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Comparative Analysis of Radar and sonar are sensors which are used widely in the
military domain. Research and development in these areas are
Radar and Sonar Principles normally carried out independently by different groups. While
each sensor system has its own set of challenges and solutions,
there are fundamental similarities in their operating principles.
This article examines and compares these similarities to provide
meaningful insights into the synergy between radar and sonar.
Likewise, sonar can • Amplifying the transmitted signal, if any sonar beams can either be mechanical or
operate in different • Increasing the directivity of both electronic. Directivity can also be used during
transmission modes to transmitted and received signals reception to cut down on unwanted noise
optimise its detection • Collating, cleaning and amplifying the interference from the surroundings.
and classification received signal
capability for stationary Sonar utilises a deep sound channel
or slow moving targets Two basic radar-transmitter configurations occasionally, where propagation may occur
as well as fast moving are the self-exciting oscillator and the power with virtually no loss if the source of sound
ones. Besides being amplifier. The magnetron power oscillator is is deep and the conditions are optimal. This
able to achieve omni- the most common type of power oscillator is due to the sound trapping in the channel
directional coverage, for radar. The klystron, travelling-wave tube with no loss at the boundaries. This
sonar can operate and the cross-field amplifier are examples phenomenon is also a well-known
in directed sectoral of power amplifier tubes. In the late 1990s, observation in radar, where the specific
transmission to improve the solid-state amplifier started to replace atmospheric conditions can create a confined
its detection capability. the vacuum tube. The choice of transmitter conduit that follows the earth’s curvature,
The incorporation of an depends on the radar application. For resulting in ducting. Thus, over-the-horizon
Automatic Detection instance, power amplifiers are more stable detection capabilities can be achieved.
and Tracking feature in the sonar system Most modern radar systems are capable of and provide greater power at the expense of However, this phenomenon can also cause
enables continuous tracking of the target for varying their S/N ratios to take into account size and portability. problems in radar performance (e.g. gaps in
an accurate torpedo fire control solution. the presence of clutter, be it permanent (e.g. radar detection or detection of unwanted
nearby foliage and buildings) or sporadic In the case of active sonar, transducer clutter echoes at long ranges) as well as
(e.g. rain and atmospheric disturbances). The errors in range and angular measurements
SIGNAL AND NOISE adaptive S/N ratio allows radar systems to
frequencies have undergone an innovation
(see Figure 3).
where multiple frequencies may be emitted,
optimise the rates of detection even under allowing optimal performance through a
The Signal to Noise (S/N) Ratio is defined as
the power ratio between a signal (desired
adverse conditions. variety of mediums. This development may MATCHED FILTERING
reading) and background noise (undesired benefit military systems in the future by
The sonar equivalent of clutter is providing modes of detection suitable for
reading). All sensor systems which use the When receiving a signal, a matched filter
reverberation. Reverberation is caused by various sea conditions.
wave propagation have to factor in the option is available in some radar applications
sound waves scattering upon contact with
S/N ratio in order to make meaningful where the shape of the return pulse is
small objects in the sea, the water surface and As sound and radio waves travel, they
calculations (see Figure 2). known. This allows for optimal reception
the seabed. A region of strong reverberations suffer from a loss of intensity dependent of the desired signal by blocking out
is known as a reverberation-limited on the square of the range travelled. As an
A high S/N ratio is always desirable as it undesired interference. Radar pulses can also
environment. Conversely, a low reverberation omni-directional transmission system loses
allows for higher rates of detection with a be integrated, thus amplifying the signal
condition where noise dominates is known power quickly from a dissipation of power
lower probability of false alarms. All wave while cancelling out random noise.
as a noise-limited environment. The sources across a wide area, there is a need to add
propagation sensor systems use some form Integration can either be coherent or
of noise include shipping traffic, sea state directivity to the transmitted waves to
of noise limitation and signal amplification non-coherent. Non-coherent integration
and the ocean’s biological system which increase the strength of the transmitted
in order to improve the S/N ratio. compromises efficiency for the convenience
comprises organisms such as shrimps and signal. Radar systems may use a steerable of not having to preserve phase information.
fishes. Unwanted sounds and reflections can parabolic dish whereas sonar systems may use
‘Clutter’ refers to unwanted echoes in Matched filtering is also used extensively in
mask a desired target from detection. a steerable beam or directed transmission.
electronic systems and they occur particularly coherent active sonar.
in radar. These echoes are caused by Methods of directing and steering radar and
unwanted detection and interference from POWER GENERATION,
a variety of environmental factors, including AMPLIFICATION AND
insects, chaff and atmospheric turbulence.
PROPAGATION
All forms of clutter must be estimated and
factored into the equation as they lower the
In order to improve the S/N ratio, sensor
S/N ratio significantly. Noise dominates in the
absence of clutter while clutter dominates in
systems must also include measures to
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increase the power of the received signal.
regions of heavy clutter interference. Radar
This is done in three main ways:
systems in these two scenarios are termed
‘noise limited radar’ and ‘clutter limited
radar’ respectively. Figure 3. Effects of atmospheric ducting on wave propagation (Source: RF Cafe)
Comparative Analysis of
by particular elements. For instance, the 50- faster rate. Conventional wear
ATTENUATION 75GHz bands are used rarely in radar as they and tear is also reduced.
suffer severe attenuation due to atmospheric
‘Attenuation’ refers to the gradual loss absorption, especially under rainy conditions. Through the manipulation of
in intensity of any kind of flux through a the T/R modules, AESA radar
medium. Both radar and sonar suffer from The attenuation of sonar wave propagation systems are able to transmit
attenuation that results from factors such bears some similarities to that of radar. multiple ‘mini-beams’ to track
as range and environmental conditions. Owing to the nature of its medium, there are a large number of identified
For example, as range increases, the signal problems in using sonar to propagate sound targets while maintaining a
becomes weaker until it is completely hidden waves through water mediums of different wide area search beam – this
by noise. temperatures, salinity and density. Such eliminates the previous need
variations cause differences in the speed of for multiple radar systems
Attenuation levels vary based on the sound wave propagation. (Russel, 2007).
frequency of transmission and the medium
through which the signal travels. It is a key At a depth of 30-100m in the open sea, Further advantages of AESA
factor in determining the type of detection there is usually a marked change in ocean be cooled using silent convection, or by radar systems include low probability of
method to be used. For instance, sonar is temperature, known as a thermocline. towing sonar hydrophones behind a ship detection by radar warning receivers and high
used by submarines as radio waves suffer Thus, sonar can be hampered by the or submarine to reduce the effects of vessel resistance to jamming. As AESA radar systems
severe attenuation underwater and become refraction of sound waves from the other noise (see Figure 5). are composed of multiple T/R modules,
virtually non-functional. side of the thermocline because of the isolated failures have little effect on the
difference in sound wave speeds at various The passive sonar can be compared to the entire system and this allows the AESA radar
By varying frequency, radar and sonar can temperatures. An analogy would be the use of non-cooperative emissions from systems to attain high levels of reliability.
make trade-offs between target resolution distortion of a drinking straw when it is commercial broadcast or communication
and detection range. Higher frequency radar placed in clear water. Such variables can only signals in passive radar to detect targets of As the AESA radar systems continue to
would allow for a more precise tracking of be approximated during sonar calculations. interest. In such a system, the receiver uses develop, cheaper and more power-efficient
the target at shorter ranges, while lower This phenomenon is similar to radar third-party transmitters in the environment T/R modules can be expected in the market,
frequency search radar would detect targets propagation through different refractive and measures the arrival time difference further reducing the cost.
beyond the horizon. layers in the atmosphere. between a signal obtained directly from the
transmitter and one which is obtained via Sonar systems also have equivalent array
An example of attenuation arising from
environmental conditions for radar is rain
PASSIVE SYSTEMS reflection from the object. used for receiving signals. The sonar array
consists of multiple hydrophones which
fade, as illustrated in Figure 4. Higher add signals from a desired direction while
frequencies of radio waves (e.g. those
Passive sonar systems are used extensively ACTIVE ARRAY RADAR subtracting signals from other directions
above the range of 11GHz) suffer most from
by mines and submarines. Passive sonar is SYSTEMS (Chapple, 2008). Hydrophones are most
able to determine the range and bearing of
attenuation due to rain fade. Specific bands commonly arranged in the format of a line
an acoustic target without giving away the Modern Active Electronic Scanned Array
of frequency also suffer from attenuation array and cannot be steered electronically.
location of its source. Once an acoustic target (AESA) radar systems as shown in Figure 6
has been identified using provide great flexibility as they are capable
broadband detection, the of imitating a variety of radar antennas
sonar vessel may use narrow according to the situation (Hommel and
band analysis to identify Feldle, 2004). They are composed of several
the different frequencies Transmit/Receive (T/R) modules which are
making up the target’s programmed to operate in tandem.
emitted sound. Hence, the
type of engine and craft can AESA radar systems are able to generate
be determined. and aim the radar transmission beam and
reception path electronically through the
It is most useful to reduce constructive and destructive interference
the vessel’s own noise. between the T/R modules. This eliminates the
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This can be achieved by need for physical movement of the radar in
employing nuclear reactors Figure 6. An AESA radar
order to carry out scanning, allowing the AESA
in submarines which can (Source: Bahrat Rakshak)
Figure 4. Rain fade (Source: Dream Satellite Television) radar systems to scan surroundings at a much
Comparative Analysis of