Electrothermal Industries

Electrothermal industries are industries that use electric furnaces in the manufacture of products.

Electric and Combustion Furnaces

Electric furnaces are furnaces which uses heat generated from electric current. It is different from combustion
furnace by some means. Electric furnaces generate heat through electricity while combustion furnaces use
fuels as the heating source. Since electric furnaces use electricity, it is evident that no flue gas is produced
in contrast to combustion furnaces. Thus, lesser pollution is emitted by the plant (only true if the source of
electricity is from renewable energy resources). In terms of operating temperature, electric furnaces can
achieve higher temperature than combustion furnaces. Electric furnaces can reach up to 4,100 0C while
combustion furnace can only reach up to 1700 0C. In fact, the capability of electric furnace to achieve higher
temperature has led to the synthesis of new materials such as silicon and calcium carbide. Also, the former
can produce a purer product than the later. In terms of the overall efficiency, electric furnaces have lower
efficiencies than combustion furnace. This is due to the energy losses during the electricity generation and
distribution. This is depicted in figure 1.

Figure 1: Path of Energy Conversion in an Electric Furnace

Operating Principle of an Electric Furnace

The general operating principle of an electric furnace is the same with that of electric heaters. When electrons
flows through a highly electric resistant material, heat is generated as a result of friction. The amount of heat
produced is given by,
𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑉 2 𝑡/𝑅 eq’n 1
where:
H = amount of heat produced, Watts
I = current, amperes
V = voltage, volts
R = resistance, ohms
t = time, seconds

The furnace is also lined with refractories to minimize heat loses.

Types of Electric Furnace
There are three types of electric furnaces namely electric arc, induction and resistance furnaces. Their
respective features and operating principles are discussed as follows.
1. Electric arc furnace
Figure 2 shows the basic lay-out of an electric arc furnace. Electric arc furnace operates under batch process.
Materials to be melted is charged into the furnace, melted and withdrawn using a tilting mechanism. Electric
arc furnace consists of multiple electrodes which is usually made of graphite material. Graphite is selected
because of its high electrical conductivity. During the process it may or may not be consumed. An oxygen-
fuel burners are also integrated into the furnace in order to provide the heat necessary for initial melting of
the batch. These are also installed in order to supply oxygen gas which reacts with impurities such as
phosphorus, silicon and carbon. The impurities can be easily removed from the melt since these are in
gaseous form.

Figure 2: Basic Lay-out of an Electric Arc Furnace

Source: https://www.brighthubengineering.com/manufacturing-technology/80128-understanding-electric-arc-furnaces/

Figure 3 shows how an electric arc furnace functions. After the batch of materials were loaded into the
furnace, the electrodes are lowered into the material. Electric arc is formed between the electrodes and the
top layer of the materials. The arc that is formed is the same with that of a welding process. The bright light
seen during welding is the electric arc. During the initial melt-down process, electric arc tends to be unstable.
This instability usually causes explosion. Thus, low voltage is used. As the materials melts, the electrodes
are lowered further down with an increase in voltage. Once the batch is fully melted, it is withdrawn from the
furnace.
Electric arc furnace is the most commonly used type of electric furnace. It is usually used in melting and
purifying scrap metals. Also, the operating temperature of the furnace is the highest among the three types
of electric furnaces.
 Figure 3: Parts and Operating Principle of an Electric Arc Furnace
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Illustration-of-electric-arc-furnace_fig1_303795438/download

2. Induction Furnace
Induction furnace operating principle is based on electro-magnetic induction and Joule Effect. In figure 4, it
is notable that the furnace consists of power coil (5) where current flows. As the current flows through the
coil, magnetic field is created. This magnetic field produces an electromotive force (voltage) in a conducting
material placed inside the coil. This phenomenon is called Electromagnetic induction.
The voltage that was created in the conducting material inside the coil then generates heat according to the
equation presented above (eq’n 1). Thus, in an induction furnace, heat is generated within the material that
is being melted. There is no direct contact between the electric circuit and that of the material. A cooling coil,
which permits continuous flow of water, is installed in the power coil side in order to avoid overheating of the
power coil during operation.

Figure 4: Parts of an Induction Furnace

Source:https://www.otto-junker.com/en/products-technologies/furnaces-for-cast-iron-steel/medium-frequency-
induction-furnaces/
Induction furnace like that of electric arc operates under batch process. In comparison with electric arc,
induction furnace provides a cleaner and safer way of melting materials. Cleaner in the sense that, it doesn’t
use oxygen-fuel burners. It is safer because it is operating temperature is lower than that of the arc. Moreover,
the electromagnetic stirring action of the furnace creates a more uniform/homogenous melt than the arc.
One of the drawback of this furnace is its lack of capability in purifying the melted materials. Thus, the
materials that must be loaded into the furnace must be pure and clean. Add on top of that, the material should
also be a conductor of electricity. This is seldom used in the electrothermal industries.
3. Resistance Furnace
Resistance furnace is a furnace in which heat is generated by passing current directly or indirectly into the
materials to be melted or reacted. There are of two types – direct or indirect resistance furnace. The one
shown in figure 5 is an indirect type of resistance furnace. As can be seen, the furnace is equipped with
heating coils on the side. Heat is transferred to the materials via conduction, convection and radiation. These
are commonly used to melt fusible metals.

Figure 5: Indirect Resistance Furnace

Source: https://www.practicalmachinist.com/vb/general/heat-treat-oven-235129/

Direct resistance furnace is a furnace in which current is allowed to directly flow into the material. Since heat
is generated within the material, very rapid heating is accomplished (on the scale of seconds or fraction of a
minute). Higher temperature on the time scale basis is also obtained compared with indirect heating. This is
commonly used in electrical conducting materials.

Figure 6: Direct heating of material

Source: http://www.silcarb.com/dumbell-shaped-silicon-carbide-heating-element.php
Electrical resistance furnaces can be operated either batch or continuous process. Continuous furnace is
equipped with conveyor which move the materials into and out of the furnace. This is used if high throughput
rate is required.

Common Chemical Produced using Electric Furnaces

The following are the common products produced using electric furnaces.
1. Silicon Carbide
Silicon Carbide (SiC), also known as carborundum, has been widely used as abrasive and structural ceramic
material. It has a relatively low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, high hardness and resistance
to abrasion and corrosion. Furthermore, it has a high force-to-weight radius and high elastic resistance at
temperatures up to 1650 0C. These superior properties of silicon carbide made it suitable for applications
involving mechanical and thermal loads. Several of these are sand blasting injectors (sand paper and
grindstone), automotive water pump seals, bearings, pump components and extrusion dies. It is also used
as material component of heat exchanger tubes. It also finds its application in the electronic industries.

Figure 7: Common Application of Silicon Carbide

Silicon carbide is produced based on the carbothermic reaction (Acheson Method). The governing overall
reaction is as follows,
𝑆𝑖𝑂2 + 3𝐶 → 𝑆𝑖𝐶 + 2𝐶𝑂 rx’n 1
This overall reaction stems from series of elementary reactions given below:
𝐶 + 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑖𝑂(𝑔) + 𝐶𝑂(𝑔) rx’n 2
𝐶𝑂(𝑔) + 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑖𝑂(𝑔) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) rx’n 3
𝐶 + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) → 2𝐶𝑂(𝑔) rx’n 4
2𝐶 + 𝑆𝑖𝑂 → 𝑆𝑖𝐶 + 𝐶𝑂(𝑔) rx’n 5

From the overall reaction, silicon carbide production requires silicon oxide and carbon. The source of silicon
oxide is quartz sand while the sources of carbon are anthracite, coke, pitch or petroleum cokes. Recent
researches also established the potential of rice husk, which is a rich source of carbon and silica, as a raw
material in the production of SiC.
The production of silicon carbide starts with the mixing of high grade raw materials. Sawdust is occasionally
added to reduce mixture’s density and increase its porosity. High porosity is needed in order to enhance the
removal of carbon monoxide and other volatile compounds in the silicon carbide layers formed during the
reaction. After blending the appropriate raw materials, the mixture is loaded in an indirect batch-type electric
resistance furnace. The furnace consists of a graphite electrode installed at the center (figure 9). Resistance
furnace is chosen because it facilitates the formation of layers (figure 10), aiding the separation of silicon
carbide from the unreacted mix.

Figure 8: Process Flow in the Production of Silicon Carbide

There are two major types of silicon carbide crystals that are formed during the furnace operation – alpha
and beta SiC. The two differs in their crystal structures and thus, their properties. Alpha-SiC has a hexagonal
crystal structure while beta-SiC has a cubic crystal lattice. Alpha-SiC is formed at temperature greater than
1700 0C while beta-SiC if formed below that temperature. Since the furnace temperature is hottest at the
surface of the electrode, the mixture near the electrode tends to form alpha-SiC (green color in figure 10).
Beta-SiC forms the next layer (orange color in figure 10), followed by fire sand and unreacted mix. These
firesand and unreacted mixed are returned to the mixer for proper proportioning and are loaded again into
the furnace. Typically, coarse crystalline consist of 98% SiC, fine crystalline of 90% SiC and firesand of 80%
SiC.

Figure 9: Longitudinal View of Silicon Carbide Furnace

The alpha and beta-SiC are separated using an automated sorting machine. As of present time, beta-SiC
has a limited application. Thus, it is usually stored than processed. After the sorting process, alpha-SiC are
crushed and grind to the desired particle size. Contaminants such as iron oxide and aluminum oxide are
removed using a magnetic separator. The crystals are further refined using successive acid-base treatment.
The crystals are then transported in a washing chamber to totally removed the acid or base adhering in the
surface of the material. The crystals are then dried, packed and stored while waiting for shipment.

Figure 10: Layers formed after furnace operation (Cross-sectional view)

The alpha-SiC crystal products can be of varying color depending on the type of contaminants present in the
crystal lattice. The most common are black and green color. Black SiC are formed from the raw materials
discussed above while green SiC are formed from the addition of salt in the raw materials. Black SiC contains
98% minimum SiC while the green one contains 99% minimum SiC. With this, the latter is harder than former.

2. Boron Carbide
Boron Carbide (B4C) is the hardest abrasive material ever made synthetically. Its hardness ranks third to that
of diamond (1st) and cubic boron nitride (2nd). It was first introduced under the trade name Norbide. Its key
properties include high hardness, high melting point, high stiffness and relatively low thermal expansion and
conductivity.
The hardness and wear resistance of boron carbide made it suitable choice in making nozzles used in
abrasive blasting and water jet crushing. It is also used in high precision tooling dies. It also finds its
application in the field of bullet proof vest and anti-ballistic armor. Another notable application of boron carbide
is its function in nuclear reactors. This material is used as nuclear shield, control rod and shut down pellets
because of its ability to absorb neutrons.
Production of this chemical stems from the reaction of Boric oxide (boron trioxide) and carbon as given below,
2𝐵2 𝑂3 + 7𝐶 → 𝐵4 𝐶 + 6𝐶𝑂 rx’n 6
Boric oxide is commonly prepared by reacting borax (Na2B4O7 10H2O) and sulfuric acid in a fusion furnace
operating above 300 0C. Borax is commonly extracted from seasonal lakes using evapo-crystallization
process. Production of boric oxide is as follows,
 𝑁𝑎2 𝐵4 𝑂7 10𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 4𝐻3 𝐵𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 5𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) rx’n 7
𝐻3 𝐵𝑂3 → 𝐻𝐵𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) rx’n 8
2 𝐻𝐵𝑂2 → 𝐵2 𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) rx’n 9
All of these reactions took place in the furnace. Water vapor escapes through the furnace opening while liquid
boric oxide separates from liquid sodium sulfate as a result of density difference. Boric oxide, being less
dense, is then decanted from the mix.
Sources of carbon in reaction 6 are activated carbon and petroleum coke. Some researchers also succeeded
in using carbohydrate-based raw materials such as table sugar as substitute to coke. Production flow of boron
carbide is presented in figure 11. The process flow is the same with that of silicon carbide production. High-
grade raw materials are mixed completely before entering an electric furnace. The types of electric furnace
that can be used are electric arc furnace and resistance furnace. After the carbothermic reaction, the reaction
product is cooled naturally. It is followed by crushing in order to meet the product size specification. Magnetic
separation is also needed to separate ferrous contaminants from the product. It will be followed by further
purification process (chemical treatment), washing, drying then product storage.

Figure 11: Typical Process Flow in the Manufacture of B 4C

3. Calcium Carbide
Calcium carbide (CaC2) is a compound formed by reacting calcium and carbon in an electric furnace. Part of
its properties are non-volatile, non-soluble and easily breaks down with water. It is mainly used in the
production of acetylene gas and calcium cyanamide. Majority of the total production of calcium carbide is
used in the production of acetylene (about 70%).
Acetylene gas can be produced from calcium carbide and water through the reaction,
𝐶𝑎𝐶(𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐶2 𝐻2(𝑔) + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2(𝑎𝑞) rx’n 10
Acetylene gas ready evolved from the solution. This gas is commonly used in acetylene gas cutters, welding
torches and as precursor for the synthesis of larger organic molecules such as polyethylene, etc.
Calcium cyanamide can be produced by reacting calcium carbide with nitrogen gas at high temperature
according to the equation,
𝐶𝑎𝐶2 + 𝑁2 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑁2 + 𝐶 rx’n 11
Calcium cyanamide is a common raw material in the production of fertilizers.
Though metal calcium can be use as the raw material, quick lime (calcium oxide) is more commonly used
because it is much cheaper and less hazardous than the former. Quick lime is produced by heating limestone
containing atleast 97% calcium carbonate according to the reaction,
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 → 𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) rx’n 12
Impurities in the raw materials such as aluminum, magnesia, phosphorus, silica and iron should be kept at
minimal level in order to attain high quality product. Phosphorus should be kept at minimum value because
upon reaction it will form calcium phosphide, which easily decomposes by moisture to hydrogen phosphide
(PH3) – a very poisonous gas. Other undesirable impurities are Al2O3 and SiO2. Thus, pretreatment of raw
materials is essential.
Governing equation in the production of calcium carbide is the by carbothermal reaction given below,
𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 3𝐶 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶2(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂(𝑔) rx’n 13
The reaction is highly endothermic having a standard heat of reaction of +110.484 kcal/mol. With this great
heat requirement, electric arc furnace is usually used. Process flow in the production of calcium carbide is
the same with that of boron carbide. High-grade materials are mixed, reacted in the furnace at 2000 to 2200
0C, cooled, crushed, packed, stored and distributed to the target clientele.

4. Fused Aluminum Oxide

Fused aluminum oxide, also known as fused alumina, is a material produced by fusing (melting) several
oxides majority of which is alumina in an electric arc furnace. Impurity oxides contained in the material greatly
affects its properties. There are three common marketed fused alumina - white, brown and pink-ruby fused
alumina (figure 12).

Figure 12: Common Marketed form of Fused Aluminum Oxide

White fused alumina (WFA) is produced from high purity calcined alumina in an electric arc furnace. It is
characterized by high hardness, chemical stability, high melting point and large crystal size. However, at high
purity, it becomes friable. Because of this properties, WFA is commonly used in applications such as grinding
and cut-off wheels, refractories and ceramic shapes, coated abrasives, investment casting shells, laminates,
coatings, blasting abrasives, lapping and polishing and many others.
Brown fused alumina (BFA) is made by reduction fusion of high quality bauxites in electric arc furnace. Typical
composition is 96.12% Al2O3, 2.70% TiO2, 0.67% SiO2, 0.11% Fe2O3 and other oxides 0.40% (Tradename:
Duralum). Its notable properties are high hardness, high toughness, high strength, excellent wear and
corrosion resistance and good thermal conductivity. With its indispensable mechanical properties, it is
commonly used in applications such as grinding wheels, sandpaper, blasting media, metal preparation,
lapping, polishing and grinding. Its excellent thermomechanical properties made it also an excellent raw
material in refractory applications.

Pink-Ruby fused alumina (PRFA) is produced by the addition of chromium oxide into high purity alumina
during the fusion process. Chromium oxide imparts the pink color and also increases the toughness of the
grain. The toughness of the grain increase as the amount of chromium oxide increases. PRFA is commonly
used in vitrified grinding wheels, coated abrasives, blasting abrasives and other similar applications.

Production of Fused aluminum oxide is similar to that of Silicon carbide production. First, the high-quality raw
materials are blended into the desired proportion in a mixer. The raw mix is fused in an electric arc furnace
at about 2200 0C. The melt from the furnace is cooled and allowed to crystallized. It is then crushed to the
desired particle sizes. Impurities are removed using magnetic separators and acid washing. This is important
because impurities may cause scratch, corrosion, cracks and dark spots on the product. The finished product
is then packed, stored and shipped to the costumers.

5. Carbon disulfide
Carbon disulfide (CS2) is a colorless, flammable, non-polar and volatile solvent. Most of the production of this
chemical is used in the production of viscose rayon (semi-synthetic fiber) and cellophane (thin plastic used
in food packaging). Production of viscose is given below,
[𝐶6 𝐻9 𝑂4 − 𝑂𝑁𝑎]𝑛 + 𝑛𝐶𝑆2 → [𝐶6 𝐻9 𝑂4 − 𝑂𝐶𝑆2 𝑁𝑎]𝑛 rx’n 14
Its other applications include rubber production, non-polar solvent,
insecticide and fungicide. However, due to its toxicity, its uses had been
limited to specialized process.
Carbon disulfide is produced according to the reaction,
𝐶 + 2𝑆 → 𝐶𝑆2 rx’n 15
Carbon source includes charcoal and coke. Solid sulfur containing low-ash
content is commonly used. Typically-used electric furnace is shown in figure
13. Sulfur is molten by electric furnace. Further heating result in sulfur vapor
which flows upward the charcoal column. Iron sheath serves as catalyst of
the process. The carbon disulfide vapor, together with some impurities (the
most common is hydrogen sulfide), exits the furnace at the top portion. The
product gas is then condensed in a water-cooled condenser. In the
condenser, carbon disulfide, having a higher dew point, is condensed while
hydrogen sulfide remains in the vapor phase. The carbon disulfide is then
stored in suitable containers ready for distribution. Figure 13: Typical Electrical
Furnace for Carbon
Disulfide Manufacturing