CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS STATISTICS?

The science of collecting, summarizing, and analyzing numerical data. Statistics makes it possible to
predict the likelihood of events.

TWO BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

In descriptive statistics, it deals with collection of data, its presentation in various forms, such as tables,
graphs and diagrams and findings averages and other measures which would describe the data.

Example: Industrial statistics, population statistics, trade statistics etc… Such as businessman make to use
descriptive statistics in presenting their annual reports, final accounts, bank statements.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
In inferential statistics, it deals with techniques used for analysis of data, making the estimates and
drawing conclusions from limited information taken on sample basis and testing the reliability of the
estimates.

Example: Suppose we want to have an idea about the percentage of illiterates in our country. We take a
sample from the population and find the proportion of illiterates in the sample. This sample proportion
with the help of probability enables us to make some inferences about the population proportion. This
study belongs to inferential statistics.

SUBJECT AREAS WHICH MAKE USE OF STATISTICS:

AUTOMATIC DATA PROCESSING – construction, operation and use of high speed computing and data
processing equipment

BIOLOGY – research and experimentation in life processes plants and animals to promote growth

BUSINESS – production, distribution, sale of merchandise, auditing and accounting

DEMOGRAPHY – composition, distribution, growth of human population, birth, death, migration rates,
social economic standing of population

ECONOMICS – production, resources, trade, labor force, consumers and procedures responses to
products and price changing, advertising system distribution

EDUCATION – teaching-learning processes. Measurement and evaluation educational Studies,

enrollment, management and finance
ENGINEERING – design and test of performance, quality control

GOVERNMENT – taxes and wages, material resources, movement of population, Election

HEALTH – public health program, hospitalization, problems of medical care occurrence and cost of
diseases, accidents, and handicaps

INSURANCE – morality, morbidity and accident rates of the population, rates of premiums for property
and insurance program

MEDICINE – causes, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of communicable and non-communicable

diseases

PSYCHOLOGY – intelligence test, aptitudes, personality traits and attitudes, creation of scales and
measuring instruments

RESEARCH AND STATISTICS – probability, statistical theories and methods

SOCIAL SCIENCE – social systems and socials welfare, behavior patterns of group of
People

SPORTS – points made out of so many attempts from the field or foul from the line such as in basketball,
football, etc.

HISTORY OF STATISTICS:

The word statistics have been derived from the Latin word “status” or the Italian word “statista”
meaning of these words is “Political State” or a Government. Shakespeare used a word statist in his
drama Hamlet. In the past, statistics was used by rulers. The application of statistics was very limited
but rulers and kings needed nformation about lands, agriculture, commerce, population of their states
to assess their military potential, their wealth, taxation, and other aspects of government.

Gottfried Achenwall introduced and used the word statistic at a German University in 1749
which means that political science of different countries.But it was Zimmermann and Sinclair who
introduced and popularized the name “statistics” In 1771 W. Hooper(Englishman) used the word
statistics in his translation of Elements of Universal Erudition written by Baron B.F. Bieford, in his book
statistics has been defined as the science that teaches us what is the political arrangement of all the
modern states of the known world. There is a big gap between the old statistics and the modern
Type equation here.statistics, but the old statistics also used as a part of the present statistics.

Girotamo Cardano an Italian mathematician, physician, and gambler wrote “Liber de Ludo
Aleae” –first known principle known study on the principle of probability.Chevalier de Mere- made a
proposal to Blaise Pascal in th famous problems on points- a work which marked the beginning of the
mathematics of probability.Adolf Quetelet a Belgian was referred to as the Father of Modern Statistics.
 During the 18th century the English writer have used the word statistics in their works, so
statistics has developed gradually during the last centuries. A lot of work has been done in the end of
the nineteenth century.

At the beginning of the 20th century, William S. Gosset developed the methods for decision
making based on small set of data. During the 20th century several statistician are very active in
developing new methods, new theories and application in statistics. These days the availability of
computers is certainly a major factor in the modern development of statistics.

TIMELINE:

1017 B.C. – census were taken by David

270-230 B.C. – King Asoka of Northern AHindustan also describes of taking censuses

Athenians and Classical Greece – took censuses in times of stress, carefully counting the
Adults male citizens in wartime and the general populace whren the food supply
was endangered

578 – 534 B.C. – ServinusTullius – instituted the gathering of population data

3000 B.C. – records of population in China

1491 B.C. – census were undertaken by Moses

2,000 years – Male citizen in the Roman Empire had to return to the city of his birth
To be counted and taxed.

Middle Ages – registration of land ownership and on manpower for wars were made

13th century – tax lists of Paris included the registration of those who were subject to
Tax

William the Conqueror – required the compilation of information on population and

Resources

The Doomsday Book – is the first landmark in British statistics

1654 -- Pascal -- mathematics of probability, in correspondence with Fermat

1662-John Grunt – - William Petty and John Graunt -- first demographic studies; observes the
percentage of deaths from suicides, accidents, and various deseases remained remarkable
constant throughout the years

1713 -- Jakob Bernoulli -- ArsConjectandi

1733 -- DeMoivre -- Approximatio; law of error (similar to standard deviation);discovered the equation
of the normal distribution
1763 -- Rev. Bayes -- An essay towards solving a problem in the Doctrine of Chances, foundation for
"Bayesian statistics"

18th century – statistics was used in the study entitled “Political Arrangement of the
Modern States of the Known World

1805 -- A-M Legendre -- least square method

1809 -- C. F. Gauss -- TheoriaMotusCorporumCoelestium

1812 -- P. S. Laplace -- Théorieanalytique des probabilities

Francis Galton (1822-1911) – developed the used of percentiles

1834 -- Statistical Society of London established

1853 -- AdolpheQuetelet -- organized first international statistics conference; applied statistics to

biology; described the bell-shaped curve

1877 -- F. Galton -- regression to the mean

1888 -- F. Galton -- correlation

1889 -- F. Galton -- Natural Inheritance

Sir Ronald Fisher (1890- 1962) - introduces many statistical procedures, one of these is
Fisher’s test used in the analysis of variance in Inferential Statistics

19th century – Quetelet, a Belgian astronomer, applied the theory of probability to

Anthropological measurements and expanded the same principle to the
Physiological, psychological, physical, and chemical fields

1900 -- Karl Pearson -- chi square; applied correlation to natural selection; developed the theory of
regression and correlation

1904 -- Spearman -- rank (non-parametric) correlation coefficient

1908 -- "Student" (W. S. Gossett) -- The probable error of the mean; the t-test

1919 -- R. A. Fisher -- ANOVA; evolutionary biology

1930's -- Jerzy Neyman and Egon Pearson (son of Karl Pearson) -- type II errors, power of a test

HISTORY OF STATISTICS IN THE PHILIPPINES:

1570 – Legaspi made crude and estimates of the population

1576 – Hernando Riquel – estimate the population in connection with the list of
Encomiendas

1582 – Miguel de Loarca – made an account on the socio-economic conditions of the

People in “Relacion de las Islas Filipinas”

1591 – Governor and Captain General Gomez Dasmarinas – second estimate of the
Population based on the number of encomiendas- approximately 667,617 people
As there were 166,904 encomiendas. Each encomienda representing 4 persons

1799- Buzeta compiled - Christian population was 1,502,574

Cedula – another source of information concerning the population

1877- civil censuses were taken by the Spanish authorities

American Regime – data collection becomes more systematized

1902 – creation of the Bureau of Agriculture- compiled data on the number of farms, the
Extent of irrigated areas, and land put into cultivation.

1908- creation of the Bureau of Labor- furnished data on the number of labor
Organizations and members. Compiled also statistics on labor cases

1925- syrvey on the educational system was made by a board of distinguished educators
Headed by Dr. Paul Monroe

1940 – creation of the Bureau of Census and Statistics with the following functions:
1. prepare and conduct periodic censuses on population, housing, agriculture,
Fisheries, industry, business, and other sectors of the economy

2. prepare and conduct statistical surveys, researches, and studies on all aspects
Of socio-economic conditions

3. collect and process for statistical purposes data and records from the different
Departments, bureaus, offices, and agencies of the government

4. conduct researches and studies on census in cooperation with national or local

Statistical organizations

5. develop a well-integrated, consolidated and corrdinated program of up-to-date

Statistical collection, production, analysis, and publication for the use of
The government and the public

6. to maintain an efficient system of civil registration

CHAPTER 2

SUMMATION NOTATION
Summation or sigma notation is a convenient and simple form of shorthand used to give a
concise expression for a sum of the values of a variable.

SUMMATION NOTATION INVOLVES:

The summation sign

∑
This appears as the symbol, S, which is the Greek upper case letter, S. The summation sign, S, instructs
us to sum the elements of a sequence. A typical element of the sequence which is being summed
appears to the right of the summation sign.

The variable of summation, i.e. the variable which is being summed

The variable of summation is represented by an index which is placed beneath the summation sign. The
index is often represented by i. (Other common possibilities for representation of the index are j and t.)
The index appears as the expression i = 1. The index assumes values starting with the value on the right
hand side of the equation and ending with the value above the summation sign.

The starting point for the summation or the lower limit of the summation

The stopping point for the summation or the upper limit of summation

∑ 𝑿𝒊
𝒊=𝟏

Where:

n = stopping point (upper limit og summation)

Xi = typical element

∑ = summation sign

i = index of summation

1 = starting point (lower limit of summation

SOME TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF SUMMATION:

This expression means sum the values of x, starting at x1 and ending with xn.

This expression means sum the values of x, starting at x1 and ending with x10.

This expression means sum the values of x, starting at x3 and ending with x10.

The limits of summation are often understood to mean i = 1 through n. Then the notation
below and above the summation sign is omitted. Therefore this expression means sum the
values of x, starting at x1and ending with xn.

This expression means sum the squared values of x, starting at x1 and ending with xn.

Arithmetic operations may be performed on variables within the summation. For example:

This expression means sum the values of x, starting at x1 and ending with
xn and then square the sum.
Arithmetic operations may be performed on expressions containing more than one variable. For
example:

This expression means form the product of x multiplied by y, starting at x1 and y1 and
ending withxn and yn and then sum the products.
CHAPTER 3

VARIABLE AND DATA

VARIABLE – the characteristic that is being studied

TYPES OF VARIABLES:

QUALITATIVE VARIABLE- non-numerical values or attributes examples are: marital status, eyes
color, etc.

QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE- yield numerical values examples are: height, weight, and age

TWO TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE:

DISCRETE-is a variable whose values can be counted using integral values such as the
Number of enrollees, number of drop-outs

CONTINUOUS-is a variable that can assume any numerical value over an interval or intervals
examples are height, weight, time, and temperature

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES:

DEPENDENT VARIABLE- variable whose value is being predicted

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE- is the predictor

DATA – are facts or a set of information or observations under consideration gathered by a researcher
from a population or from a sample

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT OF DATA:

NOMINAL DATA – uses numbers for the purpose of identifying membership in a group or category
Example: There were 40 students enrolled in Basic Statistics, where 20 students were catholics,
10 were protestants, 5 were IglesyaniKristo, and 5 were Muslim.

ORDINAL DATA – connotes ranking or inequalities. Examples were, excellent is higher than very
satisfactory, and very satisfactory is higher than satisfactory, and so on.

INTERVAL DATA – does not only include “greater than” and “less than” relationship but also has a limit of
measurement that permits us to describe how much more or less an object possesses than
another. Example: Shirley’s grade in Statistics is 88 while her friend Joy got 80; meaning to say
that Shirley got higher grade than Joy by 8 points.

RATIO DATA – is similar to interval data, but has an absolute zero and multiples are meaningful. Example:
Danny is 40 years old while Kitchie is 20 years old, we can say that Danny is twice as old as Kitchie.
TYPES OF DATA:

PRIMARY DATA – are data collected directly by the researcher himself

SOURCE OF PRIMARY DATA:

1. Direct observation or measurement
2. Interview using set of questions called questionnaires or rating scales
3. Mail (snail or e-mail), recording or reporting forms

SECONDARY DATA – are information taken from published or unpublished materials previously gathered
by other researchers or agencies such as books, newspapers, magazines, journals, published and
unpublished thesis and dissertations
CHAPTER 4

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
The researchers need not to examine every member of the population to get data or
information about the population. Cost and time constraint will prohibit one from undertaking a study
of the entire population. All the researcher need to do is to draw sample units systematically or
random. Sampling done this way will provide valid conclusion about the entire population.

RANDOM SAMPLING

Random sampling is the method of selecting a sample size (n) from a population such that each
member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. Typical of this type of
sampling is the lottery or fish bowl technique.

1) LOTTERY or FISH BOWL SAMPLING – is usualy carried out by assigning numbers to each
member of the population. These numbers or names are placed in a box . The box is shaked
and the required number of sample units are drawn
2) TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS-The table contains rows and columns of digits randomly
ordered by computers. From the starting point, you may continue to any direction as long as
you are consistent with the route. Continue picking out the numbers until you get the desired
number of your sample size.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

Systematic sampling – this method involves selecting every nth element of a series representing
the population. A complete listing is required in this method.

TYPES OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING:

1) STRATIFIED SAMPLING – the distribution of sampling units is first divided into groups- based
on homogeneity- in order to avoid the possibility of drawing samples whose members come
only from one stratum. The distribution of samples is proportional to the total number of
units in each stratum.

Stratified sampling is often used in polls of public opinion, in survey or market research like in
TV ratings, and opinion of representatives.

2) CLUSTER SAMPLING – often referred to as area sample because it frequently applied on a

geographical basis. On this basis districts or blocks of a municipality or city are selected. These
districts or blocks constitutes the clusters.

Cluster sampling is useful in selecting the sample when blocks in a community or city is
occupied by heterogeneous groups. In general, we can get more precise results under cluster
 sampling when each cluster contains as varied mixture as possible and at the same time one
cluster is as nearly alike as the other. This sampling is a reerse case of stratified sampling
where the strata are internally as homogeneous as possible and at the same time each strata
is different from one another as much as possible.

If done well, stratified sampling is always more precise than simple random sampling
technique. The use of cluster is usually dictated by cost and administrative considerations.

3) MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING – This technique uses several stages or phases in getting the sample
from the general population. However, selection of the sample is still done at random. Muti-
stage sampling is useful in conducting nation-wide surveys or any survey involving a large
universe. Each stages is done through simple random sampling technique.

Example is selecting municipalities from the regions in the Philippines:

FIRST STAGE:
Write all the name of the regions in the Philippines
SECOND STAGE:
From the total number of regions select 3 or 4 regions
THIRD STAGE:
From three or four regions, select two or three provinces
FOURTH STAGE:
Lastly, we enumerate all the cities and municipalities from these provinces then
select three cities or municipalities

NON-RANDOM SAMPLING

This type of sampling technique is also called NON-PROBABILITY sampling technique or

JUDGEMENT SAMPLINGmakes use of judgement in the selection of items to be put in the sample or in
making decisions as to responses needed. The validity of the sample is based on the soundness of
judgement of whoever makes the choice.

TYPES OF NON-RANDOM OR JUDGEMENT SAMPLING:

1) PURPOSIVE SAMPLING – this type of sampling is based on criteria laid down by the
researcher. People who satisfy the criteria are interviewed.

2) QUOTA SAMPLING – relatively quick and inexpensive method to operate. Each interviewer is
given definite instructions about the section of the public he is to question, but the final choice
of the actual persons is left to his own convenience or preference. Each interviewer proceeds
to fill the prescribed quota.

3) CONVENIENCE SAMPLING- the researcher chooses his or her sample based on his
convenience or from available individuals that he think is within his reach.
CHAPTER 5

DATA PRESENTATION
Collected data must be organized in order to show significant characteristics. Data are classified
into two, grouped data and ungrouped data.

GROUPED DATA – data that are organized and arranged into different classes or categories

UNGROUPED DATA – data that are not systematically organized. Arrangement of these data are
usually according to magnitude.

PRESENTATION OF DATA:

1. TEXTUAL – data is presented in paragraph form

2. TABULAR – data is presented in rows and columns
3. GRAPHICAL – data is presented in visual form

TEXTUAL – involves enumerating significant characteristics and identifying important features of the
data. The writer can also call attention to the relevance of the figures.

EXAMPLE 1:The following are the final grade of the 40 students in Radiation Physics 1:

89 90 75 74 69 67 79 80

72 83 95 78 75 73 90 85

70 92 75 77 73 80 91 84

80 68 85 75 72 70 76 75

87 75 76 89 90 78 84 80

Arranging them from highest to lowest, will help us see the special features of the data.

95 92 91 90 90 90 89 89

87 85 85 84 84 83 80 80

80 80 79 78 78 77 76 76

76 75 75 75 75 75 75 74

73 73 72 72 70 70 69 68

The highest grade received in Radiation Physics 1 is 95 and the lowest grade is 68. Thirty one
students passed the subjects equivalent to 77.5% while 9 of the students failed equivalent to
22.5% .
TABULAR – this is the process of condensing classified data and arranging them into table. Data
presented in this process canreadily be understood and comparison maybe easily made.
Tabular presentation facilitates analysis of relationships between and among collected data
since these data are systematically arranged into rows and columns.

PARTS OF A TABLE:

1. TABLE NUMBER – for easy reference to the table

2. TABLE TITLE – briefly explains the content of the table
3. COLUMN HEADER – describes the data in each column
4. ROW CLASSIFIER – describes the data in each column
5. BODY – main part of the table
6. SOURCE NOTE – found at the bottom of the table when the data is obtained from another
source

EXAMPLE 2:

TABLE 1

FIRST SEMESTER ENROLLMENT AT THE FAMILY CLINIC COLLEGES FOR THE SCHOOL YEAR 2010-2011

COURSE NO. OF STUDENTS ENROLLED

B.S. Nursing 125
B.S. Radiologic Technology 423
B.S. Physical Therapy 87
A.B. Psychology 55
TOTAL 690

Source: The Registrar’s Office

TWO METHODS OF ORGANIZING RAW DATA:

1. ARRAY – it is an ordering of observations from smallest to the largest or vice versa as in

what we have done in example 1. It’s advantage is that the low and high value can readily be
perceived.

2. STEM AND LEAF – The stem and leaf display gives a good overall impression of the data. The
number data is broken up into tens and unit digits are tallied together whose values shares
with the tens digits.
EXAMPLE: Setting up the array of example 1 into stem and leaf.

TENS UNITS
6 8 9
7 0 0 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 8 8 9
8 0 0 0 0 3 4 4 5 5 7 9 9
9 0 0 0 1 2 5
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:

When the data are arrange in tabular Form by the frequencies , the table is called a frequency
table. The arrangement is called a frequency distribution.

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:

1. Determine the range by getting the difference between the highest and lowest values in the
set of data.
2. Determine the number of class intervals or categories desired. The ideal number of class
intervals is somewhere between 5 and 15.
3. Determine the approximate size of the class interval by dividing the range by the desired
number of class intervals

𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Suggested class interval = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

Using the suggestion of Freud and Simon, using Sloven’s formula:

𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Suggested Class Interval = 1+3.322𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁

Where: 1 + 3.322logN = Sloven’s Formula

4. Write the class intervals starting with the lowest lower limit as a multiple of the class
interval. The upper lower limit is determined by the size of the class interval minus 1.
Subsequent classes shall be obtained in the same manner.
5. Determine the class frequencies for each class interval by referring to the array or the stem
and leaf diagram.
6. Compute for the class mark by adding the lower and upper limit of the class interval, then
dividing the sum by 2. The class mark is the representative value of the corresponding
interval.

CLASS BOUNDARIES – They are the more precise expression of the class limits by at least 0.5 of their
values. They are called the” TRUE CLASS LIMITS”

EXAMPLE: Construct the frequency distribution table of example 1

THE STEM AND LEAF DIAGRAM OF THE EXAMPLE:

TENS UNITS
6 8 9
7 0 0 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 8 8 9
8 0 0 0 0 3 4 4 5 5 7 9 9
9 0 0 0 1 2 5
SOLUTION:

1. RANGE: 95 – 68 = 27
2. NUMBER OF CLASS INTERVAL: 9
3. SIZE OF THE CLASS INTERVAL:

𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Suggested Class Interval = 1+3.322𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁

27
= =6
1+3.322𝐿𝑜𝑔 40

CLASS FREQUENCY CLASS CLASS RELATIVE PERCENTAGE

INTERVAL MARK BOUNDARIES FREQUENCIES
66- 71 4 68.5 65.5-71.5 0.1 10%
72- 77 15 74.5 71.5-77.5 0.375 37.5%
78- 83 8 80.5 77.5-83.5 0.2 20%
84- 89 7 86.5 83.5-89.5 0.175 17.5%
90- 95 5 92.5 89.5-95.5 0.125 12.5%
96- 99 1 98.5 95.5-99.5 0.025 2.5%
SUM (∑) 40 1.00 100%

RELATIVE FREQUENCY is computed by dividing the corresponding frequency in a class interval by the
total frequency. ( Ex: 4 ÷ 40 = 0.1)

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION is simply moving the decimal point of the relative frequencies two places
to the right and attaching the percentage sign. (Ex: 0.375 = 37.5%)

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

HISTOGRAM – It is a graphic representation of a frequency distribution where adjoined vertical

rectangles are drawn on the horizontal axis with the center of the bases located at the class
marks.

20
15
10
5
0
FREQUENCY POLYGON- A closed figure of n sides constructing by plotting the class marks against the
frequencies

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
62.5 68.5 74.5 80.5 86.5 92.5 98.5 104.5

OGIVE – is a line graph representing the upper class boundaries along the horizontal axis and the
corresponding cumulative frequencies along the vertical axis. It is also called cumulative
frequency “less than” polygon or cumulative frequency “greater than” polygon. The f< means
less than, and the f> means greater than.

CLASS
CLASS INTERVAL FREQUENCY f< f>
BOUNDARIES
66- 71 65.5-71.5 4 4 40
72- 77 71.5-77.5 15 19 36
78- 83 77.5-83.5 8 27 21
84- 89 83.5-89.5 7 34 13
90- 95 89.5-95.5 5 39 6
96- 101 95.5-101.5 1 40 1
SUM (∑) 40

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY “LESS THAN”

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY “GREATER THAN”

CHAPTER 6

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Descriptive measures that indicate where the center or the most typical value of a set of data
are called measures of central tendency, often more simply referred to a average. The three most
importat measures of central tendency : the mean, median, and the mode.

A. THE MEAN:

The mean is divided into two: mean for ungrouped data ; is defined as the sum of all the scores
or data divided by the number of scores in the data.
𝑥1+𝑥2+𝑥3+⋯𝑥𝑛
𝑥= 𝑛
=

Example: The mean of 8, 16, 4, 5, 9, 6 is:

(8 + 16 + 4+ 5 + 9 + 6)÷ 6 = 8