
Brachman et al. (2013)
 Courtesy: TRI
Leak detection survey Environmental

• can do on bare, soil covered or water

covered GMBs
• require electrically conductive
medium above and below GMB
• water puddle, water, or wet soil over GMB,
conductive GMB
Water puddle
• induce voltage difference between Conductive
GMB
top and bottom
• pass electrodes over top to measure
electrical potential Water covered
• anomalies indicate holes in GMB Courtesy: GSE
• caused by flow of current along conductive Environmental
path through the hole
• see ASTM D6747, D7002, D7007, D7703

Courtesy: TRI Environmental

Holes in design
• holes detected during
survey usually repaired
• may still have undetected
holes
• for design assume a
number of holes Leak location survey
after soil placement
• 2.5 to 5 holes/ha with 1-
mm-radius if strict CQA
(Giroud & Bonaparte 2001)

Courtesy: TRI
Environmental
 Conductive
GMB

Keys to Low Leakage

• minimize holes Courtesy: GSE
Environmental
• good CQA / CQC
• leak detection
• ensure intimate contact with underlying
soil
• minimize wrinkles with timely cover No wrinkles in black,
HDPE GMB in early am.
placement
Debajo
• low k beneath GMB
• GCL or CCL

Wrinkle in black,
HDPE GMB at noon.
Calculating Leakage in Holes
• Governing Factors:
• Hydraulic conductivity of
overlying material
• Hydraulic conductivity of
underlying material
• Size and shape of hole
• Liquid head over
geomembrane
• Size of gap between soil and
geomembrane
Calculating Leakage in Holes
• General Assumptions:
• The hole is circular
• The liquid is water or an aqueous solution that does not affect the hydraulic
conductivity of the soils
• Liquid is supplied at a continuous rate over the entire permeable area
• The geomembrane is horizontal
• Steady state conditions
• Laminar flow
• The geomembrane may or may not be in perfect contact with the soil and there
may be a uniform transmissive layer between the geomembranes and the
underlying soil
Calculating Leakage in Holes – Maximum Possible
• Bernoulli’s Equation (orifice flow) – maximum possible

Q = 0.6a 2 gh
• Case 1: Very high permeability overlying and underlying the GM.
Defect of area a, circular in shape or nearly so.
• Media over and underlying must have opening sizes larger than the hole in the
geomembrane – i.e. be “hydraulically invisible”
• For soils opening size is approx 0.2d10
• Hydraulic conductivity must be high enough that the equation is valid
• It would generally be unusual that these conditions would be a
reasonable assumption, so this solution is of limited practical utility.
Calculating Leakage in Holes – Minimum Possible
• Forchheimer’s eqn see Rowe et. al. (2004)

Q = 4 ro kL hw

• infinitely deep soil layer with hydraulic conductivity k [L/T] below GMB
• assumes perfect contact between GMB and underlying material (no
lateral interface flow)
Calculating Leakage in Holes – General 1D
• finite layer(s) with hydraulic conductivity k
[L/T] and thickness H below GMB
• lateral flow along interface to wetted
radius rw
• lateral flow quantified by interface
transmissivity θ [L2/T]
• complex solution involving Bessel
functions
• solve with:
• program Leak (see Rowe 1998)
• tabulated values for practical cases by Rowe et al.
(2004)
(b)
GM 2ro Hole h0.3
w m
Calculated leakage
Silty sand
0.6 m Rowe, Quigley, Brachman and Booker (2004)
kL=10-6 m/s

(c)
k θ Q
GM B 2ro Hole h
0.3
w m (m/s) (m2/s) (m3/s/hole)
CCL
0.6 m c 1x10-9 0 3.6 x 10-12
kL=10-9 m/s
c 1x10-9 1x10-7 2.5 x 10-8
(d) d 2x10-10 0 2.6 x 10-13
GMB 2ro Hole h0.3
w m

d 2x10-10 2x10-10 8.5 x 10-11

GCL
kL=2x10-10 m/s
k = hydraulic conductivity
θ = interface transmissivity
CCL = compacted clay liner
GCL = geosynthetic clay liner
ro = hole radius = 1 mm
 Leakage rates
Composite Liners Rowe et al. (2004); Rowe (2012)
Hole
0.3 m GMB k θ Q
Liner
m/s m2/s lphd
0.3 m GMB – – 2000
0.6 m CCL CCL 1x10-9 – 1300
GMB/CCL 1x10-9 1x10-7 11
Hole
0.3 m GMB GMB/GCL 2x10-10 2x10-10 0.04
0.6 m CCL GMB: 2 mm diam. hole; 5 holes / ha
lphd = litres per hectare per day
Hole • QGMB/GCL < QGMB/CCL << QCCL based on:
0.3 m GMB – theoretical calculations,
– laboratory and field measurements
GCL • k and θ important
t=10 mm
 Leakage Rates through defects in Geomembrane
The next number of slides quickly summarize a number of
the equations that have been proposed over the years to
estimate the leakage rate through a defect. These require
that the units be as stated.
Case 2: Low permeability soil underlying the GM with
thickness ts (m) and sat hydr cond ks (m/s). Defect of
area a (m2), head over GM h (m), Q (m3/s), Cqo is
dimensionless, = 0.21 (good contact) to 1.15 (poor
contact)

  h 
0.95
 0.1 0.9 0.74
Q = Cqo 1 + 0.1  a h kS
 tS 
 
Giroud’s equation (Giroud et al, 1989 & Giroud 1997)

• Head on geomembrane less than thickness of soil/GM

composite liner
• Circular defect Q = 0.976C qo d 0.2 h 0.9 k s0.74
• Square defect Q = C qo b 0.2 h 0.9 k s0.74
• Defect of infinite length Q * = C q∞ b 0.1 h 0.45 k s0.87
Q* is flow in m3/s per m of elongated defect
Units for h, b, d are m, kS in m/s, Q in m3/s
Cqo = 0.21 ̶ 1.15 as before. Cq∞ is also dimensionless and
ranges from 0.52 for good contact to 1.22 for poor contact
Giroud’s equation (Giroud et al, 1989 & Giroud 1997)
• Head on geomembrane greater that thickness of soil /
GM composite liner
• Circular defect Q = Cqo iavgo a 0.1h 0.9 k s0.74
0.2 0.9 0.74
• Square defect Q = C qo i avgo a h k s
* 0.1 0.45 0.87
• Defect of infinite length Q = C q∞ iavg∞ b h k s
• Q* is flow in m3/s per m of elongated defect
0.95 0.95
iavgo = 1 + 0.1(h / t s ) iavg∞ = 1 + 0.2(h / t s )
• Limitations
– Radius or length of hole between 0.5 and 25 mm
– Head over the liner should be less than 3 m
– Hydraulic conductivity of liner (kS) less than kG (kG= kB/10)
Giroud and Bernoulli’s Equations
 Interpolation using the Bernoulli and Giroud
equations (Giroud et al, 1997)
n
 5 + 2 log d − log k S 
log Q = 0.3195 + 2 log d + 0.5 log h − 0.74 
 n 
 h 
0.95

n = 5.5540 − 0.4324 log d + 0.5405 log h + 1.3514 log Cqo + 1.3514 log 1 + 0.1  
  t S  
• Limitations
• Hydraulic conductivity between the limits for Bernoulli’s
equation and Giroud’s equation to be applicable
(geomembrane underlain by medium permeability soil)
Giroud’s equation (II) (Giroud, 1997)
1
 aqi Q   Q   1  Q 
4
 2
h= + ln  − 1 +   
 2k OM π 2k OM π  0.6a 
2
  aqi   4 g 

• Geomembrane overlain by med-high permeability

material and underlain by higher permeability material
• Accounts for non-infinite hydraulic conductivity in
overlying material
• Derived from Bernoulli’s equation of free flow through
an orifice
Giroud’s equation (II) (Giroud, 1997)
• Limitations
• Hydraulic conductivities must be such that Bernoulli’s equation is
applicable
• Erroneous measurement of liquid head over geomembrane due to
depression of phreatic surface over hole
Giroud’s equations have been considered by many practitioners
over the years to be likely over-conservative, i.e. knowledgeable
folks suspect they significantly overestimate the rate of leakage…
Brand new data (Cunningham &
Fleming, 2017)
Interface (Transmissive) Flow through
Geomembrane Defects
• Most of the previous equations have not considered the
effects of interface (transmissive) flow on leakage rates in
composite liner
• Are all geomembranes in “perfect” contact with the
underlying soil?
• Is the underlying soil completely smooth?
Composite Liners
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
Waste
xx
Geomembrane
(GMB)
xx
xx
xx
xx Foundation
xx
xx
xx
layer
xx
x

Fabric encased GCL

Compacted
clay liner (CCL)
Geomembrane
(GMB)
Composite liner:
• GMB over low k material (GCL or CCL)
• can obtain very low flow under hydraulic gradient
Sources of imperfect contact
(Rowe et al. 2004)
Surface preparation
• final surface preparation
GM
important to get good
Protrusion
contact
CCL Interclod void • expect greater impact on
leakage at lower vertical
GM
pressures
CCL Roller overlap • voids and protrusions can
also cause local strains in
GM
GMB (Giroud and Bonaparte 2001;
Brachman and Sabir 2010)
CCL Tire imprint
 Sources of imperfect contact
Poor construction control
Wrinkle
GM GMB
GM GMB
Subgrade with rocks GTX
GT
Poor design detail
GTX = Geotextile
e.g., nonwoven, needle-punched
(Rowe et al. 2004)
• thermal expansion of
exposed GMB causes
“wrinkles”
• wrinkle creates a gap
beneath GMB
• GTX added to “protect” GMB
• GTX creates a transmissive
layer beneath GMB
• better to:
remove rocks from final lift,
do NOT us GTX below GMB
as “protection”
(a) Hole
2ro
GMB h0.3
w m
Calculated leakage
Q Rowe, Quigley, Brachman and Booker (2004)

(b)
GM B 2ro Hole h0.3
w m
k θ Q
Silty sand
0.6 m (m/s) (m2/s) (m3/s/hole)
kL=10-6 m/s
a - - 4.6 x 10-6
(c) b 1x10-6 0 3.6 x 10-9
GMB 2ro Hole h
0.3
w m
c 1x10-9 0 3.6 x 10-12
CCL
0.6 m
kL=10-9 m/s d 2x10-10 0 2.6 x 10-13
(d) k = hydraulic conductivity
GMB 2ro Hole h0.3
w m
θ = interface transmissivity = 0
CCL = compacted clay liner
GCL GCL = geosynthetic clay liner
kL=2x10-10 m/s ro = hole radius = 1 mm
 Effect of transmissive flow
• Some solutions have attempted to account for the effect on flow rates
through geomembranes of transmissive flow in the gap between GM
and underlying soil. Brown et al, (1987), Touze-Foltz et al, (1999,
2001, 2002, 2003, 2005).
The following equations (Touze-Foltz & al, 2005) are the most recent that
are reasonably widely accepted and are suitable for a wide range of
problems.
There are also specific solutions for liquid leakage through GM/GCL
composite barriers (e.g. Abuel-Naga & Bouazza, 2014). Other solutions
are specific to leakage of gas through GCL or composite GM/GCL cover
systems (Bouzza & al, 2005-14).
Interface contact GMB / CCL
Giroud (1997) defined:
• good contact - GMB with as few wrinkles as possible,
on low-permeability soil, adequately compacted and a
smooth surface
• poor contact - GMB with a certain number of wrinkles,
and/or on low-permeability soil, not well compacted and
does not appear smooth
Rowe (1998) inferred transmissivities of:
• good contact θ =1.6x10-8 m2/s
• poor contact θ =1x10-7 m2/s
 Interface contact GMB / GCL
• greater potential for obtaining good contact with
GCL than with CCL (Rowe 2004)
• since GCL can be placed flat on a well compacted,
smooth and firm foundation
• bentonite swelling upon hydration may reduce small
gaps that along the GMB/GCL interface
• Rowe (2012) reviewed available data reinforced
GCLs (7 to 70 kPa normal stress)
•2 x 10-10 m2/s < θ < 6 x 10-12 m2/s
•average 4 x 10-11 m2/s
•no strong trend with normal stress
•type of GTX in contact with GMB very little effect
• θ may control leakage more than k (Rowe 1998,
2012)
Touze-Foltz & Barroso (2005)
Circular defect in geomembrane
• defect diameter 2-20mm
  h 
0.95

QC = 0.0024a h k s 1 + 0.1
0.1 0.9 0.74
 
  HS  
• defect diameter 100-600mm
  h 
−0.35

0.4 0.54 0.82
QC = 0.116a h k s  1 − 0.22  
  HS  

Qc is flow rate (m3/s), a is defect area (m2), h is head over GM

(m) kS is hydraulic conductivity of soil liner, HS is total
thickness of soil liner (m)
Giroud & Touze-Foltz (2005)
Elongated defect in geomembrane
• defect width 2-20mm (tears, cuts,defective seams)
  h 
0.59

QL = C∞ b h k s 1 + 0.52
0.004 0.45 0.87
 
  HS  
• defect width 100-600mm (damaged wrinkles)

  h 
0.82

0.1 0.45 0.87
QL = CW b h k s 1 + 0.28  
  HS  

QL is flow rate per unit length (m3/s/m), b is defect width (m),

h is head over GM (m) kS is hydraulic conductivity of soil liner,
HS is total thickness of soil liner (m).
C∞ = 0.42 (excellent contact) 0.65 (good contact) 1.64 (poor contact)
CW = 0.63 (excellent contact) 0.89 (good contact) 1.98 (poor contact)
 Wrinkles

Hole
hw
H
θ
No wrinkles in black, 1.5-mm-thick Q
HDPE GMB in early am. W
Leakage also a
function of wrinkle:
- width
- length &
- interconnectivity
Rowe et al. (2004); Chappel et al. (2012)
Wrinkle in black, 1.5-mm-thick
HDPE GMB at noon.
GM wrinkles – Aug 2 at 1 pm
Queen’s Composite Liner Test Site
Brachman et al. (2007)

21 m
Slope
19 m
Base
80 m
N Facing
S Facing
 Leakage calculations
Q: flow through GMB
Rowe (1998) equation:
2b : width of wrinkle
L: wrinkle length at time
2b GMB is covered with
2ro hw soil
GMB θ kL: hydraulic conductivity
qh Q qh of liner:
hd: Head loss (m)
CCL HL
(hd = hw+ HL)
qh = L θ ih HL: Liner thickness
θ: transmissivity between
Q = (2b L kLb hd/HL ) + 2qh GMB and clay liner
Below wrinkle Away from wrinkle

Q = L [2b kL + 2(kLHL θ) 0.5 ] hd / HL

 Leakage through wrinkles
(Rowe et al. 2004)
10-6

Leakage per hole with wrinkle

GMB + 0.6m CCL

(m / s / hole with wrinkle)

Qmax for
rhole=1 mm hw=0.3 m
θ =1.6x10-8 m2/s
10-7
4.6
Hole
Q

1.6
W=0.2 m hw
10-8 H
4.6 No wrinkle
rhole=1 mm Q θ
3

W
10-9
0.1 1 10 100
L (m)
Rowe, Chappel, Brachman and
Take 2012
 Interface Transmissivity
Compacted Clay Liner
• Good QA/QC will dictate
• Indentations from trucks
• Smooth drum edges
• Dessication
• Rocks
• Etc etc
Rowe (1998) inferred transmissivities of:
good contact θ =1.6x10-8 m2/s
poor contact θ =1x10-7 m2/s
Geosynthetic Clay Liner
• Less variability
• For reinforced vary between:
• High θ =2x10-10 m2/s
• Avg. θ =4x10-11 m2/s
• Low θ =6x10-12 m2/s
• No relationship between
confining pressure and θ
• Little change between different
geotextiles
• BUT GCL must be hydrated
Example:
k θ L Q
Liner (m/ha)
m/s m2/s lphd
GMB – – 63,000
CCL 1x10-9 – 1300
GMB/CCL(Poor) 1x10-9 1x10-7 ? 1300
GMB/CCL(Good) 1x10-9 2x10-8
GMB/GCL 1x10-9 2x10-8

GMB: 5.6 mm diam. hole; 5 holes / ha

lphd = litres per hectare per day
HL =0.6, hw = 0.3, 2b = 0.2m
 L = total for all
Example: 5 holes

k θ L Q
Liner (m/ha)
m/s m2/s lphd
GMB – – 2000
CCL 1x10-9 – 1300
GMB/CCL(Poor) 1x10-9 1x10-7 640 1300
GMB/CCL(Good) 1x10-9 2x10-8 1000 920
GMB/CCL 1x10-9 2x10-8 200 180
Maybe ok
GMB: 5.6 mm diam. hole; 5 holes / ha
lphd = litres per hectare per day
HL =0.6, hw = 0.3, 2b = 0.2m
 L = total for all
Example: 5 holes

k θ L Q
Liner (m/ha)
m/s m2/s lphd
GMB – – 2000
CCL 1x10-9 – 1300
GMB/CCL(Poor) 1x10-9 1x10-7 640 1300
GMB/CCL(Good) 1x10-9 2x10-8 1000 920
GMB/CCL 1x10-9 2x10-8 200 180
GMB/GCL 5x10-11 3x10-11 200 10
GMB: 5.6 mm diam. hole; 5 holes / ha Diffusion
lphd = litres per hectare per day Now
HL =0.6, hw = 0.3, 2b = 0.2m Dominates
 Key points: Wrinkles and leakage

• GMB wrinkles increase leakage

• field leakage rates of Bonaparte et al. (2002) can
be explained by few holes coincident with wrinkles
(see Rowe et al. 2004; Rowe 2012)
• if do not minimize wrinkles, need to consider
leakage through holes in wrinkles
• if want to minimize leakage, then take measures to
limit wrinkles during cover soil placement
 Key points: Leakage in Barriers

• Function of:
1. Number of holes
2. Location of holes (wrinkle/no wrinkle)
3. Head on liner
4. Transmissivity at interface
5. Hyd. Conductivity of materials above and below
(typically mostly below)
6. BUT don’t forget about DIFFUSION
Does a wrinkle ‘go-away’ after it’s buried?
• Let’s say a GMB has wrinkles prior to soil placement and
weight from overlying material (e.g. solid waste)
• Think about whether you think the applied vertical pressure
will flatten out the GMB and eliminate the preferential flow
feature

Vertical Gravel
pressure Q: What happens to
GT
the wrinkle under
GMB stress?
GCL
Wrinkle
Does a wrinkle ‘go-away’ after it’s buried?
Physical experiments:
Applied vertical
pressure (p)

P Rubber
bladder

50
Sand
GT GTX

300
(mm)

Gravel
500
Z
Ho GM B
GCL
X Sand
150

Wo

600
590 1) Form wrinkle
(mm) 2) Bury wrinkle
3) Apply stress
4) Measure wrinkle
 GMB / GCLd / SP
250 kPa Brachman and Gudina (2008)

75
50
Z (mm)

25 GMB
0 GCL w=7%
-25
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 SP
X (mm)
GMB / GCLd / SP
250 kPa Brachman and Gudina (2008)

e.g., 20 m deep MSW if γ = 12.5 kN/m3

75 Initial
Z (mm)50
Deformed
25
0
-25
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
X (mm)
• decrease in height and width
• “gap” beneath wrinkle remains
• wrinkle deformations can also
exacerbate local GMB strains
 Key points: Wrinkle fate
• during cover soil placement
• wrinkles can translate and accumulate
• size may decrease from soil & equipment
• GMB does not return to contact with underlying
material
• on application of additional vertical pressure
• may get a further decrease in size
• but preferential flow feature remains Take et al. (2013)
(Soong and Koerner 1998, Gudina and Brachman 2006, Brachman and
Gudina 2008)
• most practical way of reducing wrinkles is to
limit the time of day cover soil is placed
• requires good communication with engineer, owner
and contractor
GTX
GMB 150 mm

Wrinkle GCL
Leakage through defects in Geomembranes (conclusion)

• All geomembranes have defects

• Solutions are rooted in fundamental principles such
as Bernoulli’s equation for free flow through an
orifice and Darcy’s law, but… all of these were
developed through a mix of analytical solutions
(requiring a number of simplifying assumptions) and
empirical approaches based on numerical modelling
and (limited) experimental data
• Choose the appropriate equation for your
application
Geomembrane QA/QC
• Seam testing (daily, multiple times)
• Pressure testing (all fusion seams)
• Vac box
• Vice grip test
• Destructive tests
• Minimize seams
• Inspection
Seams
• Fusion welding two panels together
by heating geomembrane
• Machine is set to a temperature and
a speed
• Speed and temperature vary based on
ambient temperatures
• Often trial seams are done in morning
and afternoon to confirm the settings
are adequate
• Burnouts and defects can occur
Seams
• Seams should be pressure tested
• Monitor drop in air pressure over a
period of time
Patches
• Extrusion welding
applies a bead of
HDPE to patch
• Can be done for
defects, T’s or in
areas where fusion
failed
• Should be vac box
tested
 Courtesy: TRI
Leak detection survey Environmental

• can do on bare, soil covered or water

covered GMBs
• require electrically conductive
medium above and below GMB
• water puddle, water, or wet soil over GMB,
conductive GMB
Water puddle
• induce voltage difference between Conductive
GMB
top and bottom
• pass electrodes over top to measure
electrical potential Water covered
• anomalies indicate holes in GMB Courtesy: GSE
• caused by flow of current along conductive Environmental
path through the hole
• see ASTM D6747, D7002, D7007, D7703

Courtesy: TRI Environmental

 Conductive
GMB
Keys to low leakage
• minimize holes
• good CQA / CQC Courtesy: GSE
Environmental
• leak detection
• ensure intimate contact with
underlying soil
• minimize wrinkles with timely
cover placement No wrinkles in black,
HDPE GMB in early am.
• low k beneath GMB
• GCL or CCL

Wrinkle in black,
HDPE GMB at noon.
 Summary
• GMB free of holes or tears is
essentially impermeable to water
• Leakage will occur through holes
ranging from pinholes to large tears
• Proper CQC/CQA can be expected
to minimize the number of holes
• some holes are to be expected and
should be considered in design
calculations
• Leakage through GMB overlying a
low permeability layer (either a CCL
or GCL) is much lower than that for
GMB or CCL alone
 Summary
• Quantity of leakage depends on:
• number and size of holes
• head above and below composite liner
• permeability and thickness of underlying
soil
• interface between GMB and underlying
material
• Holes located at or near wrinkles will
greatly influence the amount of
leakage
• Leakage can be minimized by:
• minimizing the number of holes in GMB,
• limiting the extent of GMB wrinkles,
• providing an effective protection layer, and
• using a GCL beneath the GMB
Geomembranes – How long will they last?
• The durability of
geomembranes is ongoing
• Preventing short term Geomembrane Defects
punctures has been well
documented
• Use a heavy non-woven
“cushion” typically at least 540
g/m2 (16 oz/yd) Long Term Degradation
• Minimize stones in clay liner- Short Term Punctures & Stress Cracking
DO NOT place a geosynthetic
below in landfill applications
Geomembranes – How long will they last?
• The durability of
geomembranes is ongoing
• Preventing short term Geomembrane Defects
punctures has been well
documented
• Use a heavy non-woven
“cushion” typically at least 540
g/m2 (16 oz/yd) Long Term Degradation
• Minimize stones in clay liner- Short Term Punctures & Stress Cracking
DO NOT place a geosynthetic
below in landfill applications
 Geomembrane Puncture Protection: Tire
Derived Aggregate
• Manufactured from light vehicle tires
• Contains significant protruding wires
• Costs much less than gravel
100

90

80
Percent Passing

70

60
Gravel TDA
50

40

30

20

10

0
10 100 1000

"Sieve" Diameter (mm)

Geomembrane Puncture Protection
Geomembranes – How long will they last?
• Generally, short term punctures from
waste loading (pressures < 1000 kPa)
are prevented by appropriate geotextile
protection and QA/QC on the subgrade
• Pressures higher than > 1000 kPa may
result in puncture (Brachman and Sabir)
• Pressures this high are common in mining
applications, heap leach piles, etc. and less
so in MSW

Brachman and
Sabir 2010
Geomembranes – How long will they last?
• The real concern with long term performance is “stress cracking”
• Under field conditions, geomembrane is inevitably subject to tensile
strains
• Combined with elevated temperatures and exposure to chemicals,
the geomembrane degrades
• Changes the tensile properties of the geomembrane
• Areas with higher strain will crack in a brittle failure
Degradation of Polymers
Change in
Physical crystallinity without
breaking bonds

Degradation
Biological
(Simultaneous)

Degradation where
Chemical breaking of bonds Photodegradation
occurs

Extraction /
Oxidation
Degradation of Geomembranes
Change in
Physical crystallinity without
breaking bonds

Degradation
Biological
(Simultaneous)

Degradation where
Chemical breaking of bonds Photodegradation
occurs

Extraction /
White geomembranes, carbon black additives etc Oxidation
Degradation of Geomembranes
Change in
Physical crystallinity without
breaking bonds

Degradation
Biological
(Simultaneous)

Degradation where
Chemical breaking of bonds Photodegradation
occurs

Extraction /
Main concern of liner degradation Oxidation
 Types of Geomembranes
• Types of geomembranes include: Polyethylene (HDPE
and LLDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
and bitumous geomembrane

• HDPE most common in landfill liners as the high

crystallinity (40-50%) provides chemical resistance

• Geomembranes should be chosen based on applications

• https://www.solmax.com/en/products-and-services/pe-
geomembranes?industrywaste-management=
 Extraction / Oxidation
“With a proprietary blend of additives, ________ geomembrane liners reach high OIT levels and
retain antioxidants after accelerated aging tests”

• a) Time to deplete antioxidants

(Often related to oxidative a b
induction time “OIT”)
(Extraction) “Best before”
100 %
c
Failure
• b) Induction time to the onset of
polymer degradation

• c) Time for degradation of Time

polymer to failure value
(Oxidation) Modified from Hsuan and Koerner, 1998
Landfill Temperatures Air
Water Rowe et al. 2009
Leachate
Landfill Temperatures Air
Water Rowe et al. 2009
Leachate

Assuming Minimal Strains

Geomembrane Stress Cracking
Hsuan 2000

 At room temp, HDPE is relatively tough.

Undergoes large plastic deformation
(500%) prior to break

 ASTM D 883 “an external or internal

rupture in a plastic caused by tensile
stress less than its short-term
mechanical strength”

 Density of polymer directly related to

crystallinity
Geomembrane Stress Cracking
Hsuan 2000

 Slow crack growth occurs by breaking

the interlamellar tie molecules in the
amorphous phase (Brittle failure)

 Higher crystallinity = fewer tie molecules

 LLDPE less prone to stress cracking since

it is less crystalline
Geomembrane Puncture Protection:
Gravel Brachman and Gudina 2008

 Landfill applied pressures can be large

(200-700 kPA) and can be up to 4000 kPa Side View
(240 m) for applications such as heap leach
pads

 Gravel contact areas can be 1 to 2 %

percent of the total loaded area (high
contact pressures on geomembrane)
(Brachman and Gudina 2008)

 Short term puncture can be prevented by

Side View
using a suitable protection layer
(geotextile, geocushions, or soil)
 Crack Initiation

Geomembrane Stress
Cracking
 Stress cracking expected to occur over Partial Propagation
decades

 Therefore we perform short term tests,

calculate resulting strain, and determine
if acceptable

 Some studies have performed Rupture

accelerated testing on aged
geomembrane samples (Abdelaal et al.
2014)

Abdelaal et al. 2014

Geomembrane Stress
Cracking
 Current equations predict strain using the
thin plate theory develop by Tognon
From Abdelaal et al. 2014
(1999) and finite difference
approximations

 Sum of membrane and bending strains

Geomembrane Stress Cracking

12 cm
Geomembrane Stress
Cracking Protection

 Using the same equations as

Tognon (1999), maximum
strains are a calculated at
each point on a 1-2 mm grid

 Can be plotted as a strain

map, reduces operator bias
 Marcotte & Fleming 2019

The Role of the Clay

 Six different soils at different
moisture contents

 300 kPa

 407g/m2 protection layer

Battleford Till (Saskatoon SK)

Floral Till (Saskatoon SK)
Regina Clay (Regina SK)
Edmonton Till (Northern Alberta)
Halton Till (Ontario)
Pottery Clay
 Clay Properties

wopt Max DD
Soil USCS LL (%) PI (%) Activity
(%) (kg/m3)

Battleford Till
(central Sask.) CL 23.3 9.7 0.65 10.0 2030

Regina Clay
(southern Sask.) CH 74.7 47.7 0.8 26.0 1460

Floral Till
(central Sask.) CL 42.9 20.9 0.54 21.0 1620

Halton Till
(southern Ont.) CL 31.5 13.5 0.75 13.0 1960

Edmonton Till
(Alberta) CL 32.8 17.8 0.87 13.5 1875

Pottery Clay CL 46.0 27.2 0.64 18.0 1680

Battleford Till Halton Till

Edmonton Till Regina Clay

4x increase in area > 3%
 Slope

Intercept
 Higher plasticity soils may be less
sensitive to moisture changes

 Soils with high silt content may result

<< Higher “sensitivity”
in increased geomembrane strain due
to poor compaction / stiffness
characteristics

 Clay soil underliner may be important

in limiting geomembrane strains (but
more to come on that!)
Larger overall strains >>
Summary
 Geomembrane protection depends on the
contaminating lifespan, contaminants, and risks
associated with the facility
 Stress cracking a concern in long term waste
containment facilities
 Short term and installation damage can be controlled
by a suitable geotextile protection layer
 Long term stress cracking protection is still
uncertain.. Conservative approach includes soil layers
or thick non-wovens
 Always application specific… why is this geotextile
below geomembrane?

Source: Agru