ME5895

Advanced Manufacturing

Quality and Reliability Concepts, Definitions,

and Significance
 Outline
• Quality characteristics
• Reliability
• Difference between quality and reliability
• Quality and reliability costs
• Tools to control quality and reliability
• Virtual qualification
• Burn in test
• Quality of engineering systems
 Different Definitions of Quality

• Crosby’s definition:
Quality is conformance to requirements or
specifications
• Juran’s definition:
Quality is fitness to use
Our Definition of Quality and Quality
Improvement?
 Quality Characteristics
• Critical to Quality (CTQ) Characteristics
– Physical or structural characteristics (such
as length, weight, strength …)
– Sensory characteristics (such as taste, smell,
appearance, color,…)
– What are quality characteristics in
manufacturing?
• Number of defects?
• Defective boards?
 Reliability and Definition of Reliability
• Reliability is defined as ability of a product to properly function,
within specified performance limits, for a specified period of
time under the life cycle application condition

– Within specified performance limit: A product must function

within certain tolerances in order to be reliable

– For a specified period of time: A product has a useful life

during which it is expected to function within specifications.

– Under the life cycle application condition: Reliability is

dependent on the products life cycle operational and
environmental conditions
 Quality and Reliability Costs

• Prevention costs
• Appraisal costs
• Internal failure costs
• External failure costs

Quality and reliability are distinctly distinguished. Reliability deals with the
life cycle of products in the field environment.
Why does a manufacturer needs a reliability
strategy?
 When a product fails, there are costs to the
manufacturer
• Time -to-market can increase. this can be significant
if failures occur after production.
• Warranty costs can increase. Significant numbers of
failures can initiate a recall.
• Market share can decrease. Failures can stain the
reputation of a company, and deter new customers.
– Example: Hyundai vehicles in the US
– Example : Firestone tires
– Counter-example: Tamagotchi
• Claims for damages caused by product failure can
increase.
 The Impact of Failure in the Commercial
Electronics Industry Can be Large
Type of Business Average Hourly Impact

• Retail brokerage $6,450,000

• Credit card sales authorization $2,600,000
• Home shopping channels $113,750
• Cataloged sales center $90,000
• Airline reservation centers $89,500
• Cellular service activation $41,000
• Package shipping service $28,250
• Online network connect fees $22,250
• ATM service fees $14,500
• Slot machine doesn’t pay off ????
• Some data from the Washington post “ready when chips, line are down” December 18,1999,page E01.
 Example: The Cost of a Failure

Toshiba corp. agreed to a $2.1 billion settlement for selling

allegedly defective laptop computers in the U.S., the first fallout
from a wave of lawsuits and government inquiries over a flaw
that may be common to the products of many major computer
makers.

Pasztor, A,and Landers, p.,”toshiba to pay $2B settelment on laptops.

Wall street Journal .p.1,november 1,1999.

http://www.dividend.com/dividend-education/the-7-most-famous-
product-recalls-how-did-stock-prices-react/
 Example : Intangible Cost of Failure

A month after its release in July 2000,Intel was forced

to recall its new 1.13GHz Pentium III microprocessors .
The chips had a hardware glitch that caused them to
crash or hang under certain condition. Although less
than 10,000 units were affected, the recall led to
embarrassment and a loss of reputation for the company
at a time when competition in the microprocessor
market was at its fiercest.

Jayant M.,”Intel Recalls Fastest Pentium.”

Electronic News,september 4,2000.
 U.S. Legal Liabilities
Breach of Duty of Care
• The USA generally operates on the theory of strict
liability. A company is liable for damages resulting
from a defect for no reason other than that one exists,
and a plaintiff does not need to prove any form of
negligence to win their case.

• Thus, we need to know as much about “ how things

fail” as we know about “how things work.”
 Ford Ignition Module Recall
• From 1983 to 1995 , ford built 22 million vehicles with thick
film ignition (TFI) modules that could cause vehicles to stall
and die on the highway at any time.
• As many as two thirds of the modules were “die on the road “
type and some models had failure rates as high as 90 percent.
• In October 2001 , ford agreed to the largest automotive class
action settlement in history, promising to reimburse drivers for
the faulty ignition modules.
• An estimated 16 million of the 22 million defective vehicle
were still on the road.
• The settlement costs were estimated to be as high as $2.7
billion.
 When a Product Fails,
There are costs to the customer
• Loss of mission, service or capacity
• Cost of repair or replacement
• Indirect costs, such as increase in insurance
• Personal injury
 Personal Injury

• Engineers have a social responsibility to

protect the public from harm.

• The services provided by engineers must be

dedicated to the protection of the public health,
safety , and welfare.

National society of professional Engineers ,NSPE code of ethics for engineers

,”http://www.nspe.org/ethics/eh1-code.asp, viewed January 26,2005
 Kansas City Hyatt Regency Walkway
Collapse
• On July 17,1981,the
second and fourth floor
walkways collapsed , killing
more than 140 people and
injuring over 200 others.

• This accident was caused by

improper design of the
walkway supports.
 Why Assess Reliability ?
• Increase customer confidence
• Compare reliability requirements with the state of the art
feasibility
• Identify and rank potential failures and problems
• Conduct design and development trade-offs or compare competing
designs and manufacturing processes
• Reduce the time needed to gather data for risk assessment
• Tailor tests for root cause analysis and corrective actions
• Determine risk mitigation actions
• Forecast warranty and life cycle costs
• Conduct safety analysis
• Address certification and regulatory concerns

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 Tools to Control Quality
• Statistical Process Control (SPC) tools
– Histograms often appear as bell curves and show mean
range and distribution
– Cause and effect diagrams provide visual presentation of
conditions that effect outputs
– Check sheets
– Pareto diagrams show in descending order what factors
contribute the most defects
– Control charts plot sample data representing process output
with respect to time in a form that makes it easy to
determine if the process is in statistical control
– Scatter diagrams can show stratification when data is
correlated
• Design of experiments
• Failure mode and effects analysis
• Regression analysis
• Analysis of means/variance
 Tools to Control Reliability

• Probability analysis tools

– Probability plotting
– The normal distribution
– Lognormal distribution
– Exponential distribution
– Weibull distribution
• Reliability testing
– Accelerated life testing
– Compressed life testing
Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)
The cumulative distribution function (CDF) is the probability that the
variable takes a value less than or equal to x. That is

F ( x) = P[ X < x]
For a continuous distribution, this can be expressed mathematically
as:
x
F ( x) =
θ
∫ f (θ )dθ
= −∞

F(x) = 1-R(x)
∞
Reliability R( x) =
θ
∫
=x
f (θ )dθ
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 Some Definitions
• Mean Time To Failure (MTTF): is a basic measure
of reliability for non-repairable systems. It is the
mean time expected until the first failure of a piece of
equipment. MTTF is a statistical value and is meant
to be the mean over a long period of time and a large
number of units.
• Failure Free Operation Period (FFOP):A failure free
operating period is a period of time during which a
system is reliable
• Unreliability: 1- Reliability = 1- R(t)
• Hazard Rate or Failure Rate: f(t)/R(t)
Example

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Weibull Distribution

24
 2-Parameter Weibull Plot
t 
−  β
β −1  η 
f (t ) = βη − β (t ) e

β = 2 and η = 0.5

β = 2 and η = 1

β = 3 and η = 1.5

β = 4 and η = 3

β > 0 and is called shape parameter, η > 0 and is called scale parameter
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 Effect of the Location, Shape, and Scale
Parameters

γ= 0
γ> 0
γ< 0

Probability Density
The 3-parameter Weibull with the

Function f (t)
location parameter γgives a reliability of
1 for time < = γ. Failure rates can be
increasing, decreasing or constant and
can be obtained from failure data

0
Time

Density Function f (t)

Probability Density

β= 3
Function f (t)

η= 1

Probability
β= 2
η= 2
η= 3 β= 1

0 Time 0 Time

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 3-Parameter Weibull

• β is the shape parameter, η is the scale parameter and γ is the location or delay
parameter.
• If γ = 0 the this will become 2-parameter weibull as follows:
t 
−  β
β −1  η 
f (t ) = βη − β (t ) e

• Unreliability and hazard functions are as follows:

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Weibull Distribution Parameters

28
 3-Parameter Weibull Distribution

β
−⎡t -γ ⎤
FFOP
⎢η ⎥ 1
R(t)= ∫t ∞ f (t)dt = e ⎣ ⎦

R(t)
Cumulative distribution fn
⎡t −γ ⎤β
1 −⎢ ⎥
η⎣ ⎦
F (t) =1−R(t) =1−e 0
CDF F (t)

t1 Time
FFOP Probability density function
β −1 β
⎡t −γ ⎤

PDF f (t)
Time
β ⎡t −γ ⎤
−⎢ ⎥
η⎣ ⎦
0 f(t)= ⎥ e
t1 η ⎣⎢ η ⎦

Hazard rate function

h (t)

0 t1 Time
FFOP β-1
f(t) β ⎡t - γ ⎤ FFOP
h(t)= =
R(t) η ⎢⎣ η ⎥
t1 Time ⎦
t = time, β = shape parameter, η = scale parameter, γ = location parameter
 Weibull Characteristics
• The Weibull distribution is often used in the field of life data analysis due to its
flexibility—it can mimic the behavior of other statistical distributions such as the
normal and the exponential.
– If the failure rate decreases over time, then β < 1.
– If the failure rate is constant over time, then β = 1.
– If the failure rate increases over time, then β > 1.

• An understanding of the failure rate may provide insight as to what is causing the
failures:
– A decreasing failure rate would suggest "infant mortality". That is, defective
items fail early and the failure rate decreases over time as they fall out of the
population.
– A constant failure rate suggests that items are failing from random events.
– An increasing failure rate suggests "wear out" - parts are more likely to fail as
time goes on.
• When β = 3.4, then the Weibull distribution appears similar to the normal
distribution.
• When β = 1, then the Weibull distribution reduces to the exponential distribution.
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 Weibull Parameters

• MTTF

• Median

• Standard Deviation

Γ Is the following function. The values are available in

tables in most statistics books.

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 Weibull Distribution with β =1
Exponential Distribution

Hazard rate is constant and therefore it is called constant failure rate.

λ0 = 1/η

32
Dependence of Shape Parameter on Hazard Rate

33
What is Reliability ? ……..Two Different Perspectives

probability of survival at ability to survive a given life-

any time t in a given life- cycle (within a given
cycle confidence level)
f(t)
Hazard rate

infant
mortality
“random” failures
Time
product is reliable when the
number of failures during a
specified period is at an
acceptable level
wearout
MTTF
Time to Failure
MFOP/FFOP
product is reliable if we have
confidence that it will not
need maintenance for a
specified period of time
Influence of Quality and Durability on Failure

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 What is Physics of Failure (PoF) ?
PoF is a methodology for building-in reliability, based on assessing:
the impact of hardware configuration and life-cycle stresses; on root-cause
failure mechanisms; in the materials at the potential failure sites.
Based on these analyses, the life cycle is managed to minimize
failures. Life cycle management includes activities such as:
• Design and Qualification
• Manufacture, Assembly, & Quality Assurance
• Supply chain management
• Stress Management & Health Management
• Warranty management, Service and Logistical Support
PoF is just good engineering……PoF is not new !!!!!
 Definitions
• Failure Mechanism……physical, chemical, thermodynamic or other
process that results in failure.

• Failure Site…………….location of the failure (resolved to single

material or interface).

• Failure Mode………….the effect by which a failure is observed.

• Load……………………application/environmental condition needed

(electrical, thermal, mechanical, chemical...) to precipitate a failure
mechanism.
• Stress…………………...intensity at the failure site of applied
environmental load.
 Accelerating the “bath tub” Curve for a Product
• Accelerating a certain failure mechanism so that the time to failure can be
achieved in laboratory setting.
• Only a certain failure mechanism that is under study must be accelerated
and no other failure mechanism does not get activated.

Increasing
stress
infant
Hazard rate

mortality

wearout

“random”
failures
Time
 Microcircuit Failure Mechanisms
• Oxide breakdown • Die attach fatigue
(TDDB) • Stress driven diffusive
• Slow trapping voiding
• Hot electrons • Electromigration
• Surface charge spreading • Intermetallic formation
• Leakage currents • Metallization corrosion
• Latch-up • Bond pad corrosion
• Ionic conduction • Dendritic growth
• Field distortion • Wire fatigue
• Die fracture • Passivation cracking
Activation Energy is Failure Mechanism Dependent
Failure Mechanism Activation Reference
energy
Metal corrosion 0.3 to 0.6 eV [Hakim, 1989; Jensen, 1982;
0.77 to 0.81 eV Amerasekera, 1987]
0.9 eV [Peck, 1986]
0.6 to 0.7 eV [Hallberg and
Peck 1991]
[Sinnadurai
1985]
Metallization migration 1eV [Abbott, 1976]
2.3 eV [Jensen, 1982]
Ionic 0.6 to 1.4 eV [Amerasekera, 1987]
contamination 1.4 eV [Jensen, 1982]
(surface, bulk)
Gate-oxide 0.3 to 0.4 eV [Baglee, 1984]
breakdown ESD 0.3 eV [Crook, 1979]
0.3 eV [Crook, 1979]
TDDB 2.1 eV [Anolick, 1979]
0.3 to 1.0 eV [McPherson, 1985]
2 eV [Anolick, 1979]
Surface-charge spreading 1.0 eV [Hakim, 1989]
0.5 to 1.0 eV [Jensen, 1982; Amerasekera, 1987]
Au-Al intermetallic growth 0.5 eV [Irvin, 1978]
at 1.0 eV [Hakim, 1989; Jensen,Lall, 1982]
P., Pecht, M., and Hakim, E.,
wire bond 1.1 eV [Mizugashira, 1985]
“Characterization of Functional Relationship between Temperature and Microelectronic
Reliability,” 2.0 eV [White, 1978]
Microelectronics and Reliability, Vol. 35(3), pp. 377-402, 1995.
 Accelerating FFOP for a Given Failure
Mechanism

Increasing Stress
Prob. Distribution
Function

MTTF

Time to Failure
FFOP

MTTF can be determined from each failure mechanism from PoF

simulation/testing, to desired confidence levels
 Example

• Thermo-mechanical fatigue during the life

cycle of the devices.
• Accelerated thermal cycling load according to
the JEDEC or IPC standards, aerospace test -
55C- 125°C to simulate the temperature cycles
in the life cycle of the joints.
• Make sure not do thermal shock.
• How do we use the accelerated test to predict
the life of the joints in reality.
An electronics unit is a complex
electromechanical system
 The majority of risks in electronic products
are mechanical in nature
Molding Wire Bond Semiconductor Die Attach Lead Frame
Compound

Die Pad

die
delamination

44

wire-bond corrosion and fracture

 The majority of risks in electronic products
are mechanical in nature

Intermetallic

Solder

Single-Sided
Insertion-mount
joint:
PWB Brass Pin
What Is a Root Cause

46
From Symptoms to Root Causes

47
 Virtual Qualification (VQ)

• VQ is a methodology for assessing and improving the

durability of electronic equipment through the use of validated
failure models/simulation tools.
• Why VQ:
– Testing is time-consuming, expensive and is usually too late. The goal
of product development should be “No-Testing.” That is, we want to
qualify products in design, not after production.
– Even when tests (accelerated tests) are conducted, it is required that
there is an accelerated test transform (e.g., model) to relate the
behavior of the product at the accelerated test conditions to its
behavior in the field.

48
 Principles of Virtual Qualification
Using Finite
Element Analysis

Design Capture Load Life-Cycle Loading

Transformation Characterization
(stress analysis)

Proposed designs for Anticipated life cycle

Failure Risk
3D ICs Assessment loads

Ranking of Potential Failures

Under Life-Cycle Loads
2
1 3
Load

Field

Time to Failure

49
 Failure Risk Assessment

Evaluate the applicable failure models for the given loads.

Failure models have the form

t f = F ( xi ,..., xn ) Failure Model

Strain due to ∆T
where xi are the parameters obtained
from design capture, life cycle load Cycles to Failure

characterization, and load Solder fatigue curve (shown

transformation (stress analysis). above) is one form of failure
model that may be applicable
to electronic hardware.

50
 Definition

• System reliability modeling is used to determine

reliability of a system using subsystem or parts
reliability and probability theory.
• A system consists of subsystems or parts that work
individually.
• Probability of failure for the system may change
depending on whether the parts or subsystems are
working in parallel or series.
 System Reliability
• System: A system is a collection of components, subsystems and/or assemblies
arranged to a specific design in order to achieve desired functions with acceptable
performance and reliability. The types of components, their quantities, their
qualities and the manner in which they are arranged within the system have a direct
effect on the system's reliability.
• Reliability Block Diagrams (RBDs): Block diagrams are widely used in
engineering and science and exist in many different forms. They can also be used to
describe the interrelation between the components and to define the system. When
used in this fashion, the block diagram is then referred to as a reliability block
diagram (RBD). A reliability block diagram is a graphical representation of the
components of the system and how they are reliability-wise related.
 Example

• It is possible for each block in a particular RBD to be represented by its own

reliability block diagram, depending on the level of detail in question. For
example, in an RBD of a car, the top level blocks could represent the major
systems of the car, as illustrated in Figure.
• Each of these systems could have their own RBDs in which the blocks represent
the subsystems of that particular system. This could continue down through
many levels of detail, all the way down to the level of the most basic
components (e.g. fasteners), if so desired.
Series Connected System
Part Reliability Versus System Reliability
Series System:
For different number of parts (N)
Example Problem
Example (Con.)
Example (Con.)
Redundancy
Stand By Redundancy System
Parallel Connected System
Parallel Connected System (Con. )
Plot of Part Reliability Versus System
Reliability for Parallel System
for different number of parts N
Example Parallel System Reliability
Example (Con.)
Example (Con.)