LECTURE NOTES

ON

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(17CA02308)
2018 – 2019

II B.Tech I Semester (CREC-R17)

Mr. Kenguru manjunath, Assistant Professor

CHADALAWADA RAMANAMMA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS)
Chadalawada Nagar, Renigunta Road, Tirupati – 517 506

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

 UNIT- I
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS & MEASURMENTS

Syllabus: Ohm’s Law, Basic Circuit Components, Kirchhoff’s Laws, Types of Sources, Resistive Networks,
Inductive Networks, Capacitive Networks, Series Parallel Circuits, Star Delta and Delta Star Transformation.
Principle of AC Voltages, Root Mean Square and Average Values of Alternating Currents and Voltage, Form
Factor and Peak Factor, Phasor Representation of Alternating Quantities.
Operating Principles of Moving Coil and Moving Iron Instruments (Ammeters and Voltmeters),Dynamometer
type Watt meters and Energy meters.

Ohm’s law :
The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its
ends, provided the temperature and other physical conditions remain unchanged.
Mathematically it can be represented as,
Potential difference ∝ Current
V ∝ I (So when the value of V increases then the value of I also increases simultaneously)
V = IR
Where,
V is Voltage in volts (V)
R is Resistance in ohm (Ω)
I is Current in Ampere (A)
It is very important to remember this formula, so that if any two values of the resistance, voltage or current
quantities are given then we can use Ohm’s law to find out the third missing value.

Formulae
 To find Voltage(V),
V = IR
 To find Current(I),
I=VR
 To find Resistance(R),
R=VI

Ohm’s law relationship can also be remembered using pictures. So, to easily remember this formula there is
another way called Ohm’s magic triangle. The magic V I R triangle can be used to calculate all formulations of
ohm’s law.
Ohm’s Magic Triangle:
The triangle for Ohm’s law is

 If the value of Voltage is asked and the values of the current and resistance are given, then to calculate
voltage simply cover the We are left with the I and R or I X R. So, the equation for Voltage is Current
multiplied by Resistance.

Example 1: If resistance of an electric iron is 50Ω and 3.2A Current flows through the resistance. Find the
voltage between two points.
Ans. Given,
Resistance (R) = 50Ω
Current (I) = 3.2A
Therefore,Voltage(V)=IXR
= 3.2A×50Ω
=160V
 If the value of Resistance is asked and the values of the current and voltage are given, then to calculate
resistance simply cover the R, we are left with the V at the top and I to the bottom left or V÷I.
Example 2: An EMF source of 8.0 V is connected to a purely resistive electrical appliance (a light bulb).
An electric current of 2.0 A flows through it. Consider the conducting wires to be resistance free. Calculate the
resistance offered by the electrical appliance.
Ans. Given,
Voltage (V) = 8.0 V
Current (I) = 2.0 A
Therefore,Resistance(R)=V÷I=VI
= 82
=4
 If the value of current is asked and the values of the resistance and voltage are given, then to calculate
current simply cover the I. We are left with Voltage over Resistance or V ÷ R. So the equation for Current
is Voltage divided by Resistance.

Example 3: If the filament resistance of an electric bulb is 330 Ω and Potential difference of two points 110V.
Find the current flowing through the filament.
Ans. Given,
Resistance (R) = 330 Ω
Voltage (V) = 110V
Therefore,Current(I)=V÷R=VR
= 330110
= 3A
Calculation of Electrical Power:
The rate at which energy is converted from the electrical energy of the moving charges to some other form, e.g.,
mechanical energy, heat, or magnetic fields or energy stored in electric fields, is called as electric power. The
unit of power is watt.
The electrical power can be calculated using the Ohm’s law and by substituting the values of voltage, current
and resistance.
Formulae to find power:
 When the values for voltage and current are given,
P=VXI
 When the values for voltage and resistance are given,
P = V2÷R
 When the values for voltage and current are given,
P = I2×R

Power triangle:
In the power triangle, the power (P) will be on the top and current(I) and voltage (V) at the bottom.
 When the values of current and voltage will be given, the formula for finding power will be,
P=IXV

 When the values of power and voltage will be given, the formula for finding current will be,
I = PV

 When the values of power and current will be given, the formula for finding voltage will be,
V = PI
The pie chart for Ohm’s law:

About R, L, C components:

Series RLC Circuit

The series RLC circuit above has a single loop with the instantaneous current flowing through the loop being
the same for each circuit element. Since the inductive and capacitive reactance’s XL and XC are a function of
the supply frequency, the sinusoidal response of a series RLC circuit will therefore vary with frequency, ƒ.
Then the individual voltage drops across each circuit element of R, L and C element will be “out-of-phase” with
each other as defined by:
 i(t) = Imax sin(ωt)
 The instantaneous voltage across a pure resistor, VR is “in-phase” with current
 The instantaneous voltage across a pure inductor, VL “leads” the current by 90o
 The instantaneous voltage across a pure capacitor, VC “lags” the current by 90o
 Therefore, VL and VC are 180o “out-of-phase” and in opposition to each other.
For the series RLC circuit above, this can be shown as:

The amplitude of the source voltage across all three components in a series RLC circuit is made up of the three
individual component voltages, VR, VL and VC with the current common to all three components. The vector
diagrams will therefore have the current vector as their reference with the three voltage vectors being plotted
with respect to this reference as shown below.

Individual Voltage Vectors

This means then that we can not simply add together VR, VL and VC to find the supply voltage, VS across all
three components as all three voltage vectors point in different directions with regards to the current vector.
Therefore we will have to find the supply voltage, VS as the Phasor Sum of the three component voltages
combined together vectorially.
Kirchoff’s voltage law ( KVL ) for both loop and nodal circuits states that around any closed loop the sum of
voltage drops around the loop equals the sum of the EMF’s. Then applying this law to the these three voltages
will give us the amplitude of the source voltage, VS as.

Instantaneous Voltages for a Series RLC Circuit

The phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit is produced by combining together the three individual phasors
above and adding these voltages vectorially. Since the current flowing through the circuit is common to all
three circuit elements we can use this as the reference vector with the three voltage vectors drawn relative to
this at their corresponding angles.
The resulting vector VS is obtained by adding together two of the vectors, VL and VC and then adding this sum to
the remaining vector VR. The resulting angle obtained between VS and i will be the circuits phase angle as
shown below.

Phasor Diagram for a Series RLC Circuit

We can see from the phasor diagram on the right hand side above that the voltage vectors produce a rectangular
triangle, comprising of hypotenuse VS, horizontal axis VRand vertical axis VL – VC Hopefully you will notice
then, that this forms our old favourite the Voltage Triangle and we can therefore use Pythagoras’s theorem on
this voltage triangle to mathematically obtain the value of VS as shown.

Voltage Triangle for a Series RLC Circuit

Please note that when using the above equation, the final reactive voltage must always be positive in value, that
is the smallest voltage must always be taken away from the largest voltage we can not have a negative voltage
added to VR so it is correct to have VL – VC or VC – VL. The smallest value from the largest otherwise the
calculation of VSwill be incorrect.
We know from above that the current has the same amplitude and phase in all the components of a series RLC
circuit. Then the voltage across each component can also be described mathematically according to the current
flowing through, and the voltage across each element as.

By substituting these values into Pythagoras’s equation above for the voltage triangle will give us:
So we can see that the amplitude of the source voltage is proportional to the amplitude of the current flowing
through the circuit. This proportionality constant is called the Impedance of the circuit which ultimately
depends upon the resistance and the inductive and capacitive reactance’s.
Then in the series RLC circuit above, it can be seen that the opposition to current flow is made up of three
components, XL, XC and R with the reactance, XT of any series RLC circuit being defined as: XT = XL –
XC or XT = XC – XL with the total impedance of the circuit being thought of as the voltage source required to
drive a current through it.

The Impedance of a Series RLC Circuit

As the three vector voltages are out-of-phase with each other, XL, XC and R must also be “out-of-phase” with
each other with the relationship between R, XL and XC being the vector sum of these three components thereby
giving us the circuits overall impedance, Z. These circuit impedance’s can be drawn and represented by
an Impedance Triangleas shown below.

The Impedance Triangle for a Series RLC Circuit

The impedance Z of a series RLC circuit depends upon the angular frequency, ω as do XLand XC If the
capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive reactance, XC > XL then the overall circuit reactance is
capacitive giving a leading phase angle.
Likewise, if the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive reactance, XL > XCthen the overall circuit
reactance is inductive giving the series circuit a lagging phase angle. If the two reactance’s are the same
and XL = XC then the angular frequency at which this occurs is called the resonant frequency and produces the
effect of resonancewhich we will look at in more detail in another tutorial.
Then the magnitude of the current depends upon the frequency applied to the series RLC circuit. When
impedance, Z is at its maximum, the current is a minimum and likewise, when Z is at its minimum, the current
is at maximum. So the above equation for impedance can be re-written as:
The phase angle, θ between the source voltage, VS and the current, i is the same as for the angle
between Z and R in the impedance triangle. This phase angle may be positive or negative in value depending on
whether the source voltage leads or lags the circuit current and can be calculated mathematically from the
ohmic values of the impedance triangle as:

Series RLC Circuit Example No1

A series RLC circuit containing a resistance of 12Ω, an inductance of 0.15H and a capacitor of 100uF are
connected in series across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the total circuit impedance, the circuits current,
power factor and draw the voltage phasor diagram.

Inductive Reactance, XL.

Capacitive Reactance, XC.

Circuit Impedance, Z.
Circuits Current, I.

Voltages across the Series RLC Circuit, VR, VL, VC.

Circuits Power factor and Phase Angle, θ.

Phasor Diagram.

Since the phase angle θ is calculated as a positive value of 51.8o the overall reactance of the circuit must be
inductive. As we have taken the current vector as our reference vector in a series RLC circuit, then the current
“lags” the source voltage by 51.8o so we can say that the phase angle is lagging as confirmed by our mnemonic
expression “ELI”.

Series RLC Circuit Summary

In a series RLC circuit containing a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor the source voltage VS is the phasor
sum made up of three components, VR, VL and VC with the current common to all three. Since the current is
common to all three components it is used as the horizontal reference when constructing a voltage triangle.
The impedance of the circuit is the total opposition to the flow of current. For a series RLC circuit, and
impedance triangle can be drawn by dividing each side of the voltage triangle by its current, I. The voltage drop
across the resistive element is equal to I x R, the voltage across the two reactive elements is I x X = I x XL – I x
XC while the source voltage is equal to I x Z. The angle between VS and I will be the phase angle, θ.
When working with a series RLC circuit containing multiple resistances, capacitance’s or inductance’s either
pure or impure, they can be all added together to form a single component. For example all resistances are
added together, RT = ( R1 + R2 + R3 )…etc or all the inductance’s LT = ( L1 + L2 + L3 )…etc this way a circuit
containing many elements can be easily reduced to a single impedance.

In the next tutorial about parallel RLC circuits we will look at the voltage-current relationship of the three components
connected together this time in a parallel circuit configuration when a steady state sinusoidal AC waveform is applied
along with the corresponding phasor diagram representation. We will also introduce the concept of Admittance for the
first time

Parallel RLC Circuit

In the above parallel RLC circuit, we can see that the supply voltage, V S is common to all three components
whilst the supply current IS consists of three parts. The current flowing through the resistor, I R, the current
flowing through the inductor, IL and the current through the capacitor, IC.
But the current flowing through each branch and therefore each component will be different to each other and
to the supply current, IS. The total current drawn from the supply will not be the mathematical sum of the three
individual branch currents but their vector sum.
Like the series RLC circuit, we can solve this circuit using the phasor or vector method but this time the vector
diagram will have the voltage as its reference with the three current vectors plotted with respect to the voltage.
The phasor diagram for a parallel RLC circuit is produced by combining together the three individual phasors
for each component and adding the currents vectorially.
Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements we can use this as the reference
vector with the three current vectors drawn relative to this at their corresponding angles. The resulting
vector IS is obtained by adding together two of the vectors, IL and IC and then adding this sum to the remaining
vector IR. The resulting angle obtained between V and IS will be the circuits phase angle as shown below.

Phasor Diagram for a Parallel RLC Circuit

We can see from the phasor diagram on the right hand side above that the current vectors produce a rectangular
triangle, comprising of hypotenuse IS, horizontal axis IRand vertical axis IL – IC Hopefully you will notice then,
that this forms a Current Triangle and we can therefore use Pythagoras’s theorem on this current triangle to
mathematically obtain the magnitude of the branch currents along the x-axis and y-axis and then determine the
total current IS of these components as shown.

Current Triangle for a Parallel RLC Circuit

Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements, the current through each branch can
be found using Kirchoff’s Current Law, (KCL). Kirchoff’s current law or junction law states that “the total
current entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the current leaving that node”, so the currents entering
and leaving node “A” above are given as:

Taking the derivative, dividing through the above equation by C and rearranging gives us the following Second-
order equation for the circuit current. It becomes a second-order equation because there are two reactive
elements in the circuit, the inductor and the capacitor.

The opposition to current flow in this type of AC circuit is made up of three components: XL XC and R and the
combination of these three gives the circuit impedance, Z. We know from above that the voltage has the same
amplitude and phase in all the components of a parallel RLC circuit. Then the impedance across each
component can also be described mathematically according to the current flowing through, and the voltage
across each element as.

Impedance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

You will notice that the final equation for a parallel RLC circuit produces complex impedance’s for each
parallel branch as each element becomes the reciprocal of impedance, ( 1/Z ) with the reciprocal of impedance
being called Admittance.
In parallel AC circuits it is more convenient to use admittance, symbol ( Y ) to solve complex branch
impedance’s especially when two or more parallel branch impedance’s are involved (helps with the math’s).
The total admittance of the circuit can simply be found by the addition of the parallel admittances. Then the
total impedance, ZT of the circuit will therefore be 1/YT Siemens as shown.
Admittance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

The new unit for admittance is the Siemens, abbreviated as S, ( old unit mho’s ℧, ohm’s in reverse ).
Admittances are added together in parallel branches, whereas impedance’s are added together in series
branches. But if we can have a reciprocal of impedance, we can also have a reciprocal of resistance and
reactance as impedance consists of two components, R and X. Then the reciprocal of resistance is
called Conductance and the reciprocal of reactance is called Susceptance.

Kirchhoffs First Law – The Current Law, (KCL)

Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction or node is exactly
equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within
the node“. In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a node must be equal to
zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge.

Kirchhoffs Current Law

Here, the 3 currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the 2 currents leaving the
node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the equation as;

I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or more current
carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also for current to flow either in or out of a node a
closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current law when analysing parallel circuits.

Kirchhoffs Second Law – The Voltage Law, (KVL)

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop is
equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also equal to zero. In other words the
algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by Kirchhoff is known as
the Conservation of Energy.
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the voltage drops,
either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is important to maintain the same
direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be equal to zero. We can use
Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analysing series circuits.
When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws a number of definitions and
terminologies are used to describe the parts of the circuit being analysed such as: node, paths, branches, loops
and meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit analysis so it is important to understand them.

Common DC Circuit Theory Terms:

 • Circuit – a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical current flows.
 • Path – a single line of connecting elements or sources.
 • Node – a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were two or more circuit elements
are connected or joined together giving a connection point between two or more branches. A node is
indicated by a dot.
 • Branch – a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a source which are
connected between two nodes.
 • Loop – a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is encountered
more than once.
• Mesh – a mesh is a single open loop that does not have a closed path. There are no components inside a
mesh.
Note that:
Components are said to be connected together in Series if the same current value flows through all the
components.
Components are said to be connected together in Parallel if they have the same voltage applied across them.

Kirchhoffs Circuit Law Example No1

Find the current flowing in the 40Ω Resistor, R3

The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops.

Using Kirchhoffs Current Law, KCL the equations are given as;
At node A : I1 + I2 = I3
At node B : I3 = I1 + I2
Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as;
Loop 1 is given as : 10 = R1 I1 + R3 I3 = 10I1 + 40I3
Loop 2 is given as : 20 = R2 I2 + R3 I3 = 20I2 + 40I3
Loop 3 is given as : 10 – 20 = 10I1 – 20I2
As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the equations as;
Eq. No 1 : 10 = 10I1 + 40(I1 + I2) = 50I1 + 40I2
Eq. No 2 : 20 = 20I2 + 40(I1 + I2) = 40I1 + 60I2
We now have two “Simultaneous Equations” that can be reduced to give us the values of I1 and I2
Substitution of I1 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I1 as -0.143 Amps
Substitution of I2 in terms of I1 gives us the value of I2 as +0.429 Amps
As : I3 = I1 + I2
The current flowing in resistor R3 is given as : -0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps
and the voltage across the resistor R3 is given as : 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
The negative sign for I1 means that the direction of current flow initially chosen was wrong, but never the less
still valid. In fact, the 20v battery is charging the 10v battery.
Application of Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws
These two laws enable the Currents and Voltages in a circuit to be found, ie, the circuit is said to be
“Analysed”, and the basic procedure for using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws is as follows:
 1. Assume all voltages and resistances are given. ( If not label them V1, V2,… R1, R2, etc. )
 2. Label each branch with a branch current. ( I1, I2, I3 etc. )
 3. Find Kirchhoff’s first law equations for each node.
 4. Find Kirchhoff’s second law equations for each of the independent loops of the circuit.
 5. Use Linear simultaneous equations as required to find the unknown currents.
As well as using Kirchhoffs Circuit Law to calculate the various voltages and currents circulating around a
linear circuit, we can also use loop analysis to calculate the currents in each independent loop which helps to
reduce the amount of mathematics required by using just Kirchhoff's laws. In the next tutorial about DC
circuits, we will look at mesh current analysis to do just that

Electrical Sources:

Electrical sources, both as a voltage source or a current source can be classed as being
either independent (ideal) or dependent, (controlled) that is whose value depends upon a voltage or current
elsewhere within the circuit, which itself can be either constant or time-varying.
When dealing with circuit laws and analysis, electrical sources are often viewed as being “ideal”, that is the
source is ideal because it could theoretically deliver an infinite amount of energy without loss thereby having
characteristics represented by a straight line. However, in real or practical sources there is always a resistance
either connected in parallel for a current source, or series for a voltage source associated with the source
affecting its output.

The Voltage Source

A voltage source, such as a battery or generator, provides a potential difference (voltage) between two points
within an electrical circuit allowing current to flowing around it. Remember that voltage can exist without
current. A battery is the most common voltage source for a circuit with the voltage that appears across the
positive and negative terminals of the source being called the terminal voltage.

Ideal Voltage Source

An ideal voltage source is defined as a two terminal active element that is capable of supplying and maintaining
the same voltage, (v) across its terminals regardless of the current, (i) flowing through it. In other words, an
ideal voltage source will supply a constant voltage at all times regardless of the value of the current being
supplied producing an I-V characteristic represented by a straight line.
Then an ideal voltage source is known as an Independent Voltage Source as its voltage does not depend on
either the value of the current flowing through the source or its direction but is determined solely by the value
of the source alone. So for example, an automobile battery has a 12V terminal voltage that remains constant as
long as the current through it does not become to high, delivering power to the car in one direction and
absorbing power in the other direction as it charges.
On the other hand, a Dependent Voltage Source or controlled voltage source, provides a voltage supply whose
magnitude depends on either the voltage across or current flowing through some other circuit element. A
dependent voltage source is indicated with a diamond shape and are used as equivalent electrical sources for
many electronic devices, such as transistors and operational amplifiers.

Connecting Voltage Sources Together

Ideal voltage sources can be connected together in both parallel or series the same as for any circuit element.
Series voltages add together while parallel voltages have the same value. Note that unequal ideal voltage
sources cannot be connected directly together in parallel.
Voltage Source in Parallel

While not best practice for circuit analysis, ideal voltage sources can be connected in parallel provided they are
of the same voltage value. Here in this example, two 10 volt voltage source are combined to produce 10 volts
between terminals A and B. Ideally, there would be just one single voltage source of 10 volts given between
terminals A and B.
What is not allowed or is not best practice, is connecting together ideal voltage sources that have different
voltage values as shown, or are short-circuited by an external closed loop or branch.

Voltage Source in Series

Series aiding voltage sources are series connected sources with their polarities connected so that the plus
terminal of one is connected to the negative terminal of the next allowing current to flow in the same direction.
In the example above, the two voltages of 10V and 5V of the first circuit can be added, for a V S of
10 + 5 = 15V. So the voltage across terminals A and B is 15 volts.
Series opposing voltage sources are series connected sources which have their polarities connected so that the
plus terminal or the negative terminals are connected together as shown in the second circuit above. The net
result is that the voltages are subtracted from each other. Then the two voltages of 10V and 5V of the second
circuit are subtracted with the smaller voltage subtracted from the larger voltage. Resulting in a V Sof 10 -
5 = 5V.
The polarity across terminals A and B is determined by the larger polarity of the voltage sources, in this
example terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative resulting in +5 volts. If the series-opposing voltages
are equal, the net voltage across A and B will be zero as one voltage balances out the other. Also any currents
(I) will also be zero, as without any voltage source, current can not flow.
Voltage Source Example No1
Two series aiding ideal voltage sources of 6 volts and 9 volts respectively are connected together to supply a
load resistance of 100 Ohms. Calculate: the source voltage, V S, the load current through the resistor, I R and the
total power, P dissipated by the resistor. Draw the circuit.

Thus, VS = 15V, IR = 150mA or 0.15A, and PR = 2.25W.

Practical Voltage Source

We have seen that an ideal voltage source can provide a voltage supply that is independent of the current
flowing through it, that is, it maintains the same voltage value always. This idea may work well for circuit
analysis techniques, but in the real world voltage sources behave a little differently as for a practical voltage
source, its terminal voltage will actually decrease with an increase in load current.
As the terminal voltage of an ideal voltage source does not vary with increases in the load current, this implies
that an ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance, RS = 0. In other words, it is a resistorless voltage
source. In reality all voltage sources have a very small internal resistance which reduces their terminal voltage
as they supply higher load currents.
For non-ideal or practical voltage sources such as batteries, their internal resistance (R S) produces the same
effect as a resistance connected in series with an ideal voltage source as these two series connected elements
carry the same current as shown.

Ideal and Practical Voltage Source

You may have noticed that a practical voltage source closely resembles that of a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
as Thevenin’s theorem states that “any linear network containing resistances and sources of emf and current
may be replaced by a single voltage source, VS in series with a single resistance, RS“. Note that if the series
source resistance is low, the voltage source is ideal. When the source resistance is infinite, the voltage source is
open-circuited.
In the case of all real or practical voltage sources, this internal resistance, R S no matter how small has an effect
on the I-V characteristic of the source as the terminal voltage falls off with an increase in load current. This is
because the same load current flows through RS.
Ohms law tells us that when a current, (i) flows through a resistance, a voltage drop is produce across the same
resistance. The value of this voltage drop is given as iRS. Then VOUT will equal the ideal voltage source,
VS minus the iRS voltage drop across the resistor. Remember that in the case of an ideal source voltage, R S is
equal to zero as there is no internal resistance, therefore the terminal voltage is same as V S.
Then the voltage sum around the loop given by Kirchoff’s voltage law, KVL is: V OUT = VS – iRS. This equation
can be plotted to give the I-V characteristics of the actual output voltage. It will give a straight line with a slope
–RS which intersects the vertical voltage axis at the same point as V S when the current i = 0 as shown.

Practical Voltage Source Characteristics

Therefore, all ideal voltage sources will have a straight line I-V characteristic but non-ideal or real practical
voltage sources will not but instead will have an I-V characteristic that is slightly angled down by an amount
equal to iRS where RS is the internal source resistance (or impedance). The I-V characteristics of a real battery
provides a very close approximation of an ideal voltage source since the source resistance R S is usually quite
small.
The decrease in the angle of the slope of the I-V characteristics as the current increases is known as regulation.
Voltage regulation is an important measure of the quality of a practical voltage source as it measures the
variation in terminal voltage between no load, that is when IL = 0, (an open-circuit) and full load, that is when
IL is at maximum, (a short-circuit).

Dependent Voltage Source

Unlike an ideal voltage source which produces a constant voltage across its terminals regardless of what is
connected to it, a controlled or dependent voltage source changes its terminal voltage depending upon the
voltage across, or the current through, some other element connected to the circuit, and as such it is sometimes
difficult to specify the value of a dependent voltage source, unless you know the actual value of the voltage or
current on which it depends.
Dependent voltage sources behave similar to the electrical sources we have looked at so far, both practical and
ideal (independent) the difference this time is that a dependent voltage source can be controlled by an input
current or voltage. A voltage source that depends on a voltage input is generally referred to as a Voltage
Controlled Voltage Source or VCVS. A voltage source that depends on a current input is referred too as
a Current Controlled Voltage Source or CCVS.
Ideal dependent sources are commonly used in the analysing the input/output characteristics or the gain of
circuit elements such as operational amplifiers, transistors and integrated circuits. Generally, an ideal voltage
dependent source, either voltage or current controlled is designated by a diamond-shaped symbol as shown.

Dependent Voltage Source Symbols

An ideal dependent voltage-controlled voltage source, VCVS, maintains an output voltage equal to some multiplying
constant (basically an amplification factor) times the controlling voltage present elsewhere in the circuit. As the
multiplying constant is, well, a constant, the controlling voltage, VIN will determine the magnitude of the output voltage,
VOUT. In other words, the output voltage “depends” on the value of input voltage making it a dependent voltage source
and in many ways, an ideal transformer can be thought of as a VCVS device with the amplification factor being its turns
ratio.

Then the VCVS output voltage is determined by the following equation: V OUT = μVIN. Note that the multiplying
constant μ is dimensionless as it is purely a scaling factor because μ = VOUT/VIN, so its units will be volts/volts.
An ideal dependent current-controlled voltage source, CCVS, maintains an output voltage equal to some
multiplying constant (rho) times a controlling current input generated elsewhere within the connected circuit.
Then the output voltage “depends” on the value of the input current, again making it a dependent voltage
source.
As a controlling current, IIN determines the magnitude of the output voltage, VOUT times the magnification
constant ρ (rho), this allows us to model a current-controlled voltage source as a trans-resistance amplifier as
the multiplying constant, ρ gives us the following equation: V OUT = ρIIN. This multiplying constant ρ (rho) has
the units of Ohm’s because ρ = VOUT/IIN, and its units will therefore be volts/amperes.

Ideal Current Source

Then an ideal current source is called a “constant current source” as it provides a constant steady state current
independent of the load connected to it producing an I-V characteristic represented by a straight line. As with
voltage sources, the current source can be either independent (ideal) or dependent (controlled) by a voltage or
current elsewhere in the circuit, which itself can be constant or time-varying.
Ideal independent current sources are typically used to solve circuit theorems and for circuit analysis techniques
for circuits that containing real active elements. The simplest form of a current source is a resistor in series with
a voltage source creating currents ranging from a few milli-amperes to many hundreds of amperes. Remember
that a zero-value current source is an open circuit as R = 0.
The concept of a current source is that of a two-terminal element that allows the flow of current indicated by the
direction of the arrow. Then a current source has a value, i, in units of amperes, (A) which are typically
abbreviated to amps. The physical relationship between a current source and voltage variables around a network
is given by Ohm’s law as these voltage and current variables will have specified values.
It may be difficult to specify the magnitude and polarity of voltage of an ideal current source as a function of
the current especially if there are other voltage or current sources in the connected circuit. Then we may know
the current supplied by the current source but not the voltage across it unless the power supplied by the current
source is given, as P = VxI.
However, if the current source is the only source within the circuit, then the polarity of voltage across the
source will be easier to establish. If however there is more than one source, then the terminal voltage will be
dependent upon the network in which the source is connected.

Connecting Current Sources Together

Just like voltage sources, ideal current sources can also be connected together to increase (or decrease) the
available current. But there are rules on how two or more independent current sources with different values can
be connected, either in series or parallel.

Current Source in Parallel

Connecting two or more current sources in parallel is equivalent to one current source whose total current
output is given as the algebraic addition of the individual source currents. Here in this example, two 5 amp
current sources are combined to produce 10 amps as I T = I1 + I2.
Current sources of different values may be connected together in parallel. For example, one of 5 amps and one
of 3 amps would combined to give a single current source of 8 amperes as the arrows representing the current
source both point in the same direction. Then as the two currents add together, their connection is said to be:
parallel-aiding.
While not best practice for circuit analysis, parallel-opposing connections use current sources that are connected
in opposite directions to form a single current source whose value is the algebraic subtraction of the individua l
sources.

Parallel Opposing Current Sources

Here, as the two current sources are connected in opposite directions (indicated by their arrows), the two
currents subtract from each other as the two provide a closed-loop path for a circulating current complying with
Kirchoff’s Current Law, KCL. So for example, two current sources of 5 amps each would result in zero output
as 5A -5A = 0A. Likewise, if the two currents are of different values, 5A and 3A, then the output will be the
subtracted value with the smaller current subtracted from the larger current. Resulting in a I T of 5 - 3 = 2A.
We have seen that ideal current sources can be connected together in parallel to form parallel-aiding or parallel-
opposing current sources. What is not allowed or is not best practice for circuit analysis, is connecting together
ideal current sources in series combinations.

Current Sources in Series

Current sources are not allowed to be connected together in series, either of the same value or ones with
different values. Here in this example, two current sources of 5 amps each are connected together in series, but
what is the resulting current value. Is it equal to one source of 5 amps, or is it equal to the addition of the two
sources, that is 10 amps. Then series connected current sources add an unknown factor into circuit analysis,
which is not good.
Also, another reason why series connected sources are not allowed for circuit analysis techniques is that they
may not supply the same current in the same direction. Series-aiding or series-opposing currents do not exist for
ideal current sources.

Current Source Example No1

Two current sources of 250 milli-amps and 150 milli-amps respectively are connected together in a parallel-
aiding configuration to supply a connected load of 20 ohms. Calculate the voltage drop across the load and the
power dissipated. Draw the circuit.
Then, IT = 0.4A or 400mA, VR = 8V, and PR = 3.2W

Practical Voltage Source

We have seen that an ideal constant current source can supply the same amount of current indefinitely
regardless of the voltage across its terminals, thus making it an independent source. This therefore implies that
the current source has an infinite internal resistance, (R = ∞). This idea works well for circuit analysis
techniques, but in the real world current sources behave a little differently as practical current sources always
have an internal resistance, no matter how large (usually in the mega-ohms range), causing the generated source
to vary somewhat with the load.
A practical or non-ideal current source can be represented as an ideal source with an internal resistance
connected across it. The internal resistance (RP) produces the same effect as a resistance connected in parallel
(shunt) with the current source as shown. Remember that circuit elements in parallel have exactly the same
voltage drop across them.

Ideal and Practical Current Source

You may have noticed that a practical current source closely resembles that of a Norton’s equivalent circuit as
Norton’s theorem states that “any linear dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
constant-current source, IS in parallel with a resistor, RP“. Note that if this parallel resistance is very low, RP = 0,
the current source is short-circuited. When the parallel resistance is very high or infinite, R P ≈ ∞, the current
source can be modelled as ideal.
An ideal current source plots a horizontal line on the I-V characteristic as shown previously above. However as
practical current sources have an internal source resistance, this takes some of the current so the characteristic
of this practical source is not flat and horizontal but will reduce as the current is now splitting into two parts,
with one part of the current flowing into the parallel resistance, R P and the other part of the current flowing
straight to the output terminals.
Ohms law tells us that when a current, (i) flows through a resistance, (R) a voltage drop is produce across the
same resistance. The value of this voltage drop will be given as iRP. Then VOUT will be equal to the voltage drop
across the resistor with no load attached. We remember that for an ideal source current, RP is infinite as there is
no internal resistance, therefore the terminal voltage will be zero as there is no voltage drop.
The sum of the current around the loop given by Kirchoff’s current law, KCL is: I OUT = IS - VS/RP. This equation
can be plotted to give the I-V characteristics of the output current. It is given as a straight line with a slope –
RP which intersects the vertical voltage axis at the same point as I S when the source is ideal as shown.

Practical Current Source Characteristics

Therefore, all ideal current sources will have a straight line I-V characteristic but non-ideal or real practical
current sources will have an I-V characteristic that is slightly angled down by an amount equal to V OUT/RP where
RP is the internal source resistance.

Current Source Example No2

A practical current source consists of a 3A ideal current source which has an internal resistance of 500 Ohms.
With no-load attached, calculate the current sources open-circuit terminal voltage and the no-load power
absorbed by the internal resistor.
1. No-load values:

Then the open circuit voltage across the internal source resistance and terminals A and B (V AB) is calculated at
1500 volts.
Part 2: If a 250 Ohm load resistor is connected to the terminals of the same practical current source, calculate
the current through each resistance, the power absorbed by each resistance and the voltage drop across the load
resistor. Draw the circuit.
2. Data given with load connected: IS = 3A, RP = 500Ω and RL = 250Ω
2a. To find the currents in each resistive branch, we can use the current-division rule.

2b. The power absorbed by each resistor is given as:

2c. Then the voltage drop across the load resistor, RL is given as:

We can see that the terminal voltage of an open-circuited practical current source can be very high it will
produce whatever voltage is needed, 1500 volts in this example, to supply the specified current. In theory, this
terminal voltage can be infinite as the source attempts to deliver the rated current.
Connecting a load across its terminals will reduce the voltage, 500 volts in this example, as now the current has
somewhere to go and for a constant current source, the terminal voltage is directly proportional to the load
resistance.
In the case of non-ideal current sources that each have an internal resistance, the total internal resistance (or
impedance) will be the result of combining them together in parallel, exactly the same as for resistors in
parallel.

Dependent Voltage Source

We now know that an ideal current source provides a specified amount of current completely independent of
the voltage across it and as such will produce whatever voltage is necessary to maintain the required current.
This then makes it completely independent of the circuit to which it is connected to resulting in it being called
an ideal independent current source.
A controlled or dependent current source on the other hand changes its available current depending upon the
voltage across, or the current through, some other element connected to the circuit. In other words, the output of
a dependent current source is controlled by another voltage or current.
Dependent current sources behave similar to the current sources we have looked at so far, both ideal
(independent) and practical. The difference this time is that a dependent current source can be controlled by an
input voltage or current. A current source that depends on a voltage input is generally referred to as a Voltage
Controlled Current Source or VCCS. A current source that depends on a current input is generally referred
too as a Current Controlled Current Source or CCCS.
Generally, an ideal current dependent source, either voltage or current controlled is designated by a diamond-
shaped symbol where an arrow indicates the direction of the current, i as shown.

Dependent Current Source Symbols

An ideal dependent voltage-controlled current source, VCCS, maintains an output current, I OUT that is
proportional to the controlling input voltage, VIN. In other words, the output current “depends” on the value of
input voltage making it a dependent current source.
Then the VCCS output current is defined by the following equation: I OUT = αVIN. This multiplying
constant α (alpha) has the SI units of mhos, ℧ (an inverted Ohms sign) because α = IOUT/VIN, and its units will
therefore be amperes/volt.
An ideal dependent current-controlled current source, CCCS, maintains an output current that is proportional to
a controlling input current. Then the output current “depends” on the value of the input current, again making it
a dependent current source.
As a controlling current, IIN determines the magnitude of the output current, I OUT times the magnification
constant β (beta), the output current for a CCCS element is determined by the following equation: I OUT = βIIN.
Note that the multiplying constant βis a dimensionless scaling factor as β = IOUT/IIN, so therefore its units would
be amperes/amperes.

Star Delta Transformation

T-connected and Equivalent Star Network

As we have already seen, we can redraw the T resistor network above to produce an electrically
equivalent Star or Υ type network. But we can also convert a Pi or π type resistor network into an electrically
equivalent Delta or Δ type network as shown below.

Pi-connected and Equivalent Delta Network.

Having now defined exactly what is a Star and Delta connected network it is possible to transform the Υ into
an equivalent Δ circuit and also to convert a Δ into an equivalent Υcircuit using a the transformation process.
This process allows us to produce a mathematical relationship between the various resistors giving us a Star
Delta Transformation as well as a Delta Star Transformation.
These circuit transformations allow us to change the three connected resistances (or impedances) by their
equivalents measured between the terminals 1-2, 1-3 or 2-3 for either a star or delta connected circuit. However,
the resulting networks are only equivalent for voltages and currents external to the star or delta networks, as
internally the voltages and currents are different but each network will consume the same amount of power and
have the same power factor to each other.

Delta Star Transformation

To convert a delta network to an equivalent star network we need to derive a transformation formula for
equating the various resistors to each other between the various terminals. Consider the circuit below.

Delta to Star Network.

Compare the resistances between terminals 1 and 2.

Resistance between the terminals 2 and 3.

Resistance between the terminals 1 and 3.

This now gives us three equations and taking equation 3 from equation 2 gives:
Then, re-writing Equation 1 will give us:

Adding together equation 1 and the result above of equation 3 minus equation 2 gives:

From which gives us the final equation for resistor P as:

Then to summarize a little about the above maths, we can now say that resistor P in a Star network can be found
as Equation 1 plus (Equation 3 minus Equation 2) or Eq1 + (Eq3 – Eq2).
Similarly, to find resistor Q in a star network, is equation 2 plus the result of equation 1 minus equation 3
or Eq2 + (Eq1 – Eq3) and this gives us the transformation of Q as:

and again, to find resistor R in a Star network, is equation 3 plus the result of equation 2 minus equation 1
or Eq3 + (Eq2 – Eq1) and this gives us the transformation of R as:
When converting a delta network into a star network the denominators of all of the transformation formulas are
the same: A + B + C, and which is the sum of ALL the delta resistances. Then to convert any delta connected
network to an equivalent star network we can summarized the above transformation equations as:

Delta to Star Transformations Equations

If the three resistors in the delta network are all equal in value then the resultant resistors in the equivalent star
network will be equal to one third the value of the delta resistors, giving each branch in the star network
as: RSTAR = 1/3RDELTA

Delta – Star Example No1

Convert the following Delta Resistive Network into an equivalent Star Network.

Star Delta Transformation

Star Delta transformation is simply the reverse of above. We have seen that when converting from a delta
network to an equivalent star network that the resistor connected to one terminal is the product of the two delta
resistances connected to the same terminal, for example resistor P is the product of resistors A and B connected
to terminal 1.
By rewriting the previous formulas a little we can also find the transformation formulas for converting a
resistive star network to an equivalent delta network giving us a way of producing a star delta transformation as
shown below.

Star to Delta Transformation

The value of the resistor on any one side of the delta, Δ network is the sum of all the two-product combinations
of resistors in the star network divide by the star resistor located “directly opposite” the delta resistor being
found. For example, resistor A is given as:

with respect to terminal 3 and resistor B is given as:

with respect to terminal 2 with resistor C given as:

with respect to terminal 1.

By dividing out each equation by the value of the denominator we end up with three separate transformation
formulas that can be used to convert any Delta resistive network into an equivalent star network as given below.

Star Delta Transformation Equations

One final point about converting a star resistive network to an equivalent delta network. If all the resistors in the
star network are all equal in value then the resultant resistors in the equivalent delta network will be three times
the value of the star resistors and equal, giving: RDELTA = 3RSTAR

Star – Delta Example No2

Convert the following Star Resistive Network into an equivalent Delta Network.
Both Star Delta Transformation and Delta Star Transformation allows us to convert one type of circuit
connection into another type in order for us to easily analyse the circuit. These transformation techniques can be
used to good effect for either star or delta circuits containing resistances or impedances.

DC Circuit and Waveform

An alternating function or AC Waveform on the other hand is defined as one that varies in both magnitude and
direction in more or less an even manner with respect to time making it a “Bi-directional” waveform. An AC
function can represent either a power source or a signal source with the shape of an AC waveform generally
following that of a mathematical sinusoid as defined by:- A(t) = Amax x sin(2πƒt).
The term AC or to give it its full description of Alternating Current, generally refers to a time-varying
waveform with the most common of all being called a Sinusoid better known as a Sinusoidal Waveform.
Sinusoidal waveforms are more generally called by their short description as Sine Waves. Sine waves are by
far one of the most important types of AC waveform used in electrical engineering.
AC Waveform Characteristics
 • The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to repeat itself from start
to finish. This can also be called the Periodic Time of the waveform for sine waves, or the Pulse
Width for square waves.
 • The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one second time
period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, ( ƒ = 1/T ) with the unit of frequency being
the Hertz, (Hz).
 • The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform measured in volts or
amps.

Types of Periodic Waveform

The time taken for an AC Waveform to complete one full pattern from its positive half to its negative half and
back to its zero baseline again is called a Cycle and one complete cycle contains both a positive half-cycle and
a negative half-cycle. The time taken by the waveform to complete one full cycle is called the Periodic Time of
the waveform, and is given the symbol “T”.
The number of complete cycles that are produced within one second (cycles/second) is called the Frequency,
symbol ƒ of the alternating waveform. Frequency is measured in Hertz, ( Hz ) named after the German
physicist Heinrich Hertz.
Then we can see that a relationship exists between cycles (oscillations), periodic time and frequency (cycles per
second), so if there are ƒ number of cycles in one second, each individual cycle must take 1/ƒ seconds to
complete.
Relationship Between Frequency and Periodic Time

The Average Value of an AC Waveform

The average or mean value of a continuous DC voltage will always be equal to its maximum peak value as a
DC voltage is constant. This average value will only change if the duty cycle of the DC voltage changes. In a
pure sine wave if the average value is calculated over the full cycle, the average value would be equal to zero as
the positive and negative halves will cancel each other out. So the average or mean value of an AC waveform is
calculated or measured over a half cycle only and this is shown below.

Average Value of a Non-sinusoidal Waveform

To find the average value of the waveform we need to calculate the area underneath the waveform using the
mid-ordinate rule, trapezoidal rule or the Simpson’s rule found commonly in mathematics. The approximate
area under any irregular waveform can easily be found by simply using the mid-ordinate rule.
The zero axis base line is divided up into any number of equal parts and in our simple example above this value
was nine, ( V1 to V9 ). The more ordinate lines that are drawn the more accurate will be the final average or
mean value. The average value will be the addition of all the instantaneous values added together and then
divided by the total number. This is given as.
Average Value of an AC Waveform

Where: n equals the actual number of mid-ordinates used.

For a pure sinusoidal waveform this average or mean value will always be equal to 0.637 x Vmax and this
relationship also holds true for average values of current.

The RMS Value of an AC Waveform

The average value of an AC waveform is NOT the same value as that for a DC waveforms average value. This
is because the AC waveform is constantly changing with time and the heating effect given by the formula
( P = I 2.R ), will also be changing producing a positive power consumption. The equivalent average value for an
alternating current system that provides the same power to the load as a DC equivalent circuit is called the
“effective value”.
This effective power in an alternating current system is therefore equal to: ( I 2.R.Average ). As power is
proportional to current squared, the effective current, I will be equal to √ I squared Ave. Therefore, the effective
current in an AC system is called the Root Mean Squared or R.M.S. value and RMS values are the DC
equivalent values that provide the same power to the load.
The effective or RMS value of an alternating current is measured in terms of the direct current value that
produces the same heating effect in the same value resistance. The RMS value for any AC waveform can be
found from the following modified average value formula.

RMS Value of an AC Waveform

Where: n equals the number of mid-ordinates.

For a pure sinusoidal waveform this effective or R.M.S. value will always be equal to 1/√2 x Vmax which is
equal to 0.707 x Vmax and this relationship holds true for RMS values of current. The RMS value for a sinusoidal
waveform is always greater than the average value except for a rectangular waveform. In this case the heating
effect remains constant so the average and the RMS values will be the same.

Form Factor and Crest Factor

Although little used these days, both Form Factor and Crest Factor can be used to give information about the
actual shape of the AC waveform. Form Factor is the ratio between the average value and the RMS value and is
given as.
For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Form Factor will always be equal to 1.11. Crest Factor is the ratio between
the R.M.S. value and the Peak value of the waveform and is given as.

For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Crest Factor will always be equal to 1.41
Moving Coil instruments:
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force and tends to move in the
direction as per Fleming’s left-hand rule.

Fleming left-hand rule:

If the first and the second finger and the thumb of the left hand are held so that they are at right angle to each
other, then the thumb shows the direction of the force on the conductor, the first finger points towards the
direction of the magnetic field and the second finger shows the direction of the current in the wire.

Equation involved

The interaction between the induced field and the field produced by the permanent magnet causes a deflecting
torque, which results in the rotation.

The three important torque involved in this instrument are:

Deflecting torque:

The force F which will be perpendicular to both the direction of the current flow and the direction of magnetic
field as per Fleming’s left hand rule can be written as

F = NBIL

where N: turns of wire on the coil

B: flux density in the air gap

I: current in the movable coil

L: vertical length of the coil

Theoretically, the torque (here electro-magnetical torque) is equal to the multiplication of force with distance to
the point of suspension.
Hence Torque on left side of the cylinder TL = NBIL x W/2 and torque on right side of the cylinder T R = NBIL
x W/2

Therefore the total torque will be = T L + TR

T = NBILW or NBIA where A is effective area (A= LxW)

Controlling Torque

This torque is produced by the spring action and opposes the deflection torque so as the pointer can come to rest
at the point where these two torques are equal (Electromagnetic torque = control spring torque). The value of
control torque depends on the mechanical design of spiral springs and strip suspensions.

The controlling torque is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of the coil.

Control torque Ct =Cθ where, θ = deflection angle in radians and C = spring constant Nm /rad .

Damping torque

This torque ensures the pointer comes to an equilibrium position i.e. at rest in the scale without oscillating to
give an accurate reading. In PMMC as the coil moves in the magnetic field, eddy current sets up in a metal
former or core on which the coil is wound or in the circuit of the coil itself which opposes the motion of the coil
resulting in the slow swing of a pointer and then come to rest quickly with very little oscillation.

Construction

A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminum frame (spindle) positioned between the poles of a U shaped
permanent magnet which is made up of magnetic alloys like alnico.

The coil is pivoted on the jeweled bearing and thus the coil is free to rotate. The current is fed to the coil
through spiral springs which are two in numbers. The coil which carries a current, which is to be measured,
moves in a strong magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet and a pointer is attached to the spindle
which shows the measured value.

Working

When a current flow through the coil, it generates a magnetic field which is proportional to the current in case
of an ammeter. The deflecting torque is produced by the electromagnetic action of the current in the coil and the
magnetic field.

When the torques are balanced the moving coil will stop and its angular deflection represents the amount of
electrical current to be measured against a fixed reference, called a scale. If the permanent magnet field is
uniform and the spring linear, then the pointer deflection is also linear.

The controlling torque is provided by two phosphorous bronze flat coiled helical springs. These springs serve as
a flexible connection to the coil conductors.

Damping is caused by the eddy current set up in the aluminum coil which prevents the oscillation of the coil.

Moving iron instrument

Moving iron instrument:
Moving iron instruments are of two types:

1. Attraction type Moving iron instrument

2. Repulsion type Moving iron instrument

Attraction type Moving iron instrument:

Principle of Attraction type Moving iron instrument:

These instruments are based on the principle that when an unmagnetised soft iron piece is placed in the
magnetic field of a coil, then the piece is attracted towards the coil. The moving system of the instrument is
attached to the soft iron piece and the operating current is passed through a coil placed near it. The operating
current sets up magnetic field which attracts the iron piece and thus moves the pointer over the scale.
Construction of Attraction type Moving iron instrument:

It consists of a hollow cylindrical coil or solenoid which is kept fixed as shown in the fig. An oval shaped soft
iron pieces is attached to the spindle in such a way that it can move in or out of the coil.The pointer is attached
to the spindle so that it is deflected with the motion of the soft iron piece. The controlling torque on the moving
system is provided by spring control method while damping is provided by air friction.

Moving iron instruments are of two types:

1. Attraction type Moving iron instrument

2. Repulsion type Moving iron instrument

Attraction type Moving iron instrument:

Principle of Attraction type Moving iron instrument:

These instruments are based on the principle that when an unmagnetised soft iron piece is placed in the
magnetic field of a coil, then the piece is attracted towards the coil. The moving system of the instrument is
attached to the soft iron piece and the operating current is passed through a coil placed near it. The operating
current sets up magnetic field which attracts the iron piece and thus moves the pointer over the scale.
Construction of Attraction type Moving iron instrument:

It consists of a hollow cylindrical coil or solenoid which is kept fixed as shown in the fig. An oval shaped soft
iron pieces is attached to the spindle in such a way that it can move in or out of the coil.The pointer is attached
to the spindle so that it is deflected with the motion of the soft iron piece. The controlling torque on the moving
system is provided by spring control method while damping is provided by air friction.

Attraction type Moving iron instrument

Working of Attraction type Moving iron instrument:

When the instrument is connected in the circuit, the operating current flows through the coil. The current sets
up magnetic field in the coil. In other words, the coil behaves like a magnet and, therefore, it attracts the soft
iron piece towards it. The result is that the pointer attached to the moving system moves from zero position.

If current in the coil is reversed, the direction of magnetic field also reverses and so does the magnetism
produced in soft iron piece. Therefore, the direction of deflecting torque remains unchanged. It follows,
therefore, that such instruments can be used for both D.C as well as A.C work.
Deflecting torque of Attraction type Moving iron instrument:

Field strength h produced by the coil.

Pole strength m developed by the piece

F proportional mH

F proportional H^2

Td proportional F proportional H^2

If permeability of iron is assumed constant then

H proportional I

Td proportional I^2

If the controlling torque is provided by the springs,

Tc proportional deflection

In the steady state position of deflection,

Td = Tc

Deflection proportional I^2

Deflection proportional Irms

Scale of such instruments is non-uniform, being crowded in the beginning. In order to make the scale of such
instruments uniform, suitably shaped iron piece is used.

Repulsion type moving iron instruments:

Principle of Repulsion type moving iron instruments:

These instruments are based on the principle of repulsion between the two iron pieces similarly magnetized.

Construction of Repulsion type moving iron instruments:

It consists of a fixed cylindrical hallow coil which carries operating current. Inside the coil, there are two soft
iron pieces or vanes, one of which is fixed and other is movable. The fixed iron piece is attached to the coil
whereas the movable iron piece is attached to the pointer shaft. Under the action of deflecting torque, the
pointer attached to the moving system moves over the scale. The controlling torque is produced by spring
control method and damping torque by air friction damping.

Working of Repulsion type moving iron instruments:

When the instrument is connected in the circuit, current flows through the coil. This current sets up magnetic
field in the coil. The magnetic field magnetizes both iron pieces in the same direction i.e. both pieces become
similar magnets and hence they repel each other. Due to this force of repulsion only movable iron piece moves
as the other piece is fixed and cannot move. The result is that the pointer attached to the moving system moves
from zero position.

Repulsion type moving iron

instruments:

Deflecting torque of Repulsion type moving iron instruments:

The deflecting torque results due to the repulsion between the similarly magnetized iron pieces. If two pieces
develop pole strengths m1 and m2 respectively, then,
Instantaneous deflecting torque proportional to repulsive force

proportional m1.m2

Since pole strengths developed are proportional to H, therefore

Instantaneous deflecting torque, Td proportional H2

Assuming constant permeability, h proportional current i through the coil

Td proportional i2

Controlling torque provided by springs, Tc proportional deflection

In the steady position of deflection,

Td = Tc

Deflection proportional to i2

proportional I^2

Proportional Irms

Since deflection is proportional to square of current through the coil, therefore, scale of such instruments in
non-uniform being crowded in the beginning. However, scale of such instruments can be made uniform by
using tongue shaped iron pieces.

Advantages of moving iron instruments:

1. These are cheap, robust and simple in construction.

2. The instruments can be used for both A.C as well as D.C circuits.

3. These instruments have high operating torque.

4. These instruments are reasonable accurate.

Disadvantages of moving iron instruments:

1. Such instruments have non-uniform scale.

2. These instruments are not very sensitive.

3. Errors are introduced due to changes in frequency in case of a.c measurements.

4. Higher power consumption.

Dynamometer type wattmeter:
A dynamometer type wattmeter is most commonly employed for measurement of power in a.c as well as d.c
circuits.

Principle of Dynamometer type wattmeter:

It is based on the principle that mechanical force exists between two current carrying conductors.

Construction of Dynamometer type wattmeter:

It essentially consists of two coils, namely fixed coil and moving coil. The fixed coil is split into two equal parts
which are placed close together and parallel to each other. The moving coil is pivoted between the two fixed
coils and is placed on the spindle to which the pointer is attached.

the fixed coils are connected in series with the load and carry the circuit current. It is, therefore called current
coil. The moving coil is connected across the load and carries current proportional to the voltage. It is therefore
called potential coil. Generally, a high resistance is connected in series with potential coil to limit the current
through it.

The controlling torque is provided by springs which also serve the additional purpose of leading current into
and out of the moving coil. Air friction damping is employed in such instruments.

Dynamometer type wattmeter

Working of Dynamometer type wattmeter:

When power is to be measured in a circuit, the instrument is suitably connected in the circuit. The current coil is
connected in series with load so that it carries the circuit current. The potential coil is connected across the load
so that it carries current proportional to the voltage.
Due to the current in the coils, mechanical force exists between them. The result is that the moving coil, moves
the pointer over the scale. The pointer comes to rest at a position where deflecting torque is equal to the
controlling torque.

Reversing the current, reverses the field due to fixed coil as well as the current in the moving coil so that the
direction of the deflection torque remains unchanged. Therefore, such instruments can be used for the
measurement of a.c as well as d.c power.

Dynamometer type wattmeter circuit diagram

Deflecting torque:

It can be easily proved that deflecting torque is proportional to the power in the circuit.

Operation on d.c:

suppose that in a d.c circuit

V = voltages across load

I = current through load

Current through fixed coil If is proportional to I

Current through moving coil Im is proportional to V

Deflecting torque Td is due to the current If and Im

Td proportional Im.If proportional V.I proportional power

Operation on a.c:

suppose that in an a.c circuit

e = instantaneous voltage across load

i = instantaneous current through load

If the load has a lagging power factor of cos a, then equation become

e = Em. sinwt

i = Im sin (wt - a)

Current through fixed coil If is proportional to i

Current through moving coil Im is proportional to e

Due to large inertia of the moving system, the deflection will be proportional to the average torque.

Mean deflecting torque proportional to Average of im.if proportional E I cos a

hence, dynamometer type wattmeter can be used for the measurement of a.c as well as d.c power.

We have seen that,

Td proportional power Tc proportional deflection Deflection proportional power Dynamometer type

wattmeter instruments have uniform scale.

Induction type single phase energy meter:

Single phase induction type energy meter is extensively used to measure energy supplied to a single phase
circuit.

Operating principle of Single phase induction type energy meter:

The operation of induction type energy meter depends on the passage of alternating current through two
suitably located coils producing rotating magnetic field which interacts with a metallic disc suspended near to
the coils and cause the disc to rotate.

The current coil carries the line current and produces field in phase with the line current. The pressure coil is
made highly inductive so that the current through it lags behind the supply voltage by 90 degrees. Thus, a phase
difference of 90 degrees exists between the fluxes produced by the two coils. This sets up rotating field which
interacts with the disc to cause it to rotate.

Construction of Single phase induction type energy meter:

A single phase induction type energy meter generally has:

1. Moving system

2. Operating mechanism

3. Recording mechanism
 Single phase induction type energy meter
diagram

1. Moving system: The moving system consists of a light aluminium disc mounted on a vertical spindle. The
spindle is supported by a up-shaped jewelled bearings at the bottom end and has a spring journal bearing at the
top end.

There is no pointer and control spring so that the disc makes continuous rotation under the action of deflecting
torque.

2. Operating mechanism: It consists of series magnet, shunt magnet and breaking magnet.

Series magnet: The series magnet consists of a number of U-shaped laminations assembled together to form a
core. A thick wire of few turns is wound on both legs of the U-shaped laminated core. The wound coil is known
as current coil and is connected in series with the load so that it carries the load current. The series magnet is
placed underside the aluminium disc and produces magnetic field proportional to and in phase with the current.

Shunt Magnet: The shunt magnet consists of a number of M-shaped laminations assembled together to form a
core. A fine wire of large turns is wound on the central limb of this magnet. The wound coil is known as
pressure coil and is connected across the load so that it carries current proportional to supply voltage. the shunt
magnet is placed above the aluminium disc as shown.

In order to obtain deflecting torque, current in the pressure coil must lag behind the supply voltage by 90
degrees. This necessary phase shift is obtained by placing a copper ring over central limb of shunt magnet. This
copper ring acts as a short circuited transformer secondary. As its inductance is high as compared with its
resistance, the current circulating in the ring will lag by nearly 90 degrees behind the voltage producing it.

Braking magnet: The speed of aluminium disc is controlled to the required value by the C-shaped permanent
braking magnet . The magnet is mounted so that the disc revolves in the air gap between the polar extremities.
As the disc rotates, currents are induced in the disc because it cuts the flux produced by the breaking magnet.
The direction of the current in the disc is such that it opposes the rotation of the disc. Since the induced currents
in the disc are proportional to the speed of the disc, therefore, breaking torque is proportional to the disc speed.

3. Recording mechanism: The number of revolutions of the disc s a measure of the electrical energy passing
through the meter and is recorded on dials which are geared to the shaft.

Working:

When the energy meter is connected in the circuit to measure electrical energy, the current coil carries the load
current whereas the pressure coil carries current proportional to the supply voltage. The magnetic field due to
current coil is in phase with line current whereas the magnetic field produced due to pressure coil lags
approximately 90 degrees behind the supply voltage.

The current coil field produces eddy currents in the disc which reacts with the field due to the pressure coil.
Thus, a driving force is created which causes the disc to rotate.

The braking magnet provides the braking torque on the disc. By altering the position of this magnet, desired
speed can be obtained. The spindle is geared to the recording mechanism so that electrical energy consumed in
the circuit is directly registered in kWh.
 UNIT- II

NETWORK THEOREMS & TWO PORT NETWORKS

Network Theorems: Thevenin’s, Norton’s, Maximum Power Transfer, Reciprocity and Superposition
Theorems for DC Excitations.
Two Port Networks: Two Port Network Parameters – Impedance, Admittance, Transmission and Hybrid
Parameters and Their Relations.

Network Theorems:

Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances can be
replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the load“. In other words,
it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent two-terminal circuit
with just a single constant voltage source in series with a resistance (or impedance) connected to a load as
shown below.
Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or battery systems and other
interconnected resistive circuits where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of the circuit.

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any complex “one-port” network consisting of multiple resistive
circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced by one single equivalent resistance Rs and one single
equivalent voltage Vs. Rs is the source resistance value looking back into the circuit and Vs is the open circuit
voltage at the terminals.
For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.
Firstly, to analyse the circuit we have to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor connected across the terminals A-
B, and remove any internal resistance associated with the voltage source(s). This is done by shorting out all the
voltage sources connected to the circuit, that is v = 0, or open circuit any connected current sources
making i = 0. The reason for this is that we want to have an ideal voltage source or an ideal current source for
the circuit analysis.
The value of the equivalent resistance, Rs is found by calculating the total resistance looking back from the
terminals A and B with all the voltage sources shorted. We then get the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

The voltage Vs is defined as the total voltage across the terminals A and B when there is an open circuit
between them. That is without the load resistor RL connected.
Find the Equivalent Voltage (Vs)

We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit, and as VS = VAB the current flowing around
the loop is calculated as:

This current of 0.33 amperes (330mA) is common to both resistors so the voltage drop across the 20Ω resistor
or the 10Ω resistor can be calculated as:
 VAB = 20 – (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.
or
VAB = 10 + (10Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts, the same.

Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a series resistance of 6.67Ω’sand a voltage source
of 13.33v. With the 40Ω resistor connected back into the circuit we get:

and from this the current flowing around the circuit is given as:

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoff´s circuit law in the previous circuit
analysis tutorial.
Thevenin’s theorem can be used as another type of circuit analysis method and is particularly useful in the
analysis of complicated circuits consisting of one or more voltage or current source and resistors that are
arranged in the usual parallel and series connections.
Nortons Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and resistances can be
replaced by a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single Resistor“.
As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value of the resistance looking
back into the network with all the current sources open circuited and IS is the short circuit current at the output
terminals as shown below.

Nortons equivalent circuit.

The value of this “constant current” is one which would flow if the two output terminals where shorted together
while the source resistance would be measured looking back into the terminals, (the same as Thevenin).
For example, consider our now familiar circuit from the previous section.

To find the Nortons equivalent of the above circuit we firstly have to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor and
short out the terminals A and B to give us the following circuit.

When the terminals A and B are shorted together the two resistors are connected in parallel across their two
respective voltage sources and the currents flowing through each resistor as well as the total short circuit current
can now be calculated as

with A-B Shorted Out

If we short-out the two voltage sources and open circuit terminals A and B, the two resistors are now effectively
connected together in parallel. The value of the internal resistor Rs is found by calculating the total resistance at
the terminals A and B giving us the following circuit.
Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

Having found both the short circuit current, Is and equivalent internal resistance, Rsthis then gives us the
following Nortons equivalent circuit.

Nortons equivalent circuit.

Ok, so far so good, but we now have to solve with the original 40Ω load resistor connected across
terminals A and B as shown below.

Again, the two resistors are connected in parallel across the terminals A and B which gives us a total resistance
of:
The voltage across the terminals A and B with the load resistor connected is given as:

Then the current flowing in the 40Ω load resistor can be found as:

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchhoff´s circuit law in the previous tutorials.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is another useful circuit analysis method to ensure that the
maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance when the value of the load resistance is
exactly equal to the resistance of the power source. The relationship between the load impedance and the
internal impedance of the energy source will give the power in the load. Consider the circuit below.

Thevenins Equivalent Circuit.

In our Thevenin equivalent circuit above, the maximum power transfer theorem states that “the maximum
amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance if it is equal in value to the Thevenin or Norton source
resistance of the network supplying the power“.
In other words, the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation must be equal in value to the
equivalent Thevenin source resistance, then RL = RS but if the load resistance is lower or higher in value than
the Thevenin source resistance of the network, its dissipated power will be less than maximum.
For example, find the value of the load resistance, RL that will give the maximum power transfer in the
following circuit.
Maximum Power Transfer Example No1.
 Where:
RS = 25Ω
RL is variable between 0 – 100Ω
VS = 100v

Then by using the following Ohm’s Law equations:

We can now complete the following table to determine the current and power in the circuit for different values
of load resistance.
Superposition Theorem Statement

The superposition theorem states that in any linear bilateral network that consisting of two or more independent
sources, current through (or voltage across) an element is the algebraic sum of the currents through (voltages
across) that element caused by each independent source acting alone with all other sources are replaced by their
internal resistances. We know that as long as the linearity exists between the source and contribution, the total
contribution due to various sources acting simultaneously is equal to the algebraic sum of individual
contributions due to individual source acting at a time.

Therefore, if the circuit consists of N independent sources, we have to analyse N circuits, each will produce a
result with respect to each individual source. And finally these individual results must be added to get the whole
analysis of the circuit. Therefore, this require more work however, this theorem will be very useful in analysing
the various parts of a complex circuit.

Steps to Analyse Superposition Theorem

1. Consider the various independent sources in a given circuit.

2. Select and retain one of the independent sources and replace all other sources with their internal resistances
or else replace the current sources with open circuits and voltage sources with short circuits.

3. To avoid confusion re-label the voltage and current notations suitably.

4. Find out the desired voltage/currents due to the one source acting alone using various circuit reduction
techniques.

5. Repeat the steps 2 to 4 for each independent source in the given circuit.

6. Algebraically add all the voltages/currents that are obtained from each individual source (Consider the
voltage signs and current directions while adding).

Example :

1. Let us consider the below simple DC circuit to apply the superposition theorem such that we will obtain the
voltage across the resistance 10 Ohms (load terminals). Consider that in a given circuit there are two
independent sources as voltage and current sources as shown in figure.

2. First, we retain one source at a time that means , only voltage source is acting in the circuit and the current
source is replaced with internal resistance (infinite) so it becomes open circuited as shown in figure.

Consider VL1 is the voltage across the load terminals with voltage source acting alone, then

VL1 = Vs × RL / (RL + R1)

= 20 × 10 / (10 + 20)

= 6. 66 Volts

3. Retain the current source alone and replace the voltage source with its internal resistance (zero) so it becomes
a short circuited as shown in figure.
 Consider that VL2 is the voltage across the load terminals when current source acting alone. Then
VL2 = IL × RL

IL = I × R1 / (R1 + RL)

= 1 × 20 / (20 +30)
= 0.4 Amps

VL2 = 0.4 × 10

= 4 Volts

Therefore, according the superposition theorem, the voltage across the load is the sum of VL1 and VL2

VL = VL1 + VL2

= 6.66 + 4

= 10.66 Volts

Reciprocity Theorem:

Reciprocity Theorem states that – In any branch of a network or circuit, the current due to a single source of
voltage (V) in the network is equal to the current through that branch in which the source was originally
placed when the source is again put in the branch in which the current was originally obtained.This theorem is
used in the bilateral linear network which consists bilateral components.

In simple words, we can state the reciprocity theorem as when the places of voltage and current source in any
network are interchanged the amount or magnitude of current and voltage flowing in the circuit remains the
same. This theorem is used for solving many DC and AC network which have many applications in
electromagnetism electronics.Their circuit does not have any time varying element.
Explanation of Reciprocity Theorem
The location of the voltage source and the current source may be interchanged without a change in current.
However, the polarity of the voltage source should be identical with the direction of the branch current in each
position.

The Reciprocity Theorem is explained with the help of the circuit diagram shown below

The various resistances R1, R2,

R3 is connected in the circuit diagram above with a voltage source (V) and a current source (I). It is clear from
the figure above that the voltage source and current sources are interchanged for solving the network with the
help of Reciprocity Theorem.

The limitation of this theorem is that it is applicable only to single source networks and not in the multi-source
network. The network where reciprocity theorem is applied should be linear and consist of resistors, inductors,
capacitors and coupled circuits. The circuit should not have any time-varying elements.

Steps for Solving a Network Utilizing Reciprocity Theorem

Step 1 – Firstly, select the branches between which reciprocity has to be established.

Step 2 – The current in the branch is obtained using any conventional network analysis method.

Step 3 – The voltage source is interchanged between the branch which is selected.

Step 4 – The current in the branch where the voltage source was existing earlier is calculated.

Step 5 – Now, it is seen that the current obtained in the previous connection, i.e., in step 2 and the current
which is calculated when the source is interchanged, i.e., in step 4 are identical to each other.
Two-Port Networks
two port network is a pair of two terminal electrical network in which, current enters through one terminal
and leaves through another terminal of each port. Two port network representation is shown in the following
figure.

each pair of equations will give a set off four parameters

Here, one pair of terminals, 1 & 1’ represents one port, which is called as port1 and the other pair of terminals,
2 & 2’ represents another port, which is called as port2.

There are four variables V1, V2, I1 and I2 in a two port network as shown in the figure. Out of which, we can
choose two variables as independent and another two variables as dependent. So, we will get six possible pairs
of equations. These equations represent the dependent variables in terms of independent variables. The
coefficients of independent variables are called as parameters. So,

Two Port Network Parameters

Z Parameters
Z parameters are also known as impedance parameters. When we use Z parameter for analyzing two part

network, the voltages are represented as the function of currents. So,

The Z parameters are,

The voltages are represented as

Y Parameters
Y parameter is dual of Z parameter.

In the two part network represented by admittance, the current and voltage related by the following equations,

h Parameters

h parameters also known as hybrid parameters.

In hybrid parameter circuit, voltage gain, current gain, impedance and admittance are used to determines
relation between current and voltage of two port network.,
ABCD Parameters
These are also called transmission parameters. Here, voltage and current and of input part are expressed in term
of output part.

Here,

In matrix form it can be written as,

 UNIT- III
DC Motors: Principle of Operation of DC Motors, Types of DC Motors, Torque Equation, Losses and
Efficiency Calculation in DC Motor- Swinburne’s Test and Applications.
Transformers: Principles of Operation, EMF equation, Losses and Efficiency, Regulation of Transformer,
Testing: OC & SC Tests.

DC Motors:

Working Principle of DC Motor

An Electric DC motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. The working of DC
motor is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field,
it experiences a mechanical force.

The direction of mechanical force is given by Fleming’s Left-hand Rule and its magnitude is given by F
= BIl Newton.

There is no basic difference in the construction of a DC generator and a DC motor. In fact, the same d.c.
machine can be used interchangeably as a generator or as a motor. Like generators DC motors are also
classified in to shunt-wound, series-wound and compound-wound.

DC motors are seldom used in ordinary applications because all electric supply companies furnish alternating
current.

However, for special applications such as in steel mills, mines and electric trains, it is advantageous to convert
alternating current into direct current in order to use dc motors. The reason is that speed/torque characteristics
of d.c. motors are much more superior to that of a.c. motors. Therefore, it is not surprising to note that for
industrial drives, d.c. motors are as popular as 3-phase induction motors.

Working of DC Motor

Consider a part of a multipolar d.c. motor as shown in Figure below. When the terminals of the motor are
connected to an external source of d.c. supply:
(i) the field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles;
(ii) the armature conductors carry currents. All conductors under N-pole carry currents in one direction while all
the conductors under S-pole carry currents in the opposite direction.

Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of the paper and those under S-pole carry
currents out of the plane of the paper as shown in Figure. Since each armature conductor is carrying current and
is placed in the magnetic field, mechanical force acts on it. On applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear that
force on each conductor is tending to rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction. All these forces add
together to produce a driving torque which sets the armature rotating.
When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in that conductor is reversed and at
the same time it comes under the influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity. Consequently, the
direction of force on the conductor remains the same.

It should be noted that the function of a commutator in the motor is the same as in a generator. By reversing
current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to another, it helps to develop a continuous and
unidirectional torque.

Types of DC Motor
A Direct Current Motor, DC is named according to the connection of the field winding with the armature.
Mainly there are two types of DC Motors. First, one is Separately Excited DC Motor and Self-excited DC
Motor. The self-excited motors are further classified as Shunt wound or shunt motor, Series woundor series
motor and Compound wound or compound motor.

The dc motor converts the electrical power into mechanical power is known as dc motor. The construction of
the dc motor and generator are same. But the dc motor has the wide range of speed and good speed regulation
which in electric traction. The working principle of the dc motor is based on the principle that the current
carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field and a mechanical force experience by it.

The DC motor is generally used in the location where require protective enclosure, for example, drip-proof, the
fireproof, etc. according to the requirements. The detailed description of the various types of the motor is given
below.

Separately Excited DC Motor

As the name signifies, the field coils or field windings are energised by a separate DC source as shown in the
circuit diagram shown below.

Separately Excited DC Motor

Self Excited DC Motor
As the name implies self-excited, hence, in this type of motor, the current in the windings is supplied by the
machine or motor itself. Self-excited DC Motor is further divided into shunt wound, and series wound motor.
They are explained below in detail.

Shunt Wound Motor

This is the most common types of DC Motor. Here the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
as shown in the figure below.

Shunt Wound DC Motor

The current, voltage and power equations for a shunt motor are written as follows.

By applying KCL at the junction A in the above figure.

The sum of the incoming currents at A = Sum of the outgoing currents at A.

Where,
I is the input line current
Ia is the armature current
Ish is the shunt field current

Equation (1) is the current equation.

The voltage equations are written by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) for the field winding circuit.

For armature winding circuit the equation will be given as

The power equation is given as

Power input = mechanical power developed + losses in the armature + loss in the field.

Multiplying equation (3) by Ia we get the following equations.

Where,
VIa is the electrical power supplied to the armature of the motor.

Series Wound Motor

In the series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding. The connection diagram
is shown below.

Series Wound Motor

By applying the KCL in the above figure

Where,

Ise is the series field current

The voltage equation can be obtained by applying KVL in the above figure
The power equation is obtained by multiplying equation (8) by I we get

Power input = mechanical power developed + losses in the armature + losses in the field

Comparing the equation (9) and (10), we will get the equation shown below.

Compound Wound Motor

A DC Motor having both shunt and series field windings is called a Compound Motor. The connection
diagram of the compound motor is shown below.

Compound Motor
The compound motor is further subdivided as Cumulative Compound Motor and Differential
Compound Motor. In cumulative compound motor the flux produced by both the windings is in the same
direction, i.e.

In differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings is opposite to the flux produced
by the shunt field winding, i.e.

The positive and negative sign indicates that direction of the flux produced in the field windings.

Torque Equation of a DC Motor

When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor conductors carry current. These
conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus, each conductor experiences a force. The conductors lie
near the surface of the rotor at a common radius from its centre. Hence, a torque is produced around the
circumference of the rotor, and the rotor starts rotating.

When the machine operates as a generator at a constant speed, this torque is equal and opposite to that provided
by the prime mover. When the machine is operating as a motor, the torque is transferred to the shaft of the rotor
and drives the mechanical load. The expression is same for the generator and motor.

When the current carrying current is placed in the magnetic field, a force is exerted or it which exerts turning
moment or torque F x r. This torque is produced due to the electromagnetic effect, hence is
called Electromagnetic torque. The torque which is produced in the armature is not fully used at the shaft for
doing the useful work. Some part of it where lost due to mechanical losses. The torque which is used for doing
useful work in known as the shaft torque.

Since,

Multiplying the equation (1) by Ia we get

Where,
VIa is the electrical power input to the armature.

I2aRa is the copper loss in the armature.

We know that,

Total electrical power supplied to the armature = Mechanical power developed by the armature + losses
due to armature resistance

Now, the mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm.

Also, the mechanical power rotating armature can be given regarding torque T and speed n.

Where n is in revolution per seconds (rps) and T is in Newton-Meter.

Hence,

But,

Where N is the speed in revolution per minute (rpm) and

Where, n is the speed in (rps).

Therefore,

So, the torque equation is given as

For a particular DC Motor, the number of poles (P) and the number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A) are
constant.

Where,

Thus, from the above equation (5) it is clear that the torque produced in the armature is directly proportional to
the flux per pole and the armature current. Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic torque developed in the
armature depends upon the current in armature conductors. If either of the two is reversed the direction of
torque produced is reversed and hence the direction of rotation. But when both are reversed, and direction of
torque does not change.

Losses In A Rotating DC Machine

 Copper losses
 Armature Cu loss
 Field Cu loss
 Loss due to brush contact resistance
 Iron Losses
 Hysteresis loss
 Eddy current loss
  Mechanical losses
 Friction loss
 Windage loss
The above tree categorizes various types of losses that occur in a dc generator or a dc motor. Each of these is
explained in details below.

Copper Losses
These losses occur in armature and field copper windings. Copper losses consist of Armature copper loss, Field
copper loss and loss due to brush contact resistance.

Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra (where, Ia = Armature current and Ra = Armature resistance)
This loss contributes about 30 to 40% to full load losses. The armature copper loss is variable and depends upon
the amount of loading of the machine.

Field copper loss = If2Rf (where, If = field current and Rf = field resistance)
In the case of a shunt wounded field, field copper loss is practically constant. It contributes about 20 to 30% to
full load losses.

Brush contact resistance also contributes to the copper losses. Generally, this loss is included into armature
copper loss.

Iron Losses (Core Losses)

As the armature core is made of iron and it rotates in a magnetic field, a small current gets induced in the core
itself too. Due to this current, eddy current loss and hysteresis loss occur in the armature iron core. Iron losses
are also called as Core losses or magnetic losses.

Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of magnetization of the armature core. When the core passes under one
pair of poles, it undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic reversal. The frequency of magnetic reversal if given
by, f=P.N/120 (where, P = no. of poles and N = Speed in rpm)
The loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value of flux
density. Hysteresis loss is given by, Steinmetz formula:
Wh=ηBmax1.6 fV (watts)
where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant
V = volume of the core in m3

Eddy current loss: When the armature core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is also induced in the core
(just like it induces in armature conductors), according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
Though this induced emf is small, it causes a large current to flow in the body due to the low resistance of the
core. This current is known as eddy current. The power loss due to this current is known as eddy current loss.

Mechanical Losses
Mechanical losses consist of the losses due to friction in bearings and commutator. Air friction loss of rotating
armature also contributes to these.
These losses are about 10 to 20% of full load losses.
Stray Losses
In addition to the losses stated above, there may be small losses present which are called as stray losses or
miscellaneous losses. These losses are difficult to account. They are usually due to inaccuracies in the designing
and modeling of the machine. Most of the times, stray losses are assumed to be 1% of the full load.

Swinburne’s Test
Swinburne’s Test is an indirect method of testing of DC machines. In this method the losses are measured
separately and the efficiency at any desired load is predetermined. Machines are tested for finding out losses,
efficiency and temperature rise. For small machines direct loading test is performed. For large shunt machines,
indirect methods are used like Swinburne’s or Hopkinson’s test.

The machine is running as a motor at rated voltage and speed. The connection diagram for DC shunt machine is
shown in the figure below.

Let V be the supply voltage

I0 is the no-load current

Ish is the shunt field current

Therefore, no load armature current is given by the equation shown below.

No-load input = VI0

The no-load power input to the machine supplies the following, as given below.

ron loss in the core

Friction losses in the bearings and commutators.

Windage loss

Armature copper loss at no load.

When the machine is loaded, the temperature of the armature winding and the field winding increases due to
I2R losses. For calculating I2R losses hot resistances should be used. A stationary measurement of resistances at
room temperature of t degree Celsius is made by passing current through the armature and then field from a low
voltage DC supply. Then the heated resistance, allowing a temperature rise of 50⁰C is found. The equations are
as follows:-

Where, α0 is the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0⁰C

Therefore,

Stray loss = iron loss + friction loss + windage loss = input at no load – field copper loss – no load armature
copper loss

Also, constant losses

If the constant losses of the machine are known, its efficiency at any other load can be determined as follows.

Let I be the load current at which efficiency is required.

Efficiency when the machine is running as a Motor.

Therefore, total losses is given as

The efficiency of the motor is given below.

Efficiency when the machine is running as a Generator.

Therefore, total losses is given as

The efficiency of the generator is given below.

Advantages of Swinburne’s Test

 The main advantages of the Swinburne’s test are as follows:-

 The power required to test a large machine is small. Thus, this method is an economical and convenient
method of testing of DC machines.
 As the constant loss is known the efficiency can be predetermined at any load.

Disadvantages of Swinburne’s Test

 Change in iron loss is not considered at full load from no load. Due to armature reaction flux is distorted at
full load and, as a result, iron loss is increased.
 As the Swinburne’s test is performed at no load. Commutation on full load cannot be determined whether it
is satisfactory or not and whether the temperature rise is within the specified limits or not.

Transformers

Definition of Transformer
An electrical power transformer is a static device, which transforms electrical energy from one circuit to
another without any direct electrical connection. It also performs this with the help of mutual induction between
two windings. It can transform power from one circuit to another without changing its frequency, but may be at
different voltage levels depending upon the need.

Single Phase Transformer Schematic

Transformer Construction (single-phase)

Where:

VP - is the Primary Voltage

VS - is the Secondary Voltage

NP - is the Number of Primary Windings

NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings

Φ (phi) - is the Flux Linkage

Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only linked magnetically. A single-
phase transformer can operate to either increase or decrease the voltage applied to the primary winding. When a
transformer is used to “increase” the voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is called
a Step-up transformer. When it is used to “decrease” the voltage on the secondary winding with respect to the
primary it is called a Step-down transformer.
However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same voltage on its secondary as is
applied to its primary winding. In other words, its output is identical with respect to voltage, current and power
transferred. This type of transformer is called an “Impedance Transformer” and is mainly used for impedance
matching or the isolation of adjoining electrical circuits.
The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is achieved by changing the number
of coil turns in the primary winding ( NP ) compared to the number of coil turns on the secondary winding
( NS ).
As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists between the number of turns of the primary
coil divided by the number of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more
commonly known as a transformers “turns ratio”, ( TR ). This turns ratio value dictates the operation of the
transformer and the corresponding voltage available on the secondary winding.
It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary winding compared to the
secondary winding. The turns ratio, which has no units, compares the two windings in order and is written with
a colon, such as 3:1 (3-to-1). This means in this example, that if there are 3 volts on the primary winding there
will be 1 volt on the secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt. Then we can see that if the ratio between the number
of turns changes the resulting voltages must also change by the same ratio, and this is true.
 Transformers are all about “ratios”. The ratio of the primary to the secondary, the ratio of the input to the
output, and the turns ratio of any given transformer will be the same as its voltage ratio. In other words for a
transformer: “turns ratio = voltage ratio”. The actual number of turns of wire on any winding is generally not
important, just the turns ratio and this relationship is given as:
A Transformers Turns Ratio

Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles: ΦP ≡ ΦS

Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a transformers turns ratio value is very important as the
turns ratio 3:1 expresses a very different transformer relationship and output voltage than one in which the turns
ratio is given as: 1:3.
EMF Equation of a Transformer
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, alternating flux ϕ m sets up in the
iron core of the transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary and secondary winding. The function
of flux is a sine function. The rate of change of flux with respect to time is derived mathematically.

The derivation of EMF Equation of the transformer is shown below. Let

 ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber

 f be the supply frequency in Hz
 N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
 N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding

Φ is the flux per turn in Weber

As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f seconds.

By Faraday’s Law
Let E1 is the emf induced in the primary winding

Where Ψ = N1ϕ

Since ϕ is due to AC supply ϕ = ϕm Sinwt

So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf

But w = 2πf

Root mean square RMS value is

Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get

Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will get the value of E 1 as
Similarly

Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get

Losses In Transformer

(I) Core Losses Or Iron Losses

Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used for the
construction of core. Hence these losses are also known as core losses or iron losses.

 Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the transformer
core. This loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value
of flux density. It can be given by, Steinmetz formula:
Wh= ηBmax1.6 fV (watts)
where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant
V = volume of the core in m3
 Eddy current loss in transformer: In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary winding
which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with secondary winding, it produces
induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets linked with other conducting parts like steel core or
iron body or the transformer, which will result in induced emf in those parts, causing small circulating
current in them. This current is called as eddy current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be
dissipated in the form of heat.

(II) Copper Loss In Transformer

Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings. Copper loss for the primary winding is
I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and secondary winding
respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary winding respectively. It is clear that Cu
loss is proportional to square of the current, and current depends on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer
varies with the load.

Efficiency Of Transformer
Just like any other electrical machine, efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the output power divided
by the input power. That is efficiency = output / input .

Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the transformers have full load efficiency
between 95% to 98.5% . As a transformer being highly efficient, output and input are having nearly same value,
and hence it is impractical to measure the efficiency of transformer by using output / input. A better method to
find efficiency of a transformer is using, efficiency = (input - losses) / input = 1 - (losses / input).

Condition For Maximum Efficiency

Let,

Copper loss = I12R1

Iron loss = Wi

Hence, efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper loss and iron losses are equal.
That is Copper loss = Iron loss.

All Day Efficiency Of Transformer

As we have seen above, ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer can be given as

But in some types of transformers, their performance can not be judged by this efficiency. For example,
distribution transformers have their primaries energized all the time. But, their secondaries supply little load all
no-load most of the time during day (as residential use of electricity is observed mostly during evening till
midnight).
That is, when secondaries of transformer are not supplying any load (or supplying only little load), then only
core losses of transformer are considerable and copper losses are absent (or very little). Copper losses are
considerable only when transformers are loaded. Thus, for such transformers copper losses are relatively less
important. The performance of such transformers is compared on the basis of energy consumed in one day.

All day efficiency of a transformer is always less than ordinary efficiency of it.

Open Circuit Test on Transformer

The efficiency and regulation of a transformer on any load condition and at any power factor condition can be
predetermined by indirect loading method. In this method, the actual load is not used on transformer. But the
equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer are determined by conducting two tests on a transformer which
are,

1. Open circuit test (O.C Test)

2. Short circuit test (S.C.Test)

The parameters calculated from these test results are effective in determining the regulation and efficiency
of a transformer at any load and power factor condition, without actually loading the transformer. The
advantage of this method is that without much power loss the tests can be performed and results can be
obtained. Let us discuss in detail how to perform these tests and how to use the results to calculate equivalent
circuit parameters.

Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)

The experimental circuit to conduct O.C test is shown in the Fig. 1.

 The transformer primary is connected to a.c. supply through ammeter, wattmeter and variac. The secondary
of transformer is kept open. Usually low voltage side is used as primary and high voltage side as secondary to
conduct O.C test.

The primary is excited by rated voltage, which is adjusted precisely with the help of a variac. The
wattmeter measures input power. The ammeter measures input current. The voltemeter gives the value of rated
primary voltage applied at rated frequency.

Sometimes a voltmeter may be connected across secondary to measure secondary voltage which is V 2 =
E2 when primary is supplied with rated voltage. As voltmeter resistance is very high, though voltmeter is
connected, secondary is treated to be open circuit as voltmeter current is always negligibly small.

When the primary voltage is adjusted to its rated value with the help of variac, readings of ammeter and
wattmeter are to be recorded.

The observation table is as follows

Vo = Rated voltage
Wo = Input power
Io = Input current = no load current

As transformer secondary is open, it is on no load. So current drawn by the primary is no load current I o.
The two components of this no load current are,

Im = Io sin Φo
Ic = Io cos Φo
where cos Φo = No load power factor
And hence power input can be written as,
Wo = Vo Io cos Φo
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.

As secondary is open, I2 = 0. Thus its reflected current on primary is also zero. So we have primary current
I1 =Io. The transformer no load current is always very small, hardly 2 to 4 % of its full load value. As I2 = 0,
secondary copper losses are zero. And I1 = Io is very low hence copper losses on primary are also very very low.
Thus the total copper losses in O.C. test are negligibly small. As against this the input voltage is rated at rated
frequency hence flux density in the core is at its maximum value. Hence iron losses are at rated voltage. As
output power is zero and copper losses are very low, the total input power is used to supply iron losses. This
power is measured by the wattmeter i.e. Wo. Hence the wattmeter in O.C. test gives iron losses which remain
constant for all the loads.

... Wo = Pi = Iron losses

Calculations : We know that,
Wo = Vo Io cos Φ
cos Φo = Wo /(Vo Io ) = no load power factor
Once cos Φo is known we can obtain,
Ic = Io cos Φo
and Im = Io sin Φo
Once Ic and Im are known we can determine exciting circuit parameters as,
Ro = Vo /Ic Ω
and Xo = Vo /Im Ω

Key Point : The no load power factor cos Φ o is very low hence wattmeter used must be low power factor type
otherwise there might be error in the results. If the meters are connected on secondary and primary is kept open
then from O.C. test we get Ro' and Xo' with which we can obtain Ro and Xo knowing the transformation ratio K.

Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test)

In this test, primary is connected to a.c. supply through variac, ammeter and voltmeter as shown in the Fig.
.

The secondary is short circuited with the help of thick copper wire or solid link. As high voltage side is
always low current side, it is convenient to connect high voltage side to supply and shorting the low voltage
side.

As secondary is shorted, its resistance is very very small and on rated voltage it may draw very large
current. Such large current can cause overheating and burning of the transformer. To limit this short circuit
current, primary is supplied with low voltage which is just enough to cause rated current to flow through
primary which can be observed on an ammeter. The low voltage can be adjusted with the help of variac. Hence
this test is also called low voltage test or reduced voltage test. The wattmeter reading as well as voltmeter,
ammeter readings are recorded. The observation table is as follows,

Now the current flowing through the windings are rated current hence the total copper loss is full load
copper loss. Now the voltage supplied is low which is a small fraction of the rated voltage. The iron losses are
function of applied voltage. So the iron losses in reduced voltage test are very small. Hence the wattmeter
reading is the power loss which is equal to full load copper losses as iron losses are very low.

... Wsc = (Pcu) F.L. = Full load copper loss

Calculations : From S.C. test readings we can write,
Wsc = Vsc Isc cos Φsc
.
.. cos Φsc = Vsc Isc /Wsc = short circuit power factor
Wsc = Isc2 R1e = copper loss
... R1e =Wsc /Isc2
while Z1e =Vsc /Isc = √(R1e2 + X1e2)
... X1e = √(Z1e2 - R1e2)

Thus we get the equivalent circuit parameters R1e, X1e and Z1e. Knowing the transformation ratio K, the
equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary also can be obtained.
 PART B

UNIT-I

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Syllabus: Intrinsic semiconductors-Electron-Hole Pair Generation, Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductors,

Extrinsic Semiconductors-N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors, Comparison of N-Type and P-Type
Semiconductors. The p-n Junction – Drift and Diffusion Currents, The p-n Junction Diode-Forward Bias,
Reverse Bias, Volt-Ampere Characteristics- Diode Specifications, Applications of Diode, Diode as a Switch.
Diode as a Rectifier-Half-wave Rectifier, Full-Wave Rectifier, Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier, Rectifiers with
Filters, Zener Diode- Volt-Ampere.

Intrinsic Semiconductor and Extrinsic Semiconductor

The semiconductor is divided into two types. One is Intrinsic Semiconductorand other is an Extrinsic
semiconductor. The pure form of the semiconductor is known as the intrinsic semiconductor and the
semiconductor in which intentionally impurities is added for making it conductive is known as the extrinsic
semiconductor.The conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor become zero at room temperature while the
extrinsic semiconductor is very little conductive at room temperature. The detailed explanation of the two types
of the semiconductor is given below.

Contents:

Intrinsic Semiconductor

Extrinsic Semiconductor

Doping

Intrinsic Semiconductor
An extremely pure semiconductor is called as Intrinsic Semiconductor. On the basis of the energy band
phenomenon, an intrinsic semiconductor at absolute zero temperature is shown below.
Its valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is completely empty. When the temperature is
raised and some heat energy is supplied to it, some of the valence electrons are lifted to conduction band
leaving behind holes in the valence band as shown below.

The electrons reaching at the conduction band move randomly. The holes created in the crystal also free to
move anywhere. This behavior of the semiconductor shows that they have a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance. This means that with the increase in temperature, the resistivity of the material decreases and the
conductivity increases.
Extrinsic Semiconductor

A semiconductor to which an impurity at controlled rate is added to make it conductive is known as an extrinsic
Semiconductor.

An intrinsic semiconductor is capable to conduct a little current even at room temperature, but it is not useful
for the preparation of various electronic devices. Thus, to make it conductive a small amount of suitable
impurity is added to the material.

Doping
The process by which an impurity is added to a semiconductor is known as Doping. The amount and type of
impurity which is to be added to a material has to be closely controlled during the preparation of extrinsic
semiconductor. Generally, one impurity atom is added to a 108 atoms of a semiconductor.

The purpose of adding impurity in the semiconductor crystal is to increase the number of free electrons or holes
to make it conductive. If a Pentavalent impurity, having five valence electrons is added to a pure semiconductor
a large number of free electrons will exist.
 If a trivalent impurity having three valence electrons is added, a large number of holes will exist in the
semiconductor.

Depending upon the type of impurity added the extrinsic semiconductor may be classified as n type
semiconductor and p type semiconductor.

p Type Semiconductor
The extrinsic p-Type Semiconductor is formed when a trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor in
a small amount, and as a result, a large number of holes are created in it. A large number of holes are provided
in the semiconductor material by the addition of trivalent impurities like Gallium andIndium. Such type of
impurities which produces p-type semiconductor are known as an Acceptor Impurities because each atom of
them create one hole which can accept one electron.

Contents:

 Energy Band Diagram of p-Type Semiconductor

 Conduction Through p-Type Semiconductor

fits in the germanium crystal in such A trivalent impurity like gallium, having three valence electrons is added
to germanium crystal in a small amount. Each atom of the impurity a way that its three valence electrons form
covalent bonds with the three surrounding germanium atoms as shown in the figure below.

In the fourth covalent bonds, only the germanium atom contributes one valence electron, while gallium atom
has no valence bonds. Hence, the fourth covalent bond is incomplete, having one electron short. This missing
electron is known as a Hole. Thus, each gallium atom provides one hole in the germanium crystal.
As an extremely small amount of Gallium impurity has a large number of atoms, therefore, it provides millions
of holes in the semiconductor.

Energy Band Diagram of p-Type Semiconductor

The energy band diagram of a p-Type Semiconductor is shown below.

A large number of holes or vacant space in the covalent bond is created in the crystal with the addition of
thetrivalent impurity. A small or minute quantity of free electrons is also available in the conduction band.

They are produced when thermal energy at room temperature is imparted to the germanium crystal forming
electron-hole pairs. But the holes are more in number as compared to the electrons in the conduction band. It is
because of the predominance of holes over electrons that the material is called as a p-type semiconductor. The
word “p” stands for the positive material.

Conduction Through p Type Semiconductor

In p type semiconductor large number of holes are created by the trivalent impurity. When a potential
difference is applied across this type of semiconductor as shown in the figure below.
 The holes are available in the valence band are directed towards the negative terminal. As the current flow
through the crystal is by holes, which are carrier of positive charge, therefore, this type of conductivity is
known as positive or p type conductivity. In a p type conductivity the valence electrons move from one
covalent to another.

The conductivity of n type semiconductor is nearly double to that of p type semiconductor. The electrons
available in the conduction band of the n type semiconductor are much more movable than holes available in
the valence band in a p type semiconductor. The mobility of holes is poor as they are more bound to the
nucleus.

Even at the room temperature the electron hole pairs are formed. These free electrons which are available in
minute quantity also carry a little amount of current in the p type semiconductors.

n Type Semiconductor
When a small amount of Pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor providing a large number of
free electrons in it, the extrinsic semiconductor thus formed is known as n-Type Semiconductor. The
conduction in the n-type semiconductor is because of the free electrons denoted by the pentavalent impurity
atoms. These electrons are the excess free electrons with regards to the number of free electrons required to fill
the covalent bonds in the semiconductors.

Contents:

 Energy Diagram of n-Type Semiconductor

 Conduction Through n-Type Semiconductor

The addition of Pentavalent impurities such as arsenic and antimony provides a large number of free electrons
in the semiconductor crystal. Such impurities which produce n-type semiconductors are known as Donor
Impurities. They are called a donor impurity because each atom of them donates one free electron crystal.
When a few Pentavalent impurities such as Arsenic whose atomic number is 33, which is categorised as 2, 8,
15 and 5. It has five valence electrons, which is added to germanium crystal. Each atom of the impurity fits in
four germanium atoms as shown in the figure above.

Hence, each Arsenic atom provides one free electron in the Germanium crystal. Since an extremely small
amount of arsenic, impurity has a large number of atoms; it provides millions of free electrons for conduction.

Energy Diagram of n-Type Semiconductor

The Energy diagram of the n-type semiconductor is shown in the figure below.

A large number of free electrons are available in the conduction band because of the addition of the Pentavalent
impurity. These electrons are free electrons which did not fit in the covalent bonds of the crystal.However, a
minute quantity of free electrons is available in the conduction band forming hole- electron pairs.
The p-n Junction

A PN-junction is formed when an N-type material is fused together with a P-type material creating a
semiconductor diode

This is all well and good, but these newly doped N-type and P-type semiconductor materials do very little on
their own as they are electrically neutral. However, if we join (or fuse) these two semiconductor materials
together they behave in a very different way merging together and producing what is generally known as a “PN
Junction“.
When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a very large
density gradient exists between both sides of the PN junction. The result is that some of the free electrons from
the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed junction to fill up the holes in the P-type
material producing negative ions.
However, because the electrons have moved across the PN junction from the N-type silicon to the P-type
silicon, they leave behind positively charged donor ions ( ND ) on the negative side and now the holes from the
acceptor impurity migrate across the junction in the opposite direction into the region where there are large
numbers of free electrons.
As a result, the charge density of the P-type along the junction is filled with negatively charged acceptor ions
( NA ), and the charge density of the N-type along the junction becomes positive. This charge transfer of
electrons and holes across the PN junction is known as diffusion. The width of these P and N layers depends on
how heavily each side is doped with acceptor density NA, and donor density ND, respectively.
This process continues back and forth until the number of electrons which have crossed the junction have a
large enough electrical charge to repel or prevent any more charge carriers from crossing over the junction.
Eventually a state of equilibrium (electrically neutral situation) will occur producing a “potential barrier” zone
around the area of the junction as the donor atoms repel the holes and the acceptor atoms repel the electrons.
Since no free charge carriers can rest in a position where there is a potential barrier, the regions on either sides
of the junction now become completely depleted of any more free carriers in comparison to the N and P type
materials further away from the junction. This area around the PN Junction is now called the Depletion Layer.
The PN junction

The total charge on each side of a PN Junction must be equal and opposite to maintain a neutral charge
condition around the junction. If the depletion layer region has a distance D, it therefore must therefore
penetrate into the silicon by a distance of Dp for the positive side, and a distance of Dn for the negative side
giving a relationship between the two of: Dp*NA = Dn*ND in order to maintain charge neutrality also called
equilibrium.

PN Junction Distance

As the N-type material has lost electrons and the P-type has lost holes, the N-type material has become positive
with respect to the P-type. Then the presence of impurity ions on both sides of the junction cause an electric
field to be established across this region with the N-side at a positive voltage relative to the P-side. The problem
now is that a free charge requires some extra energy to overcome the barrier that now exists for it to be able to
cross the depletion region junction.
This electric field created by the diffusion process has created a “built-in potential difference” across the
junction with an open-circuit (zero bias) potential of:

Where: Eo is the zero bias junction voltage, VT the thermal voltage of 26mV at room
temperature, ND and NA are the impurity concentrations and ni is the intrinsic concentration.
A suitable positive voltage (forward bias) applied between the two ends of the PN junction can supply the free
electrons and holes with the extra energy. The external voltage required to overcome this potential barrier that
now exists is very much dependent upon the type of semiconductor material used and its actual temperature.
Typically at room temperature the voltage across the depletion layer for silicon is about 0.6 – 0.7 volts and for
germanium is about 0.3 – 0.35 volts. This potential barrier will always exist even if the device is not connected
to any external power source, as seen in diodes.
The significance of this built-in potential across the junction, is that it opposes both the flow of holes and
electrons across the junction and is why it is called the potential barrier. In practice, a PN junction is formed
within a single crystal of material rather than just simply joining or fusing together two separate pieces.
The result of this process is that the PN junction has rectifying current–voltage (IV or I–V) characteristics.
Electrical contacts are fused onto either side of the semiconductor to enable an electrical connection to be made
to an external circuit. The resulting electronic device that has been made is commonly called a PN junction
Diode or simply Signal Diode.
Then we have seen here that a PN junction can be made by joining or diffusing together differently doped
semiconductor materials to produce an electronic device called a diode which can be used as the basic
semiconductor structure of rectifiers, all types of transistors, LED’s, solar cells, and many more such solid state
devices.
In the next tutorial about the PN junction, we will look at one of the most interesting applications of the PN
junction is its use in circuits as a diode. By adding connections to each end of the P-type and the N-
type materials we can produce a two terminal device called a PN Junction Diode which can be biased by an
external voltage to either block or allow the flow of current through it.
Drift and Diffusion Currents
Drift current is the electric current, or movement of charge carriers, which is due to the applied electric field,
often stated as the electromotive force over a given distance. When an electric field is applied across a
semiconductor material, a current is produced due to flow of charge carriers.
Diffusion current is a current in a semiconductor caused by the diffusion of charge carriers (holes and/or
electrons). The drift current, by contrast, is due to the motion of charge carriers due to the force exerted on them
by an electric field. Diffusion current can be in the same or opposite direction of a drift current. The diffusion
current and drift current together are described by the drift–diffusion equation.
PN Junction Diode

A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type semiconductor creating a
potential barrier voltage across the diode junction

The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any external voltage being applied to the actual
PN junction resulting in the junction being in a state of equilibrium.
However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-type materials and
then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source now exists to overcome the potential barrier.
The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to cross the depletion
region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN junction with regards to the potential barrier’s width
produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better known as the PN Junction Diode.
A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the characteristic of
passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with
respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore
we can not described its operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it can supply
free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the width of the depletion
layer around the PN junction is decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from the junction
resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of increasing or decreasing the
effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking current flow through the diode.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and narrows with an
increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the differences in the electrical properties on the
two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking place. One of the results produces rectification
as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage) characteristics. Rectification is shown by an
asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias voltage is altered as shown below.

Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we need to firstly bias the
junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage axis above, “Reverse Bias” refers to an external
voltage potential which increases the potential barrier. An external voltage which decreases the potential barrier
is said to act in the “Forward Bias” direction.
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard Junction Diode and
these are:
 1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and
positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Increasing the PN
junction diode’s width.
 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material and
negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Decreasing the PN
junction diodes width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the PN junction.
However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers) in the P-type material with
enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the junction against this barrier potential.
This is known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF
Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation favourable and move
across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the “Reverse Current” and is referenced as IR.
This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is known as diffusion, as shown
below.
Zero Biased PN Junction Diode

The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers across the junction.
However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in the P-region and few holes in the N-
region) to drift across the junction.
Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal and both moving in
opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in the circuit. When this occurs the junction is
said to be in a state of “Dynamic Equilibrium“.
The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of equilibrium can be broken
by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an increase in the generation of minority carriers, thereby
resulting in an increase in leakage current but an electric current cannot flow since no circuit has been
connected to the PN junction.

Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type material and
a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.
The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away
from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the
negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high
impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus preventing current
from flowing through the semiconductor material.
Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows through
the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current does flow through
the junction which can be measured in micro-amperes, ( μA ).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough
value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction.
This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this
shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising circuits where a series limiting
resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset maximum value thereby
producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes
and are discussed in a later tutorial.
Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-type material
and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes greater than the value
of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers
opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to
cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the
positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called
the “knee” on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little increase in the external
voltage as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer becoming very
thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby allowing high currents to
flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V
characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.

Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large currents to flow
through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference across the junction
or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and
approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit,
therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward
current specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for
resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

 Semiconductor material: The semiconductor material used in the PN junction diode is of paramount
importance because the material used affects many of the major diode characteristics and properties.
Silicon is the most widely used material as if offers high levels of performance for most applications and
it offers low manufacturing costs. The other material that is used is germanium. Other materials are
generally reserved for more specialist diodes. The semiconductor material choice is of particular
importance as it governs the turn on voltage for the diode - around 0.6volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for
germanium, etc..
 Forward voltage drop (Vf): Any electronics device passing current will develop a resulting voltage
across it and this diode characteristic is of great importance, especially for power rectification where
power losses will be higher for a high forward voltage drop. Also RF diodes often need a small forward
voltage drop as signals may be small but still need to overcome it.

The voltage across a PN junction diode arise for two reasons. The first of the nature of the
semiconductor PN junction and results from the turn-on voltage mentioned above. This voltage enables
the depletion layer to be overcome and for current to flow. The second arises from the normal resistive
losses in the device. As a result a figure for the forward voltage drop are a specified current level will be
given. This figure is particularly important for rectifier diodes where significant levels of current may be
passed.
 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): This diode characteristics is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand
in the reverse direction. This voltage must not be exceeded otherwise the device may fail. This voltage
is not simply the RMS voltage of the incoming waveform. Each circuit needs to be considered on its
own merits, but for a simple single diode half wave rectifier with some form of smoothing capacitor
afterwards, it should be remembered that the capacitor will hold a voltage equal to the peak of the
incoming voltage waveform. The diode will then also see the peak of the incoming waveform in the
reverse direction and therefore under these circumstances it will see a peak inverse voltage equal to the
peak to peak value of the waveform.
 Maximum forward current: When designing a circuit that passes any levels of current it is necessary
to ensure that the maximum current levels for the diode are not exceeded. As the current levels rise, so
additional heat is dissipated and this needs to be removed.
 Leakage current: If a perfect diode were available, then no current would flow when it was reverse
biased. It is found that for a real PN junction diode, a very small amount of current flow in the reverse
direction as a result of the minority carriers in the semiconductor. The level of leakage current is
dependent upon three main factors. The reverse voltage is obviously significant. It is also temperature
dependent, rising appreciably with temperature. It is also found that it is very dependent upon the type
of semiconductor material used - silicon is very much better than germanium.

The leakage current characteristic or specification for a PN junction diode is specified at a certain
 reverse voltage and particular temperature. The specification is normally defined in terms of in
microamps, μA or picoamps, pA.
 Junction capacitance: All PN junction diodes exhibit a junction capacitance. The depletion region is
the dielectric spacing between the two plates which are effectively formed at the edge of the depletion
region and the area with majority carriers. The actual value of capacitance being dependent upon the
reverse voltage which causes the depletion region to change (increasing reverse voltage increases the
size of the depletion region and hence decreases the capacitance). This fact is used in varactor or varicap
diodes to good effect, but for many other applications, especially RF applications this needs to be
minimised. As the capacitance is of importance it is specified. The parameter is normally detailed as a
given capacitance (in pF) at a given voltage or voltages. Also special low capacitance diodes are
available for many RF applications.
 Package type: Diodes can be mounted in a variety of packages according to their applications, and in
some circumstances, especially RF applications, the package is a key element in defining the overall RF
diode characteristics. Also for power applications where heat dissipation is important, the package can
define many of the overall diode parameters because high power diodes may require packages that can
be bolted to heatsinks, whereas small signal diodes may be available in leaded formats or as surface
mount devices.

Applications of Diodes

Despite being just simple two-pin semiconductor devices, diodes are vital in modern electronics. Some of the
typical applications of diodes include:

 Rectifying a voltage, such as turning AC into DC voltages

 Isolating signals from a supply
 Controlling the size of a signal
 Mixing signals

 Half Wave Rectification

 A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current (AC) input power into a Direct
Current (DC) output power. The input power supply may be either a single-phase or a multi-phase
supply with the simplest of all the rectifier circuits being that of the Half Wave Rectifier.
 The power diode in a half wave rectifier circuit passes just one half of each complete sine wave of the
AC supply in order to convert it into a DC supply. Then this type of circuit is called a “half-wave”
rectifier because it passes only half of the incoming AC power supply as shown below.

 Half Wave Rectifier Circuit


 During each “positive” half cycle of the AC sine wave, the diode is forward biased as the anode is
positive with respect to the cathode resulting in current flowing through the diode.
 Since the DC load is resistive (resistor, R), the current flowing in the load resistor is therefore
proportional to the voltage (Ohm´s Law), and the voltage across the load resistor will therefore be the
same as the supply voltage, Vs (minus Vƒ), that is the “DC” voltage across the load is sinusoidal for the
first half cycle only so Vout = Vs.
 During each “negative” half cycle of the AC sinusoidal input waveform, the diode is reverse biased as
the anode is negative with respect to the cathode. Therefore, NO current flows through the diode or
circuit. Then in the negative half cycle of the supply, no current flows in the load resistor as no voltage
appears across it so therefore, Vout = 0.
 The current on the DC side of the circuit flows in one direction only making the circuit Unidirectional.
As the load resistor receives from the diode a positive half of the waveform, zero volts, a positive half of
the waveform, zero volts, etc, the value of this irregular voltage would be equal in value to an equivalent
DC voltage of 0.318*Vmax of the input sinusoidal waveform or 0.45*Vrms of the input sinusoidal
waveform.
 Then the equivalent DC voltage, VDC across the load resistor is calculated as follows.


 VDC and the current IDC, flowing through a 100Ω resistor connected to a 240 Vrms single phase half-
wave rectifier as shown above. Also calculate the DC power consumed by the load.


  During the rectification process the resultant output DC voltage and current are therefore both “ON” and
“OFF” during every cycle. As the voltage across the load resistor is only present during the positive half
of the cycle (50% of the input waveform), this results in a low average DC value being supplied to the
load.
 The variation of the rectified output waveform between this “ON” and “OFF” condition produces a
waveform which has large amounts of “ripple” which is an undesirable feature. The resultant DC ripple
has a frequency that is equal to that of the AC supply frequency.
 Very often when rectifying an alternating voltage we wish to produce a “steady” and continuous DC
voltage free from any voltage variations or ripple. One way of doing this is to connect a large value
Capacitor across the output voltage terminals in parallel with the load resistor as shown below. This type
of capacitor is known commonly as a “Reservoir” or Smoothing Capacitor.

 Half-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor


 When rectification is used to provide a direct voltage (DC) power supply from an alternating (AC)
source, the amount of ripple voltage can be further reduced by using larger value capacitors but there are
limits both on cost and size to the types of smoothing capacitors used.
 For a given capacitor value, a greater load current (smaller load resistance) will discharge the capacitor
more quickly ( RC Time Constant ) and so increases the ripple obtained. Then for single phase, half-
wave rectifier circuit using a power diode it is not very practical to try and reduce the ripple voltage by
capacitor smoothing alone. In this instance it would be more practical to use “Full-wave Rectification”
instead.
 In practice, the half-wave rectifier is used most often in low-power applications because of their major
disadvantages being. The output amplitude is less than the input amplitude, there is no output during the
negative half cycle so half the power is wasted and the output is pulsed DC resulting in excessive ripple.

Full Wave Rectifier

Power Diodes can be connected together to form a full wave rectifier that convert AC voltage into pulsating DC
voltage for use in power supplies
Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance (RL) with each
diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When point A of the transformer is positive with respect to
point C, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C, diode D2 conducts in the
forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the same direction for both half-cycles. As the
output voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the two waveforms combined, this type of full wave
rectifier circuit is also known as a “bi-phase” circuit.

The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit above, is that
of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes
connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the desired output.
The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby
reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network
and the load to the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes conducting current during
each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.

The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch
“OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.
The Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also
unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage
across the load is 0.637Vmax.

Typical Bridge Rectifier

However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of just one so the
amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2*0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The
ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply or 120Hz for a 60Hz
supply.)
Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge rectifier, pre-made bridge
rectifier components are available “off-the-shelf” in a range of different voltage and current sizes that can be
soldered directly into a PCB circuit board or be connected by spade connectors.
The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one corner cut off. This cut-off corner
indicates that the terminal nearest to the corner is the positive or +veoutput terminal or lead with the opposite
(diagonal) lead being the negative or -ve output lead. The other two connecting leads are for the input
alternating voltage from a transformer secondary winding.

The Smoothing Capacitor

We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier produces an output wave every half
cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of circuit to produce a steady DC supply. The full-wave
bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean DC value (0.637 Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while
the output waveform is twice that of the frequency of the input supply frequency.
We can improve the average DC output of the rectifier while at the same time reducing the AC variation of the
rectified output by using smoothing capacitors to filter the output waveform. Smoothing or reservoir capacitors
connected in parallel with the load across the output of the full wave bridge rectifier circuit increases the
average DC output level even higher as the capacitor acts like a storage device as shown below.

Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a more smooth DC output
voltage.
 UNIT-II

BJT and FETs

Syllabus: BJT and FETs: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) – Types of Transistors, Operation of NPN and
PNP Transistors, Input-Output Characteristics of BJT-CB, CE and CC Configurations, Relation between IC, IB
and IE. Transistor Biasing- Fixed Bias, Voltage Divider Bias, Transistor Applications- Transistor as an
Amplifier, Transistor as a Switch,. Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)- Theory and Operation of JFET,
Output Characteristics, Transfer Characteristics, Configurations of JFET-CD, CS and CG Configurations, JFET
Applications- JFET as an Amplifier, JFET as a Switch, Comparison of BJT and JFET,MOSFET-The
Enhancement and Depletion MOSFET, Static Characteristics of MOSFET, Applications of MOSFET.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The Bipolar Junction Transistor is a semiconductor device which can be used for switching or amplification

n the diode tutorials we saw that simple diodes are made up from two pieces of semiconductor material to form
a simple pn-junction and we also learnt about their properties and characteristics.
If we now join together two individual signal diodes back-to-back, this will give us two PN-junctions connected
together in series that share a common P or N terminal. The fusion of these two diodes produces a three layer,
two junction, three terminal device forming the basis of a Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT for short.
Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that can act as either
an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The transistor’s ability to change
between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: “switching” (digital electronics) or
“amplification” (analogue electronics). Then bipolar transistors have the ability to operate within three different
regions:
 Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β*Ib
 Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)
 Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and Ic = 0
 A Typical
Bipolar Transistor
The word Transistor is a combination of the two words Transfer Varistor which describes their mode of
operation way back in their early days of electronics development. There are two basic types of bipolar
transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-
type semiconductor materials from which they are made.
The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three connecting terminals
with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three terminals are known and
labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively.
Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing through them from
the Emitter to the Collector terminals in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base
terminal, thus acting like a current-controlled switch. As a small current flowing into the base terminal controls
a much larger collector current forming the basis of transistor action.
The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the only difference
being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for each type.

Bipolar Transistor Construction

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given above with the
arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of “conventional current flow” between the base
terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow always points from the positive P-type region to the
negative N-type region for both transistor types, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.
Types of Transistors

he transistor is an electronic equipment. It is made through p and n type semiconductor. When a semiconductor
is placed in center between same type semiconductors the arrangement is called transistors. We can say that a
transistor is the combination of two diodes it is a connected back to back. A transistor is a device that regulates
current or voltage flow and acts as a button or gate for electronic signals. Transistors consist of three layers of
a semiconductor device, each capable of moving a current. A semiconductor is a material such like that
germanium and silicon that conducts electricity in a “semi-enthusiastic” way. It’s anywhere between a genuine
conductor such as a copper and an insulator (similar to the plastic wrapped roughly wires).
Transistor Symbol

A diagrammatic form of n-p-n and p-n-p transistor is exposed. In circuit is a connection drawn form is used.
The arrow symbol defined the emitter current. In the n-p-n connection we identify electrons flow into the
emitter. This means that conservative current flows out of the emitter as an indicated by the outgoing arrow.
Equally it can be seen that for p-n-p connection, the conservative current flows into the emitter as exposed by
the inward arrow in the figure.

Transistor Symbols

There are so many types of transistors and they each vary in their characteristics and each has their possess
advantages and disadvantages. Some types of transistors are used mostly for switching applications. Others can
be used for both switching and amplification. Still other transistors are in a specialty group all of their own,
such as phototransistors, which react to the amount of light shining on it to produce current flow through it.
Below is a list of the different types of transistors; we will go over the characteristics that create them each up
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Bipolar Junction Transistors are transistors which are built up of 3 regions, the base, the collector, and the
emitter. Bipolar Junction transistors, different FET transistors, are current-controlled devices. A small current
entering in the base region of the transistor causes a much larger current flow from the emitter to the collector
region. Bipolar junction transistors come in two major types, NPN and PNP. A NPN transistor is one in which
the majority current carrier are electrons. Electron flowing from the emitter to the collector forms the base of
the majority of current flow through the transistor. The further types of charge, holes, are a minority. PNP
transistors are the opposite. In PNP transistors, the majority current carrier is holes.

Bipolar Junction Transistor pins

Field Effect Transistor

Field Effect Transistors are made up of 3 regions, a gate, a source, and a drain. Different bipolar transistors,
FETs are voltage-controlled devices. A voltage placed at the gate controls current flow from the source to the
drain of the transistor. Field Effect transistors have a very high input impedance, from several mega ohms (MΩ)
of resistance to much, much larger values. This high input impedance causes them to have very little current run
through them. (According to ohm’s law, current is inversely affected by the value of the impedance of the
circuit. If the impedance is high, the current is very low.) So FETs both draw very little current from a circuit’s
power source.

Field Effect Transistor

Thus, this is ideal because they don’t disturb the original circuit power elements to which they are connected to.
They won’t cause the power source to be loaded down. The drawback of FETs is that they won’t provide the
same amplification that could be gotten from bipolar transistors. Bipolar transistors are superior in the fact that
they provide greater amplification, even though FETs are better in that they cause less loading, are cheaper, and
easier to manufacture. Field Effect Transistors come in 2 main types: JFETs and MOSFETs. JFETs and
MOSFETs are very similar but MOSFETs have an even higher input impedance values than JFETs. This causes
even less loading in a circuit.

Junction FET Transistor

The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JUGFET or JFET) has no PN-junctions but in its place has a narrow part
of high resistivity semiconductor material forming a “Channel” of either N-type or P-type silicon for the
majority carriers to flow through with two ohmic electrical connections at either end normally called the Drain
and the Source respectively. There are a two basic configurations of junction field effect transistor, the N-
channel JFET and the P-channel JFET. The N-channel JFET’s channel is doped with donor impurities meaning
that the flow of current through the channel is negative (hence the term N-channel) in the form of electrons.

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to connect it
within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and output. Each method of
connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static characteristics of the transistor
vary with each circuit arrangement.
 Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
 Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and Voltage Gain.
 Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
The Common Base (CB) Configuration
As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the BASEconnection is common
to both the input signal AND the output signal. The input signal is applied between the transistors base and the
emitter terminals, while the corresponding output signal is taken from between the base and the collector
terminals as shown. The base terminal is grounded or can be connected to some fixed reference voltage point.
The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the base current and collector
current respectively therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter current input resulting in a
current gain for this type of circuit of “1” (unity) or less, in other words the common base configuration
“attenuates” the input signal.

The Common Base Transistor Circuit

This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier circuit, in that the signal
voltages Vin and Vout are “in-phase”. This type of transistor arrangement is not very common due to its
unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its input characteristics represent that of a forward biased diode
while the output characteristics represent that of an illuminated photo-diode.
Also this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of output to input resistance or more
importantly “load” resistance ( RL ) to “input” resistance ( Rin ) giving it a value of “Resistance Gain”. Then
the voltage gain ( Av ) for a common base configuration is therefore given as:

Common Base Voltage Gain

Where: Ic/Ie is the current gain, alpha ( α ) and RL/Rin is the resistance gain.
The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier circuits such as microphone pre-
amplifier or radio frequency ( Rƒ ) amplifiers due to its very good high frequency response.

The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is applied between the base and
the emitter, while the output is taken from between the collector and the emitter as shown. This type of
configuration is the most commonly used circuit for transistor based amplifiers and which represents the
“normal” method of bipolar transistor connection.
The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest current and power gain of all the three
bipolar transistor configurations. This is mainly because the input impedance is LOW as it is connected to a
forward biased PN-junction, while the output impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse biased PN-
junction.

The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be equal to the currents flowing into
the transistor as the emitter current is given as Ie = Ic + Ib.
As the load resistance ( RL ) is connected in series with the collector, the current gain of the common emitter
transistor configuration is quite large as it is the ratio of Ic/Ib. A transistors current gain is given the Greek
symbol of Beta, ( β ).
As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is defined as Ie = Ic + Ib, the ratio of Ic/Ie is
called Alpha, given the Greek symbol of α. Note: that the value of Alpha will always be less than unity.
Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib, Ic and Ie is determined by the physical
construction of the transistor itself, any small change in the base current ( Ib ), will result in a much larger
change in the collector current ( Ic ).
Then, small changes in current flowing in the base will thus control the current in the emitter-collector circuit.
Typically, Beta has a value between 20 and 200 for most general purpose transistors. So if a transistor has
a Beta value of say 100, then one electron will flow from the base terminal for every 100 electrons flowing
between the emitter-collector terminal.
By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the mathematical relationship between these
parameters and therefore the current gain of the transistor can be given as:
Where: “Ic” is the current flowing into the collector terminal, “Ib” is the current flowing into the base terminal
and “Ie” is the current flowing out of the emitter terminal.
Then to summarise a little. This type of bipolar transistor configuration has a greater input impedance, current
and power gain than that of the common base configuration but its voltage gain is much lower. The common
emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. This means that the resulting output signal has a
180o phase-shift with regards to the input voltage signal.

The Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector is now common through the
supply. The input signal is connected directly to the base, while the output is taken from the emitter load as
shown. This type of configuration is commonly known as a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.
The common collector, or emitter follower configuration is very useful for impedance matching applications
because of the very high input impedance, in the region of hundreds of thousands of Ohms while having a
relatively low output impedance.

The Common Collector Transistor Circuit

The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately equal to the β value of the transistor itself.
In the common collector configuration the load resistance is situated in series with the emitter so its current is
equal to that of the emitter current.

Relationship between DC Currents and Gains

Transistor Biasing

Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or current conditions to the
correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by the transistor

Fixed Base Biasing a Transistor

The circuit shown is called as a “fixed base bias circuit”, because the transistors base current, IB remains
constant for given values of Vcc, and therefore the transistors operating point must also remain fixed. This two
resistor biasing network is used to establish the initial operating region of the transistor using a fixed current
bias.
This type of transistor biasing arrangement is also beta dependent biasing as the steady-state condition of
operation is a function of the transistors beta β value, so the biasing point will vary over a wide range for
transistors of the same type as the characteristics of the transistors will not be exactly the same.
The emitter diode of the transistor is forward biased by applying the required positive base bias voltage via the
current limiting resistor RB. Assuming a standard bipolar transistor, the forward base-emitter voltage drop will
be 0.7V. Then the value of RB is simply: (VCC – VBE)/IB where IB is defined as IC/β.
With this single resistor type of biasing method the biasing voltages and currents do not remain stable during
transistor operation and can vary enormously. Also the temperature of the transistor can adversely effect the
operating point.
Transistor Applications

The appropriate application of power semiconductors requires an understanding of their maximum ratings and
electrical characteristics, information that is presented within the device data sheet. Good design practice
employs data sheet limits and not information obtained from small sample lots. A rating is a maximum or
minimum value that sets a limit on device’s ability. Act in excess of a rating can result in irreversible
degradation or device failure. Maximum ratings signify extreme capabilities of a device. They are not to be
used as design circumstances.

A characteristic is a measure of device performance under individual operating conditions expressed by

minimum, characteristic, and/or maximum values, or revealed graphically.

Thus, this is all about what is a transistor and different types of transistors and its applications. We hope that
you have got a better understanding of this concept or to implement electrical and electronics projects, please
give your valuable suggestions by commenting in the comment section below. Here is a question for you, what
is the main function of a transistor?

Junction Field Effect Transistor

The Junction Field Effect Transistor, or JFET, is a voltage controlled three terminal unipolar semiconductor
device available in N-channel and P-channel configurations.
In the Bipolar Junction Transistor tutorials, we saw that the output Collector current of the transistor is
proportional to input current flowing into the Base terminal of the device, thereby making the bipolar transistor
a “CURRENT” operated device (Beta model) as a smaller current can be used to switch a larger load current.
The Field Effect Transistor, or simply FET however, uses the voltage that is applied to their input terminal,
called the Gate to control the current flowing through them resulting in the output current being proportional to
the input voltage. As their operation relies on an electric field (hence the name field effect) generated by the
input Gate voltage, this then makes the Field Effect Transistor a “VOLTAGE” operated device.

Typical Field Effect

Transistor
The Field Effect Transistor is a three terminal unipolar semiconductor device that has very similar
characteristics to those of their Bipolar Transistor counterparts. For example, high efficiency, instant operation,
robust and cheap and can be used in most electronic circuit applications to replace their equivalent bipolar
junction transistors (BJT) cousins.
Field effect transistors can be made much smaller than an equivalent BJT transistor and along with their low
power consumption and power dissipation makes them ideal for use in integrated circuits such as the CMOS
range of digital logic chips.
We remember from the previous tutorials that there are two basic types of bipolar transistor
construction, NPN and PNP, which basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type
semiconductor materials from which they are made. This is also true of FET’s as there are also two basic
classifications of Field Effect Transistor, called the N-channel FET and the P-channel FET.
The field effect transistor is a three terminal device that is constructed with no PN-junctions within the main
current carrying path between the Drain and the Sourceterminals. These terminals correspond in function to the
Collector and the Emitter respectively of the bipolar transistor. The current path between these two terminals is
called the “channel” which may be made of either a P-type or an N-type semiconductor material.
The control of current flowing in this channel is achieved by varying the voltage applied to the Gate. As their
name implies, Bipolar Transistors are “Bipolar” devices because they operate with both types of charge carriers,
Holes and Electrons. The Field Effect Transistor on the other hand is a “Unipolar” device that depends only on
the conduction of electrons (N-channel) or holes (P-channel).
The Field Effect Transistor has one major advantage over its standard bipolar transistor cousins, in that their
input impedance, ( Rin ) is very high, (thousands of Ohms), while the BJT is comparatively low. This very high
input impedance makes them very sensitive to input voltage signals, but the price of this high sensitivity also
means that they can be easily damaged by static electricity.
There are two main types of field effect transistor, the Junction Field Effect Transistor or JFET and
the Insulated-gate Field Effect Transistor or IGFET), which is more commonly known as the
standard Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor or MOSFETfor short.
The Junction Field Effect Transistor
We saw previously that a bipolar junction transistor is constructed using two PN-junctions in the main current
carrying path between the Emitter and the Collector terminals. The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JUGFET
or JFET) has no PN-junctions but instead has a narrow piece of high resistivity semiconductor material forming
a “Channel” of either N-type or P-type silicon for the majority carriers to flow through with two ohmic
electrical connections at either end commonly called the Drain and the Sourcerespectively.
There are two basic configurations of junction field effect transistor, the N-channel JFET and the P-channel
JFET. The N-channel JFET’s channel is doped with donor impurities meaning that the flow of current through
the channel is negative (hence the term N-channel) in the form of electrons.
Likewise, the P-channel JFET’s channel is doped with acceptor impurities meaning that the flow of current
through the channel is positive (hence the term P-channel) in the form of holes. N-channel JFET’s have a
greater channel conductivity (lower resistance) than their equivalent P-channel types, since electrons have a
higher mobility through a conductor compared to holes. This makes the N-channel JFET’s a more efficient
conductor compared to their P-channel counterparts.
We have said previously that there are two ohmic electrical connections at either end of the channel called
the Drain and the Source. But within this channel there is a third electrical connection which is called
the Gate terminal and this can also be a P-type or N-type material forming a PN-junction with the main channel.
The relationship between the connections of a junction field effect transistor and a bipolar junction transistor
are compared below.

Comparison of Connections between a JFET and a BJT

Bipolar Transistor (BJT) Field Effect Transistor (FET)

Emitter – (E) >> Source – (S)

Base – (B) >> Gate – (G)

Collector – (C) >> Drain – (D)

The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of JFETs are shown below.
The semiconductor “channel” of the Junction Field Effect Transistor is a resistive path through which a
voltage VDS causes a current ID to flow and as such the junction field effect transistor can conduct current
equally well in either direction. As the channel is resistive in nature, a voltage gradient is thus formed down the
length of the channel with this voltage becoming less positive as we go from the Drain terminal to the Source
terminal.
The result is that the PN-junction therefore has a high reverse bias at the Drain terminal and a lower reverse
bias at the Source terminal. This bias causes a “depletion layer” to be formed within the channel and whose
width increases with the bias.
The magnitude of the current flowing through the channel between the Drain and the Source terminals is
controlled by a voltage applied to the Gate terminal, which is a reverse-biased. In an N-channel JFET this Gate
voltage is negative while for a P-channel JFET the Gate voltage is positive.
The main difference between the JFET and a BJT device is that when the JFET junction is reverse-biased the
Gate current is practically zero, whereas the Base current of the BJT is always some value greater than zero.

Biasing of an N-channel JFET

The cross sectional diagram above shows an N-type semiconductor channel with a P-type region called the
Gate diffused into the N-type channel forming a reverse biased PN-junction and it is this junction which forms
the depletion region around the Gate area when no external voltages are applied. JFETs are therefore known as
depletion mode devices.
This depletion region produces a potential gradient which is of varying thickness around the PN-junction and
restrict the current flow through the channel by reducing its effective width and thus increasing the overall
resistance of the channel itself.
Then we can see that the most-depleted portion of the depletion region is in between the Gate and the Drain,
while the least-depleted area is between the Gate and the Source. Then the JFET’s channel conducts with zero
bias voltage applied (ie, the depletion region has near zero width).
With no external Gate voltage ( VG = 0 ), and a small voltage ( VDS ) applied between the Drain and the Source,
maximum saturation current ( IDSS ) will flow through the channel from the Drain to the Source restricted only
by the small depletion region around the junctions.
If a small negative voltage ( -VGS ) is now applied to the Gate the size of the depletion region begins to increase
reducing the overall effective area of the channel and thus reducing the current flowing through it, a sort of
“squeezing” effect takes place. So by applying a reverse bias voltage increases the width of the depletion region
which in turn reduces the conduction of the channel.
Since the PN-junction is reverse biased, little current will flow into the gate connection. As the Gate voltage ( -
VGS ) is made more negative, the width of the channel decreases until no more current flows between the Drain
and the Source and the FET is said to be “pinched-off” (similar to the cut-off region for a BJT). The voltage at
which the channel closes is called the “pinch-off voltage”, ( VP ).
Output characteristic V-I curves of a typical junction FET

The voltage VGS applied to the Gate controls the current flowing between the Drain and the Source
terminals. VGS refers to the voltage applied between the Gate and the Source while VDS refers to the voltage
applied between the Drain and the Source.
Because a Junction Field Effect Transistor is a voltage controlled device, “NO current flows into the
gate!” then the Source current ( IS ) flowing out of the device equals the Drain current flowing into it and
therefore ( ID = IS ).
The characteristics curves example shown above, shows the four different regions of operation for a JFET and
these are given as:
 Ohmic Region – When VGS = 0 the depletion layer of the channel is very small and the JFET acts
like a voltage controlled resistor.
 Cut-off Region – This is also known as the pinch-off region were the Gate voltage, VGS is sufficient
to cause the JFET to act as an open circuit as the channel resistance is at maximum.
 Saturation or Active Region – The JFET becomes a good conductor and is controlled by the Gate-
Source voltage, ( VGS ) while the Drain-Source voltage, ( VDS) has little or no effect.
 Breakdown Region – The voltage between the Drain and the Source, ( VDS ) is high enough to causes
the JFET’s resistive channel to break down and pass uncontrolled maximum current.
The characteristics curves for a P-channel junction field effect transistor are the same as those above, except
that the Drain current ID decreases with an increasing positive Gate-Source voltage, VGS.
The Drain current is zero when VGS = VP. For normal operation, VGS is biased to be somewhere between VP and
0. Then we can calculate the Drain current, ID for any given bias point in the saturation or active region as
follows:

Drain current in the active region.

Note that the value of the Drain current will be between zero (pinch-off) and IDSS(maximum current). By
knowing the Drain current ID and the Drain-Source voltage VDSthe resistance of the channel ( ID ) is given as:

Drain-Source channel resistance.

Where: gm is the “transconductance gain” since the JFET is a voltage controlled device and which represents
the rate of change of the Drain current with respect to the change in Gate-Source voltage.

Modes of FET’s
Like the bipolar junction transistor, the field effect transistor being a three terminal device is capable of three
distinct modes of operation and can therefore be connected within a circuit in one of the following
configurations.
Common Source (CS) Configuration

In the Common Source configuration (similar to common emitter), the input is applied to the Gate and its
output is taken from the Drain as shown. This is the most common mode of operation of the FET due to its high
input impedance and good voltage amplification and as such Common Source amplifiers are widely used.
The common source mode of FET connection is generally used audio frequency amplifiers and in high input
impedance pre-amps and stages. Being an amplifying circuit, the output signal is 180 o “out-of-phase” with the
input.

Common Gate (CG) Configuration

In the Common Gate configuration (similar to common base), the input is applied to the Source and its output
is taken from the Drain with the Gate connected directly to ground (0v) as shown. The high input impedance
feature of the previous connection is lost in this configuration as the common gate has a low input impedance,
but a high output impedance.
This type of FET configuration can be used in high frequency circuits or in impedance matching circuits were a
low input impedance needs to be matched to a high output impedance. The output is “in-phase” with the input.

Common Drain (CD) Configuration

In the Common Drain configuration (similar to common collector), the input is applied to the Gate and its
output is taken from the Source. The common drain or “source follower” configuration has a high input
impedance and a low output impedance and near-unity voltage gain so is therefore used in buffer amplifiers.
The voltage gain of the source follower configuration is less than unity, and the output signal is “in-
phase”, 0o with the input signal.
This type of configuration is referred to as “Common Drain” because there is no signal available at the drain
connection, the voltage present, +VDD just provides a bias. The output is in-phase with the input.

The JFET Amplifier

Just like the bipolar junction transistor, JFET’s can be used to make single stage class A amplifier circuits with
the JFET common source amplifier and characteristics being very similar to the BJT common emitter circuit.
The main advantage JFET amplifiers have over BJT amplifiers is their high input impedance which is
controlled by the Gate biasing resistive network formed by R1 and R2 as shown.

JFET Applications
The junction field effect transistor (JFET) is used as a constant current source.
The JFET is used as a buffer amplifier.
The JFET is used as an electronic switch.
The JFET is used as a phase shift oscillator.
The JFET is used as high impedance wide band amplifier.
The JFET is used as a voltage variable resistor (VVR) or voltage development resistor (VDR).
The JFET is used as a chopper.
MOSFET
MOSFETs are tri-terminal, unipolar, voltage-controlled, high input impedance devices which form an integral
part of vast variety of electronic circuits. These devices can be classified into two types viz., depletion-type and
enhancement-type, depending on whether they possess a channel in their default state or no, respectively.
Further, each of them can be either p-channel or n-channel devices as they can have their conduction current
due to holes or electrons respectively. However inspite of their structural difference, all of them are seen to
work on a common basic principle which is explained in detail in the article "MOSFET and its Working". This
further implies that all of them exhibit almost similar characteristic curves, but for differing voltage values.
In general, any MOSFET is seen to exhibit three operating regions viz.,

1. Cut-Off Region Cut-off region is a region in which the MOSFET will be OFF as there will be no
current flow through it. In this region, MOSFET behaves like an open switch and is thus used when they are
required to function as electronic switches.
2. Ohmic or Linear Region Ohmic or linear region is a region where in the current I DS increases with an
increase in the value of VDS. When MOSFETs are made to operate in this region, they can be used as
amplifiers.
3. Saturation Region In saturation region, the MOSFETs have their I DS constant inspite of an increase in
VDS and occurs once VDS exceeds the value of pinch-off voltage VP. Under this condition, the device will
act like a closed switch through which a saturated value of I DS flows. As a result, this operating region is
chosen whenever MOSFETs are required to perform switching operations.
Having known this, let us now analyze the biasing conditions at which these regions are experienced for each
kind of MOSFET.
n-channel Enhancement-type MOSFET

Figure 1a shows the transfer characteristics (drain-to-source current IDS versus gate-to-source voltage VGS) of n-
channel Enhancement-type MOSFETs. From this, it is evident that the current through the device will be
zero until the VGS exceeds the value of threshold voltage VT. This is because under this state, the device will be
void of channel which will be connecting the drain and the source terminals. Under this condition, even an
increase in VDS will result in no current flow as indicated by the corresponding output characteristics (I DS versus
VDS) shown by Figure 1b. As a result this state represents nothing but the cut-off region of MOSFET's
operation.
Next, once VGS crosses VT, the current through the device increases with an increase in I DS initially (Ohmic
region) and then saturates to a value as determined by the V GS (saturation region of operation) i.e. as VGS
increases, even the saturation current flowing through the device also increases. This is evident by Figure 1b
where IDSS2 is greater than IDSS1 as VGS2 > VGS1, IDSS3 is greater than IDSS2 as VGS3 > VGS2, so on and so forth.
Further, Figure 1b also shows the locus of pinch-off voltage (black discontinuous curve), from which VP is seen
to increase with an increase in VGS.

p-channel Enhancement-type MOSFET

Figure 2a shows the transfer characteristics of p-type enhancement MOSFETs from which it is evident that
IDS remains zero (cutoff state) untill V GS becomes equal to -VT. This is because, only then the channel will be
formed to connect the drain terminal of the device with its source terminal. After this, the I DS is seen to increase
in reverse direction (meaning an increase in I SD, signifying an increase in the device current which will flow
from source to drain) with the decrease in the value of VDS. This means that the device is functioning in its
ohmic region wherein the current through the device increases with an increase in the applied voltage (which
will be VSD).
However as VDS becomes equal to –VP, the device enters into saturation during which a saturated amount of
current (IDSS) flows through the device, as decided by the value of VGS. Further it is to be noted that the value of
saturation current flowing through the device is seen to increase as the V GS becomes more and more negative
i.e. saturation current for VGS3 is greater than that for VGS2 and that in the case of VGS4 is much greater than both
of them as VGS3 is more negative than VGS2 while VGS4 is much more negative when compared to either of them
(Figure 2b). In addition, from the locus of the pinch-off voltage it is also clear that as VGS becomes more and
 more negative, even the negativity of VP also increases.

n-channel Depletion-type MOSFET

The transfer characteristics of n-channel depletion MOSFET shown by Figure 3a indicate that the device has
a current flowing through it even when VGS is 0V. This indicates that these devices conduct even when the gate
terminal is left unbiased, which is further emphasized by the V GS0 curve of Figure 3b. Under this condition, the
current through the MOSFET is seen to increase with an increase in the value of V DS (Ohmic region) untill VDS
becomes equal to pinch-off voltage VP. After this, IDS will get saturated to a particular level IDSS (saturation
region of operation) which increases with an increase in V GS i.e. IDSS3 > IDSS2 > IDSS1, as VGS3 > VGS2 > VGS1.
Further, the locus of the pinch-off voltage also shows that VP increases with an increase in VGS. However it is to
be noted that, if one needs to operate these devices in cut-off state, then it is required to make VGS negative and
once it becomes equal to -VT, the conduction through the device stops (I DS = 0) as it gets deprived of its n-type
channel (Figure 3a).

p-channel Depletion-type MOSFET

The transfer characteristics of p-channel depletion mode MOSFETs (Figure 4a) show that these devices will
be normally ON, and thus conduct even in the absence of V GS. This is because they are characterized by the
presence of a channel in their default state due to which they have non-zero IDS for VGS = 0V, as indicated by
the VGS0 curve of Figure 4b. Although the value of such a current increases with an increase in V DS initially
(ohmic region of operation), it is seen to saturate once the V DS exceeds VP (saturation region of operation). The
value of this saturation current is determined by the VGS, and is seen to increase in negative direction as VGS
 becomes more and more negative. For example, the saturation current for V GS3 is greater than that for VGS2
which is however greater when compared to that for VGS1. This is because VGS2 is more negative when
compared to VGS1, and VGS3 is much more negative when compared to either of them. Next, one can also note
from the locus of pinch-off point that even VP starts to become more and more negative as the negativity
associated with the VGS increases. Lastly, it is evident from Figure 4a that inorder to switch these devices OFF,
one needs to increase VGS such that it becomes equal to or greater than that of the threshold voltage VT. This is
because, when done so, these devices will be deprived of their p-type channel, which further drives the
MOSFETs into their cut-off region of operation.

Applications of MOSFET

(1) Switch A direct consequence of MOSFET working leads to their usage as a switch. A n-channel MOSFET
shown by Figure 1 can act as a switching circuit when it operates in cut-off and saturation regions. This is
because the MOSFET in the figure will be ON when the VGS voltage is positive, which causes the MOSFET to
behave like a short circuit. Thus one gets the output voltage almost equal to zero. Further if the V GS is zero, then
the MOSFET will be OFF and thus the output voltage will be equal to VDD.
(2)Amplifiers

(3)Chopper

(4)Linear Voltage Regulators

 UNIT-III

Oscillators & Operational Amplifiers

Syllabus: Oscillators: Sinusoidal Oscillators, Barkhausen Criteria for Oscillator Operation, Components of an
Oscillator-Transistor Amplifier Circuits, Feedback Circuits and Oscillator Circuits, Classification of Oscillators,
LC Tuned, RC Phase Shift Oscillator circuits.
Operational Amplifiers(Op-Amps)-Symbol of an Op-Amp, single Input and Dual Input Op-
Amps(Differential Amplifier), Characteristics of an Ideal Op-Amp, Basic Forms of Op-Amps-Inverting & Non-
Inverting Amplifiers, Applications of Op-Amps, summing, Differential, Integrator, differentiator Amplifier.
Oscillators:
However, the oscillations which arise due to the inter-conversion between An oscillator is a circuit
which produces a continuous, repeated, alternating waveform without any input. Oscillators basically convert
unidirectional current flow from a DC source into an alternating waveform which is of the desired frequency, as
decided by its circuit components. The basic principle behind the working of oscillators can be understood by
analyzing the behavior of a LC tank circuit shown by Figure 1, which employs an inductor L and a completely
pre-charged capacitor C as its components. Here, at first, the capacitor starts to discharge via the inductor,
which results in the conversion of its electrical energy into the electromagnetic field, which can be stored in the
inductor. Once the capacitor discharges completely, there will be no current flow in the circuit. However, by
then, the stored electromagnetic field would have generated a back-emf which results in the flow of current
through the circuit in the same direction as that of before.
This current flow through the circuit continues until the electromagnetic field collapses which results in the
back-conversion of electromagnetic energy into electrical form, causing the cycle to repeat. However, now the
capacitor would have charged with the opposite polarity, due to which one gets an oscillating waveform as the
output

the two energy-forms cannot continue forever as they would be subjected to the effect of energy loss due to the
resistance of the circuit. As a result, the amplitude of these oscillations decreases steadily to become zero,
which makes them damped in nature. This indicates that in order to obtain the oscillations which are continuous
and of constant amplitude, one needs to compensate for the energy lost. Nevertheless, it is to be noted that the
energy supplied should be precisely controlled and must be equal to that of the energy lost in order to obtain the
oscillations with constant amplitude.

This is because, if the energy supplied is more than the energy lost, then the amplitude of the oscillations will
increase (Figure 2a) leading to a distorted output; while if the energy supplied is less than the energy lost, then
 the amplitude of the oscillations will decrease (Figure 2b) leading to unsustainable oscillations.

Practically, the oscillators are nothing but the amplifier circuits which are provided with a positive or
regenerative feedback where in a part of the output signal is fed back to the input (Figure 3). Here the amplifier
consists of an active amplifying element which can be a transistor or an Op-Amp and the back-fed in-phase
signal is held responsible to keep-up (sustain) the oscillations by making-up for the losses in the circuit.

Once the power supply is switched ON, the oscillations will be initiated in the system due to the electronic
noise present in it. This noise signal travels around the loop, gets amplified and converges to a single frequency
sine wave very quickly. The expression for the closed loop gain of the oscillator shown inFigure 3 is given as

Where, A is the voltage gain of the amplifier and β is the gain of the feedback network. Here, if Aβ > 1, then
the oscillations will increase in amplitude (Figure 2a); while if Aβ < 1, then the oscillations will be damped
(Figure 2b). On the other hand, Aβ = 1 leads to the oscillations which are of constant amplitude (Figure 2c). In
other words, this indicates that if the feedback loop gain is small, then the oscillation dies-out, while if the gain
of the feedback loop is large, then the output will be distorted; and only if the gain of feedback is unity, then the
oscillations will be of constant amplitude leading to self-sustained oscillatory circuit.

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
An oscillator generates output without any ac input signal. An electronic oscillator is a circuit which
converts dc energy into ac at a very high frequency. An amplifier with a positive feedback can be understood as
an oscillator.
Amplifier vs. Oscillator
An amplifier increases the signal strength of the input signal applied, whereas an oscillator generates a signal
without that input signal, but it requires dc for its operation. This is the main difference between an amplifier
and an oscillator.

Take a look at the following illustration. It clearly shows how an amplifier takes energy from d.c. power
source and converts it into a.c. energy at signal frequency. An oscillator produces an oscillating a.c. signal on
its own.

The frequency, waveform, and magnitude of a.c. power generated by an amplifier, is controlled by the a.c.
signal voltage applied at the input, whereas those for an oscillator are controlled by the components in the
circuit itself, which means no external controlling voltage is required.

Classification of Oscillators
Electronic oscillators are classified mainly into the following two categories −

 Sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a sine waveform are
called sinusoidal or harmonic oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging
from 20 Hz to 1 GHz.

 Non-sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a square, rectangular or
saw-tooth waveform are called non-sinusoidal or relaxation oscillators. Such oscillators can provide
output at frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to 20 MHz.

We will discuss only about Sinusoidal Oscillators in this tutorial. You can learn the functions of non-
sinusoidal oscillators from our Pulse Circuits tutorial.

Sinusoidal Oscillators
Sinusoidal oscillators can be classified in the following categories −

 Tuned Circuit Oscillators − These oscillators use a tuned-circuit consisting of inductors (L) and
capacitors (C) and are used to generate high-frequency signals. Thus they are also known as radio
frequency R.F. oscillators. Such oscillators are Hartley, Colpitts, Clapp-oscillators etc.
  RC Oscillators − There oscillators use resistors and capacitors and are used to generate low or audio-
frequency signals. Thus they are also known as audio-frequency (A.F.) oscillators. Such oscillators are
Phase –shift and Wein-bridge oscillators.

 Crystal Oscillators − These oscillators use quartz crystals and are used to generate highly stabilized
output signal with frequencies up to 10 MHz. The Piezo oscillator is an example of a crystal oscillator.

 Negative-resistance Oscillator − These oscillators use negative-resistance characteristic of the devices

such as tunnel devices. A tuned diode oscillator is an example of a negative-resistance oscillator.

Nature of Sinusoidal Oscillations

The nature of oscillations in a sinusoidal wave are generally of two types. They are damped and undamped
oscillations.

Damped Oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time are called as Damped Oscillations.
The frequency of the damped oscillations may remain constant depending upon the circuit parameters.

Damped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that produce power losses and doesn’t
compensate if required.

Undamped Oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant with time are called as Undamped Oscillations.
The frequency of the Undamped oscillations remains constant.
Undamped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that produce no power losses and
follow compensation techniques if any power losses occur.

oscillators-Barkhausen criterion
he principle of the oscillator is that when the feedback factor or the loop gain is one, then the overall gain of the
oscillator circuit will be infinite.

This implies that even when there is no input then also the oscillator will continue to generate the output.
 Components of an Oscillator-Transistor Amplifier Circuits

This is the essential condition for the amplifier to acts as the feedback. To summarize the condition, we can say
that an amplifier which uses positive feedback and which possess infinite overall gain is termed as the oscillator
circuit.

An oscillator must have the following three elements

 Oscillatory circuit or element.

 Amplifier.
 Feedback network.

The oscillatory circuit or element, also called the tank circuit, consists of an inductive coil of inductance L
connected in parallel with a capacitor of capacitance C. The frequency of oscillation in the circuit depends upon
the values of L and C. The actual frequency of oscillation is the resonant or natural frequency and is given by
the expression

f = 1 / 2∏√LC Hz , where L is inductance of coil in henrys, and C is the capacitance of capacitor in farads.

The electronic amplifier receives dc power from the battery or dc power supply and converts it into ac power
for supply to the tank circuit. The oscillations occurring in the tank circuit are applied to the input of the
electronic amplifier. Because of the amplifying properties of the amplifier, we get increased output of these
oscillations. This amplified output of oscillations is because of dc power supplied from the external source (a
battery or power supply). The output of the amplifier can be supplied to the tank circuit to meet the losses.

The feedback network supplies a part of output power to the tank or oscillatory circuit in correct phase to aid
the oscillations. In other words the feedback circuit provides positive feedback.

Types of Transistor Oscillators:

A transistor can be operated as an oscillator for producing continuous undamped oscillations of any desired
frequency if tank (or oscillatory) and feedback circuits are property connected to it. All oscillators under
different names have similar function i.e. they generate continuous undamped output. However, they differ in
methods of supplying energy to the tank or oscillatory circuit to meet the losses and the frequency ranges over
which they are used. (The frequency spectrum over which oscillators are employed to produce sinusoidal
signals is extremely wide (from less than 1 Hz to many GHz)) However, no single oscillator design is practical
for generating signals over this entire range. Instead, a variety of designs are employed, each of which generates
sinusoidal outputs most advantageously over various portions of the frequency spectrum. Oscillators, which use
inductance-capacitance (L-C) circuits as their tank or oscillatory circuits, are very popular for generating high-
frequency (e.g. 10 kHz to 100 MHz) outputs.

The most widely used LC oscillators are the Hartley and Colpitt’s oscillators. Although they slightly differ from
one another in their electronic circuitry but they have virtually identical frequency ranges and frequency
stability characteristics. However, such oscillators are not suitable for generating low-frequency sinusoidal
outputs. This is due to the fact that some components needed in construction of low-frequency LC resonant
circuits are too bulky and heavy. So resistor-capacitor (R-C) oscillators are generally employed for generating
low-frequency (from l Hz to about 1 MHz) sinusoidal signals.

Two most common R-C oscillators are the Wien bridge arid phase-shift types. Other less frequently used
oscillators are the crystal oscillators and the negative resistance oscillators.

RC Phase Shift Oscillator Circuit Working and Applications

In this topic we would like to introduce you a transistor oscillator circuit, is called as an RC Phase shift
oscillator. First of all we need to know what is an oscillator. The oscillator is an electronic circuit which
performs as a sine wave generator. It is working only for a DC power supply. The oscillator is widely used in
frequency variable signal generators, so it is a common basic electronic circuit. There are different types of
oscillators are available which is based on their performance and components used, like Hartly Colpitts
oscillator, Op amp RC phase shift oscillator, Wein bridge oscillator, etc. Here we are going to study how we
can obtain the RC Phase shift Oscillator using a silicon transistor. In an oscillator the frequency generating
circuit is depending upon the usage of circuit elements. A basic oscillator circuit contains the following parts

RC Phase Shift Oscillator

It is a linear electronic oscillator circuit that produces a sine wave output. It consists of an inverting amplifier
element, such as Op-Amp or transistor with its output fed back to its input through a phase-shift network
consisting of capacitors and resistors in a ladder network. The feedback network ‘shifts’ the phase of the
amplifier output by 1800 at the oscillation frequency to give positive feedback. Phase-shift oscillators are often
used at audio frequency by audio oscillators.
The filter produces a phase shift that increase with the frequency. It must have a maximum phase shift of more
than 1800 at high frequencies so the phase shift at the desired oscillation frequency can be 1800. The most
common phase-shift network cascades three identical resistors, capacitor stages that produce a phase shift is
zero at low frequencies and 270° at high frequencies.

RC Phase Shift Oscillator Using Op-Amp

An RC phase shift oscillator is a sinusoidal oscillator used to produce the well shaped sine wave oscillations.
This oscillator is used in numerous applications like as a local oscillator for synchronous receivers, study
purposes, musical instruments. The essential component used in an RC phase shift oscillator is an operational
amplifier inverting amplifier with its output fed back into its input using a regenerative feedback RC filter n/w,
hence the name is called an RC phase shift oscillator. The frequency of oscillations can be changed by changing
the capacitor.

RC Phase Shift Oscillator using Op-Amp

The feedback RC network has a phase shift of 60 degrees each, hence the total phase shift provided by the three
RC network is 180 degrees. The op amp is connected as an inverting amplifier, so hence the total phase shift
around the loop will be 360 degrees. This condition is essential for continued oscillations.
Working of RC Phase Shift Oscillator
 The feedback network offers 1800 phase shift at the oscillation frequency and the operational amplifier
is arranged as an Inverting amplifier, and it also provide 180 degrees phase shift. Hence, the total phase shift
around the loop is 360 degrees, it is essential for sustained oscillations.
 At the oscillation frequency each of the capacitor, resistor, filter produces a phase shift of 60° so the
whole filter circuit generates 180° of a phase shift of.
 The energy storage capacity of a capacitor in this circuit produces a noise voltage which is like to a
small sine wave, it is then amplified using an op amp inverting amplifier.
 By taking feedback, the o/p sine wave also reduces 1/29 times while passing through the RC network, so
the gain of the inverting amplifier should be 29 in order to keep the loop gain as unity.
 The unity loop gain and 360 degree phase shift are essential for the continued oscillation.
 RC Oscillators are constant and provide a well shaped sine wave output with the frequency being
proportional to 1/RC and therefore, when we are using a variable capacitor a wide frequency range is
possible.
 Though, RC Oscillators are controlled to frequency applications because at high frequency the reactance
offered by the capacitor is very low so it acts as a short circuit.
Operational Amplifiers(Op-Amps)
Operational Amplifiers, or Op-amps as they are more commonly called, are one of the basic building blocks
of Analogue Electronic Circuits.

Then using the formula to calculate the output voltage of a potential divider network, we can calculate the
closed-loop voltage gain ( AV ) of the Non-inverting Amplifier as follows:

Operational amplifiers are linear devices that have all

the properties required for nearly ideal DC amplification and are therefore used extensively in signal
conditioning, filtering or to perform mathematical operations such as add, subtract, integration and
differentiation.
An Operational Amplifier, or op-amp for short, is fundamentally a voltage amplifying device designed to be
used with external feedback components such as resistors and capacitors between its output and input terminals.
These feedback components determine the resulting function or “operation” of the amplifier and by virtue of
the different feedback configurations whether resistive, capacitive or both, the amplifier can perform a variety
of different operations, giving rise to its name of “Operational Amplifier”.
An Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device which consists of two high impedance inputs.
One of the inputs is called the Inverting Input, marked with a negative or “minus” sign, ( – ). The other input
is called the Non-inverting Input, marked with a positive or “plus” sign ( + ).
A third terminal represents the operational amplifiers output port which can both sink and source either a
voltage or a current. In a linear operational amplifier, the output signal is the amplification factor, known as the
amplifiers gain ( A ) multiplied by the value of the input signal and depending on the nature of these input and
output signals, there can be four different classifications of operational amplifier gain.
 Voltage – Voltage “in” and Voltage “out”
 Current – Current “in” and Current “out”
 Transconductance – Voltage “in” and Current “out”
 Transresistance – Current “in” and Voltage “out”
Since most of the circuits dealing with operational amplifiers are voltage amplifiers, we will limit the tutorials
in this section to voltage amplifiers only, (Vin and Vout).
The output voltage signal from an Operational Amplifier is the difference between the signals being applied to
its two individual inputs. In other words, an op-amps output signal is the difference between the two input
signals as the input stage of an Operational Amplifier is in fact a differential amplifier as shown below.

Differential Amplifier
The circuit below shows a generalized form of a differential amplifier with two inputs marked V1 and V2. The
two identical transistors TR1 and TR2 are both biased at the same operating point with their emitters connected
together and returned to the common rail, -Vee by way of resistor Re.

Differential Amplifier
The circuit operates from a dual supply +Vcc and -Vee which ensures a constant supply. The voltage that
appears at the output, Vout of the amplifier is the difference between the two input signals as the two base
inputs are in anti-phasewith each other.
So as the forward bias of transistor, TR1 is increased, the forward bias of transistor TR2 is reduced and vice
versa. Then if the two transistors are perfectly matched, the current flowing through the common emitter
resistor, Rewill remain constant.
Like the input signal, the output signal is also balanced and since the collector voltages either swing in opposite
directions (anti-phase) or in the same direction (in-phase) the output voltage signal, taken from between the two
collectors is, assuming a perfectly balanced circuit the zero difference between the two collector voltages.
This is known as the Common Mode of Operation with the common mode gain of the amplifier being the
output gain when the input is zero.
Operational Amplifiers also have one output (although there are ones with an additional differential output) of
low impedance that is referenced to a common ground terminal and it should ignore any common mode signals
that is, if an identical signal is applied to both the inverting and non-inverting inputs there should no change to
the output.
However, in real amplifiers there is always some variation and the ratio of the change to the output voltage with
regards to the change in the common mode input voltage is called the Common Mode Rejection
Ratio or CMRR for short.
Operational Amplifiers on their own have a very high open loop DC gain and by applying some form
of Negative Feedback we can produce an operational amplifier circuit that has a very precise gain
characteristic that is dependant only on the feedback used. Note that the term “open loop” means that there are
no feedback components used around the amplifier so the feedback path or loop is open.
An operational amplifier only responds to the difference between the voltages on its two input terminals, known
commonly as the “Differential Input Voltage” and not to their common potential. Then if the same voltage
potential is applied to both terminals the resultant output will be zero. An Operational Amplifiers gain is
commonly known as the Open Loop Differential Gain, and is given the symbol (Ao).

Inverting & Non-Inverting Amplifiers

The second basic configuration of an operational amplifier circuit is that of a Non-inverting Operational
Amplifier design.

In this configuration, the input voltage signal, ( VIN ) is applied directly to the non-inverting ( + ) input terminal
which means that the output gain of the amplifier becomes “Positive” in value in contrast to the “Inverting
Amplifier” circuit we saw in the last tutorial whose output gain is negative in value. The result of this is that the
output signal is “in-phase” with the input signal.
Feedback control of the non-inverting operational amplifier is achieved by applying a small part of the output
voltage signal back to the inverting ( – ) input terminal via a Rƒ – R2 voltage divider network, again producing
negative feedback. This closed-loop configuration produces a non-inverting amplifier circuit with very good
stability, a very high input impedance, Rin approaching infinity, as no current flows into the positive input
terminal, (ideal conditions) and a low output impedance, Rout as shown below.

Non-inverting Operational Amplifier Configuration

In the previous Inverting Amplifier tutorial, we said that for an ideal op-amp “No current flows into the input
terminal” of the amplifier and that “V1 always equals V2”. This was because the junction of the input and
feedback signal ( V1 ) are at the same potential.
In other words the junction is a “virtual earth” summing point. Because of this virtual earth node the
resistors, Rƒ and R2 form a simple potential divider network across the non-inverting amplifier with the voltage
gain of the circuit being determined by the ratios of R2 and Rƒ as shown below.

Equivalent Potential Divider Network

Then the closed loop voltage gain of a Non-inverting Operational Amplifier will be given as:

We can see from the equation above, that the overall closed-loop gain of a non-inverting amplifier will always
be greater but never less than one (unity), it is positive in nature and is determined by the ratio of the values
of Rƒ and R2.
If the value of the feedback resistor Rƒ is zero, the gain of the amplifier will be exactly equal to one (unity). If
resistor R2 is zero the gain will approach infinity, but in practice it will be limited to the operational amplifiers
open-loop differential gain, ( AO ).
We can easily convert an inverting operational amplifier configuration into a non-inverting amplifier
configuration by simply changing the input connections as shown.

Inverting Operational Amplifier

Figure below shows an inverting operational amplifier built by using an op-amp and two resistors. Here we
apply the input signal to the inverting terminal of the op-amp via the resistor Ri. We connect the non-inverting
terminal to ground. Further, we provide the feedback necessary to stabilize the circuit, and hence to control the
output, through a
feedback resistor Rf.

.
Mathematically the voltage gain offered by the circuit is given as

Where

However, we know that an ideal op amp has infinite input impedance due to which the currents flowing into its
input terminals are zero i.e. I1 = I2 = 0. Thus, Ii = If. Hence,
We also know that in an ideal op amp the voltage at inverting and non - inverting inputs are always equal. As
we have grounded the non - inverting terminal, zero voltage appears at the non - inverting terminal. That means
V2 = 0. Hence, V1 = 0, also. So, we can write

From, above two equations, we get,

The voltage gain of the inverting operational amplifier or inverting op amp is,

This indicates that the voltage gain of the inverting amplifier is decided by the ratio of the feedback resistor to
the input resistor with the minus sign indicating the phase-reversal. Further, it is to be noted that the input
impedance of the inverting amplifier is nothing but Ri.

The Summing Amplifier

The Summing Amplifier is another type of operational amplifier circuit configuration that is used to combine
the voltages present on two or more inputs into a single output voltage.

We saw previously in the inverting operational amplifier that the inverting amplifier has a single input voltage,
(Vin) applied to the inverting input terminal. If we add more input resistors to the input, each equal in value to
the original input resistor, (Rin) we end up with another operational amplifier circuit called a Summing
Amplifier, “summing inverter” or even a “voltage adder” circuit as shown below.

Summing Amplifier Circuit

In this simple summing amplifier circuit, the output voltage, ( Vout ) now becomes proportional to the sum of
the input voltages, V1, V2, V3, etc. Then we can modify the original equation for the inverting amplifier to take
account of these new inputs thus:

However, if all the input impedances, ( Rin ) are equal in value, we can simplify the above equation to give an
output voltage of:

Summing Amplifier Equation

We now have an operational amplifier circuit that will amplify each individual input voltage and produce an
output voltage signal that is proportional to the algebraic “SUM” of the three individual input
voltages V1, V2 and V3. We can also add more inputs if required as each individual input “see’s” their
respective resistance, Rin as the only input impedance.
This is because the input signals are effectively isolated from each other by the “virtual earth” node at the
inverting input of the op-amp. A direct voltage addition can also be obtained when all the resistances are of
equal value and Rƒ is equal to Rin.
Note that when the summing point is connected to the inverting input of the op-amp the circuit will produce the
negative sum of any number of input voltages. Likewise, when the summing point is connected to the non-
inverting input of the op-amp, it will produce the positive sum of the input voltages.
A Scaling Summing Amplifier can be made if the individual input resistors are “NOT” equal. Then the
equation would have to be modified to:

To make the math’s a little easier, we can rearrange the above formula to make the feedback resistor Rƒ the
subject of the equation giving the output voltage as:

This allows the output voltage to be easily calculated if more input resistors are connected to the amplifiers
inverting input terminal. The input impedance of each individual channel is the value of their respective input
resistors, ie, R1, R2, R3 … etc.
Sometimes we need a summing circuit to just add together two or more voltage signals without any
amplification. By putting all of the resistances of the circuit above to the same value R, the op-amp will have a
voltage gain of unity and an output voltage equal to the direct sum of all the input voltages as shown:

The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit indeed, enabling us to effectively “Add” or “Sum” (hence its
name) together several individual input signals. If the inputs resistors, R1, R2, R3 etc, are all equal a “unity gain
inverting adder” will be made. However, if the input resistors are of different values a “scaling summing
amplifier” is produced which will output a weighted sum of the input signals.

Summing Amplifier Example No1

Find the output voltage of the following Summing Amplifier circuit.

Summing Amplifier
Using the previously found formula for the gain of the circuit

We can now substitute the values of the resistors in the circuit as follows,

We know that the output voltage is the sum of the two amplified input signals and is calculated as:

Then the output voltage of the Summing Amplifier circuit above is given as -45 mV and is negative as its an
inverting amplifier.

The Differential Amplifier

The differential amplifier amplifies the voltage difference present on its inverting and non-inverting inputs
Thus far we have used only one of the operational amplifiers inputs to connect to the amplifier, using either the
“inverting” or the “non-inverting” input terminal to amplify a single input signal with the other input being
connected to ground.
But as a standard operational amplifier has two inputs, inverting and no-inverting, we can also connect signals
to both of these inputs at the same time producing another common type of operational amplifier circuit called
a Differential Amplifier.
Basically, as we saw in the first tutorial about operational amplifiers, all op-amps are “Differential Amplifiers”
due to their input configuration. But by connecting one voltage signal onto one input terminal and another
voltage signal onto the other input terminal the resultant output voltage will be proportional to the “Difference”
between the two input voltage signals of V1 and V2.
Then differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two voltages making this type of operational
amplifier circuit a Subtractor unlike a summing amplifier which adds or sums together the input voltages. This
type of operational amplifier circuit is commonly known as a Differential Amplifier configuration and is
shown below:

Differential Amplifier
By connecting each input in turn to 0v ground we can use superposition to solve for the output voltage Vout.
Then the transfer function for a Differential Amplifier circuit is given as:

When resistors, R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 the above transfer function for the differential amplifier can be simplified
to the following expression:

Differential Amplifier Equation

If all the resistors are all of the same ohmic value, that is: R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 then the circuit will become
a Unity Gain Differential Amplifier and the voltage gain of the amplifier will be exactly one or unity. Then
the output expression would simply be Vout = V2 – V1.
Also note that if input V1 is higher than input V2 the output voltage sum will be negative, and if V2 is higher
than V1, the output voltage sum will be positive.
The Differential Amplifier circuit is a very useful op-amp circuit and by adding more resistors in parallel with
the input resistors R1 and R3, the resultant circuit can be made to either “Add” or “Subtract” the voltages
applied to their respective inputs. One of the most common ways of doing this is to connect a “Resistive
Bridge” commonly called a Wheatstone Bridge to the input of the amplifier as shown below.

The Integrator Amplifier

The integrator Op-amp produces an output voltage that is both proportional to the amplitude and duration of the
input signal

Operational amplifiers can be used as part of a positive or negative feedback amplifier or as an adder or
subtractor type circuit using just pure resistances in both the input and the feedback loop.
But what if we where to change the purely resistive ( Rƒ ) feedback element of an inverting amplifier to that of
a frequency dependant reactance, ( X ) type complex element, such as a Capacitor, C. What would be the effect
on the op-amps output voltage over its frequency range.
By replacing this feedback resistance with a capacitor we now have an RC Network connected across the
operational amplifiers feedback path producing another type of operational amplifier circuit commonly called
an Op-amp Integrator circuit as shown below.

Op-amp Integrator Circuit

As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs the mathematical
operation of Integration, that is we can cause the output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time as
the op-amp integrator produces an output voltage which is proportional to the integral of the input voltage.
In other words the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of time a voltage is present at its
input as the current through the feedback loop charges or discharges the capacitor as the required negative
feedback occurs through the capacitor.
When a step voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating amplifier, the uncharged
capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like a short circuit allowing maximum current to flow via the
input resistor, Rin as potential difference exists between the two plates. No current flows into the amplifiers
input and point X is a virtual earth resulting in zero output. As the impedance of the capacitor at this point is
very low, the gain ratio of XC/RIN is also very small giving an overall voltage gain of less than one, ( voltage
follower circuit ).
As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the influence of the input voltage, its
impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion to its rate of charge. The capacitor charges up at a rate determined
by the RC time constant, ( τ ) of the series RC network. Negative feedback forces the op-amp to produce an
output voltage that maintains a virtual earth at the op-amp’s inverting input.
Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amp’s inverting input (which is at earth potential) and the op-
amp’s output (which is negative), the potential voltage, Vc developed across the capacitor slowly increases
causing the charging current to decrease as the impedance of the capacitor increases. This results in the ratio
of Xc/Rin increasing producing a linearly increasing ramp output voltage that continues to increase until the
capacitor is fully charged.
At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking any more flow of DC current. The ratio of feedback
capacitor to input resistor ( XC/RIN ) is now infinite resulting in infinite gain. The result of this high gain
(similar to the op-amps open-loop gain), is that the output of the amplifier goes into saturation as shown below.
(Saturation occurs when the output voltage of the amplifier swings heavily to one voltage supply rail or the
other with little or no control in between).

The rate at which the output voltage increases (the rate of change) is determined by the value of the resistor and
the capacitor, “RC time constant“. By changing this RC time constant value, either by changing the value of the
Capacitor, C or the Resistor, R, the time in which it takes the output voltage to reach saturation can also be
changed for example.
If we apply a constantly changing input signal such as a square wave to the input of an Integrator
Amplifier then the capacitor will charge and discharge in response to changes in the input signal. This results in
the output signal being that of a sawtooth waveform whose output is affected by the RC time constant of the
resistor/capacitor combination because at higher frequencies, the capacitor has less time to fully charge. This
type of circuit is also known as a Ramp Generator and the transfer function is given below.

Op-amp Integrator Ramp Generator

We know from first principals that the voltage on the plates of a capacitor is equal to the charge on the capacitor
divided by its capacitance giving Q/C. Then the voltage across the capacitor is output Vout therefore: -
Vout = Q/C. If the capacitor is charging and discharging, the rate of charge of voltage across the capacitor is
given as:

But dQ/dt is electric current and since the node voltage of the integrating op-amp at its inverting input terminal
is zero, X = 0, the input current I(in) flowing through the input resistor, Rin is given as:

The current flowing through the feedback capacitor C is given as:

Assuming that the input impedance of the op-amp is infinite (ideal op-amp), no current flows into the op-amp
terminal. Therefore, the nodal equation at the inverting input terminal is given as:

From which we derive an ideal voltage output for the Op-amp Integrator as:

To simplify the math’s a little, this can also be re-written as:

Where: ω = 2πƒ and the output voltage Vout is a constant 1/RC times the integral of the input voltage Vin with
respect to time. The minus sign ( – ) indicates a 180o phase shift because the input signal is connected directly
to the inverting input terminal of the op-amp.

The Differentiator Amplifier

The basic operational amplifier differentiator circuit produces an output signal which is the first derivative of
the input signal

Here, the position of the capacitor and resistor have been reversed and now the reactance, XC is connected to
the input terminal of the inverting amplifier while the resistor, Rƒ forms the negative feedback element across
the operational amplifier as normal.
This operational amplifier circuit performs the mathematical operation of Differentiation, that is it “produces a
voltage output which is directly proportional to the input voltage’s rate-of-change with respect to time“. In
other words the faster or larger the change to the input voltage signal, the greater the input current, the greater
will be the output voltage change in response, becoming more of a “spike” in shape.
As with the integrator circuit, we have a resistor and capacitor forming an RC Networkacross the operational
amplifier and the reactance ( Xc ) of the capacitor plays a major role in the performance of a Op-amp
Differentiator.

Op-amp Differentiator Circuit

The input signal to the differentiator is applied to the capacitor. The capacitor blocks any DC content so there is
no current flow to the amplifier summing point, X resulting in zero output voltage. The capacitor only allows
AC type input voltage changes to pass through and whose frequency is dependant on the rate of change of the
input signal.
At low frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is “High” resulting in a low gain ( Rƒ/Xc ) and low output
voltage from the op-amp. At higher frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is much lower resulting in a
higher gain and higher output voltage from the differentiator amplifier.
However, at high frequencies an op-amp differentiator circuit becomes unstable and will start to oscillate. This
is due mainly to the first-order effect, which determines the frequency response of the op-amp circuit causing a
second-order response which, at high frequencies gives an output voltage far higher than what would be
expected. To avoid this the high frequency gain of the circuit needs to be reduced by adding an additional small
value capacitor across the feedback resistor Rƒ.
Ok, some math’s to explain what’s going on!. Since the node voltage of the operational amplifier at its inverting
input terminal is zero, the current, i flowing through the capacitor will be given as:

The charge on the capacitor equals Capacitance times Voltage across the capacitor

Thus the rate of change of this charge is:

but dQ/dt is the capacitor current, i

from which we have an ideal voltage output for the op-amp differentiator is given as:

Therefore, the output voltage Vout is a constant –Rƒ*C times the derivative of the input voltage Vin with
respect to time. The minus sign (–) indicates a 180o phase shift because the input signal is connected to the
inverting input terminal of the operational amplifier.
One final point to mention, the Op-amp Differentiator circuit in its basic form has two main disadvantages
compared to the previous operational amplifier integrator circuit. One is that it suffers from instability at high
frequencies as mentioned above, and the other is that the capacitive input makes it very susceptible to random
noise signals and any noise or harmonics present in the source circuit will be amplified more than the input
signal itself. This is because the output is proportional to the slope of the input voltage so some means of
limiting the bandwidth in order to achieve closed-loop stability is required.

Op-amp Differentiator Waveforms

If we apply a constantly changing signal such as a Square-wave, Triangular or Sine-wave type signal to the
input of a differentiator amplifier circuit the resultant output signal will be changed and whose final shape is
dependant upon the RC time constant of the Resistor/Capacitor combination.