SURNAME: ADEYEMI

OTHER NAMES: ADEKOLA BOLUWAJI

MATRIC NUMBER: ENG0902737
SERIAL NUMBER: 011
DEPARTMENT: PRODUCTION ENGINEERING
LEVEL: 400 LEVEL
EXPERIMENT NUMBER: EXPERIMENT 22
AIM OF EXPERIMENT: DETERMINATION OF
INHERENT ERROR DUE TO SCALE
CALIBRATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENT.
 THEORY OF EXPERIMENT
ERROR ANALYSIS
“Error analysis” is the study of uncertainties in physical measurements, and
a complete description of error analysis would require much more time and
space than we have in this course. However, by taking the time to learn some
basic principles of error analysis, we can:

1. Understand how to measure experimental error,

2. Understand the types and sources of experimental errors,
3. Clearly and correctly report measurements and the uncertainties in
those measurements, and
4. Design experimental methods and techniques and improve our
measurement skills to reduce experimental errors.

One of the most important aspects of numerical analysis is the error analysis.
Errors may occur at any stage of the process of solving a problem. By the error
we mean the difference between the true value and the approximate value.

Error = True value – Approximate value.

TYPES OF ERROR
Usually we come across the following types of errors in numerical analysis:

1. Inherent Error
2. Analytical Error
3. Round-Off Error

INHERENT ERROR
These are the errors involved in the statement of a problem. When a
problem is first presented to the numerical analyst it may contain certain data
or parameters. If the data or parameters are in some way determined by
physical measurement, they will probably differ from the exact values. Errors
inherent in the statement of the problem are called inherent errors.
 Inherent error is usually encountered during the recording of the result of the
experiment, when the values are read-off the instrument/ equipment and
usually the person performing the experiment is unaware of this error, and this
is because the error is not due to the person but it is a systematic error.

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS AND THE ROLE OF INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION

Systematic Error refers to an error which is present for every measurement of

a given quantity; it may be caused by a bias on the part of the experimenter, a
miscalibrated or even faulty measuring instrument, etc. Systematic errors
affect the accuracy of the experiment. After evaluating the reading error or the
standard error, or both if necessary, we have to make sure that the scale of our
measuring instrument is checked against an internationally established
measuring standard. Such comparison is called calibration. In the real world,
we frequently find that our measuring scale is in slight disagreement with the
standard. For example, if you inspect such simple tools as rulers, you will find
out that no two rulers are exactly the same. It is not uncommon to find a
discrepancy of 1 mm or even more among meter sticks. The correct calibration
of measuring instruments is obviously of great importance. However, in the first
year laboratory, the instruments you will use are usually calibrated by the
laboratory staff and ready to use (unless explicit lab instructions tell you
otherwise).

In addition to all the errors discussed above, there can be other sources of
error that may pass unnoticed: variations in temperature, humidity or air
pressure, etc. Such disturbances are more or less constant during our
measurements (otherwise they would appear as random error when the
measurement is repeated) and are generally referred to as the systematic
errors. Systematic errors are very difficult to trace since we do not know where
to look for them. It is important to learn to notice all the irregularities that could
become the sources of systematic errors during our experimental work.
Moreover, it is particularly important in data-taking always to record some
information about the surrounding physical conditions. Such information may
help us later on if we discover a serious discrepancy in our experimental
results. As a rule, the place, date and time of measurements, and the type and
serial numbers and specifications of the instruments which were used must be
recorded.
 APPARATUS
The following apparatus are used in this experiment
1. Vernier caliper
2. Micrometer screw gauge
3. Steel rule
4. Cylindrical component
5. Slip gauges.

VERNIER CALIPER
The vernier caliper is a measuring instrument that is use for the
measurement of smaller length such as the internal and external diameter of a
tube, the internal and external diameter of a hollow object , the thickness of a
material. The vernier calliper was invented by Pierre vernier in 1631 and a
pictorial view of the calliper is shown below.

The vernier scale has graduations that are of different length from those on
the main scale but that bear a simple relation to them. The vernier scale of Fig.
3.1 has 10 divisions that correspond in length to 9 divisions on the main scale.
Each vernier division is therefore shorter than a main-scale division by1/10 of a
main-scale division.
In fig.3.1 the zero mark of the vernier scale coincides with the zero mark of the
main scale. The first vernier division is 1/10 main-scale division short of a mark
on the main scale, the second division in 2/10 short of the next mark on the
main scale, and so on until the tenth vernier division is 10/10, or a whole
division, short of a mark on the main scale. It therefore coincides with a mark
on the main scale.

If the vernier scale is moved to the right until one mark, say the sixth as in Fig.
3.2, coincides with some mark of the main scale the number of tenths of a
main-scale division that the vernier scale is moved is the number of the vernier
divisions that coincides with any main scale division. (It does not matter with
which main-scale mark it coincides.) The sixth vernier division coincides with a
main-scale mark in Fig 3.2 therefore the vernier scale has moved 6/10 of a
main-scale division to the right of its zero position. The vernier scale thus tells
the fraction of a main-scale division that the zero of the vernier scale has
moved beyond any main-scale mark. In Fig. 3.3 the zero is to the right of the
second mark on the main scale and the fourth mark of the vernier scale
coincides with a main-scale mark. The reading is 2.0 divisions (obtained from
the vernier coincidence) or 4 divisions.

MICROMETERMETER SCREW GAUGE

A micrometer is a device used widely in mechanical engineering and machining
for precision measurement, along with other metrological instruments such as
dial calipers and vernier calipers. Micrometer screw-gauge is used for
measuring accurately the diameter of a thin wire or the thickness of a sheet of
metal. It consists of a U-shaped frame, fitted with a screwed spindle which is
attached to a thimble, as shown below

The amount of rotation of an accurately made screw can be directly and

precisely correlated to a certain amount of axial movement (and vice versa),
through the constant known as the screw's pitch (for single start screw thread).
A screw's pitch is the distance it moves forward or backward axially with one
complete turn. The screw has a known pitch such as 0.5 mm. Hence in this
case, for one revolution of the screw the spindle moves axially by 0.5 mm. This
movement of the spindle is shown on an engraved linear millimetre scale on
the sleeve. On the thimble there is a circular scale which is divided into 50 or
100 equal parts.
When the anvil and spindle end are brought in contact, the edge of the
circular scale should be at the zero of the sleeve (linear scale) and the zero of
the circular scale should be opposite to the datum line of the sleeve. If the zero
is not coinciding with the datum line, there will be a positive or negative zero
error as shown in the diagram below
The least count of the micrometer screw can be calculated using the formula
given below:
Least count =Pitch/ Number of divisions on the circular scale =0.5 mm/50 =0.01
mm

As an example, to determine the diameter of a wire, the wire is to be placed

between the anvil and spindle end, and the thimble is rotated till the wire is
firmly held between the anvil and the spindle. The ratchet is provided to avoid
excessive pressure on the wire. It prevents the spindle from further
movement. The diameter of the wire could be determined from the reading as
shown in the diagram below

Linear scale Circular scale

Reading = Linear scale reading + (coinciding circular scale * Least count)

= 2.5 mm+ (46*0.01) = 2.96 mm

Accuracy of the measured reading is the degree of veracity while precision is

the degree of reproducibility.
 STEEL RULE
The steel rule is a basic measuring tool. When used correctly, a good steel
rule is a surprisingly accurate measuring device.

Some people confuse rules and scales. A scale is a measuring device used by
architects and engineers that assists them in making drawings to a scale other
than full size. A rule is used to measure actual sizes. (But don’t ask about shrink
rules, which are used to make casting patterns and include an allowance for
shrinkage of the casting during cooling).

Steel rules come in many sizes and formats. Basic 6" and 12" steel rules come
in flexible and rigid forms. Flexible rules are usually ½" wide and 1/64" thick.
Starrett calls flexible rules “semi-flexible.” Rigid rules are usually ¾" wide
and3/64" thick. Starrett calls rigid rules “spring-tempered.”

While most steel rules are 12" long or shorter, they are available up to 144" (12
feet) long.

MEASURING WITH THE STEEL RULE

Here is the correct way to measure a part with a steel rule. Notice that we are
measuring from the 1" graduation on the left. (Be sure to subtract 1" from the
measurement you read.) It is more accurate to measure between two
graduation lines than from the end of the rule.

It is okay to measure from the end of the rule when there is a hard stop that
you can press the rule against. The accuracy of this measurement depends on
the quality of the grinding of the end of the rule.

PROCEDURE OF EXPERIMENT
1. The slip gauge is first measured by taking measurement of distance
between the two shinning parts,
2. The steel rule was first used to take the measurement and the values
was recorded
3. The procedure 2 was repeated for (4) other times to have a total record
of (5) readings
4. The vernier caliper was then used to take the measurement and the
values were recorded
5. The procedure 3 was repeated for (4) other times using the vernier
caliper to have a total record of (5) readings
6. Finally the micrometer screw gauge was then used to take the
measurement and the values was recorded
7. Procedure 6 was repeated for (4) other times using the micrometer
screw gauge to have a total record of (5) readings
8. The cylindrical component was also measured by taking measurement of
its diameter
9. The steel rule was also first used to take the measurement and the
values was recorded
10.The procedure 9 was repeated for (4) other times to have a total record
of (5) readings
11.The vernier caliper was then used to take the measurement and the
values were recorded
12.The procedure 11 was repeated for (4) other times using the vernier
caliper to have a total record of (5) readings
13.Now the micrometer screw gauge was then used to take the
measurement and the values was recorded
14.Procedure 13 was repeated was for (4) other times using the
micrometer screw gauge to have a total record of (5) readings
15.The whole values was recorded and then tabulated.

PRECAUTION TAKEN DURING THE EXPERIMENT

1. I avoid zero error while taking readings on my micrometer screw gauge
2. I avoid parallax error while taking readings on my steel rule
3. I avoid backlash error while taking readings on my vernier caliper.

ANALYSIS OF RESULT
SLIP GAUGE = 22mm
 STEEL RULE
Change in length of slip gauge

ΔL1 = 22.5 – 22

ΔL1 = 0.5mm

ΔL2 = 22 – 22

ΔL2 = 0mm

ΔL3 = 22 – 22

ΔL3 = 0mm

ΔL4 = 22 – 22

ΔL4 = 0mm

ΔL5 = 21.5 – 22

ΔL5 = -0.5mm

VERNIER CALIPER
Change in length of slip gauge

ΔL1 = 21.96 – 22

ΔL1 = -0.04mm

ΔL2 = 21.95 – 22

ΔL2 = -0.05mm

ΔL3 = 21.94 – 22

ΔL3 = -0.06mm

ΔL4 = 21.95 – 22

ΔL4 = -0.05mm
ΔL5 = 21.95 – 22

ΔL5 = -0.05mm

MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

Change in length of slip gauge

ΔL1 =22.02 – 22

ΔL1 =0.02mm

ΔL2 = 22.02 – 22

ΔL2 = 0.02mm

ΔL3 = 22.02 – 22

ΔL3 = 0.02mm

ΔL4 = 22.02 – 22

ΔL4 = 0.02mm

ΔL5 = 22.02 – 22

ΔL5 = 0.02mm

CYLINDRICAL COMPONENT = 23mm

STEEL RULE
Change in diameter of cylindrical component

ΔD1 = 22.0 – 23

ΔD1 = -1mm
ΔD2 = 22.0 – 23

ΔD2 = -1mm

ΔD3 = 22.5 – 23

ΔD3 = -0.5mm

ΔD4 = 23.0 – 23

ΔD4 = 0mm

ΔD5 = 21.5 – 23

ΔD5 = -1.5mm

VERNIER CALIPER
Change in diameter of cylindrical component

ΔD1 = 22.95 – 23

ΔD1 = -0.05mm

ΔD2 = 22.93 – 23

ΔD2 = -0.07mm

ΔD3 = 22.94 – 23

ΔD3 = -0.06mm

ΔD4 = 22.94 – 23

ΔD4 = -0.06mm

ΔD5 = 22.95 – 23

ΔD5 = -0.05mm

MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

ΔD1 = 23.22 – 23

ΔD1 = 0.22mm

ΔD2 = 23.22 – 23

ΔD2 = 0.22mm

ΔD3 = 23.22 – 23

ΔD3 = 0.22mm

ΔD4 = 23.22 – 23

ΔD4 = 0.22mm

ΔD5 = 23.22 – 22

ΔD5 = 0.22mm

TABLES OF VALUES

S/N STEEL RULE VERNIER CALIPER MICROMETER SCREW

GAUGE
D ΔD L ΔL D ΔD L ΔL D ΔD L ΔL
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
1 22.0 -1 22.5 0.5 22.95 -0.05 21.96 -0.04 23.22 0.22 22.02 0.02
2 22.0 -1 22.0 0 22.93 -0.07 21.95 -0.05 23.22 0.22 22.02 0.02
3 22.5 -0.5 22.0 0 22.94 -0.06 21.94 -0.06 23.22 0.22 22.02 0.02
4 23.0 0 22.0 0 22.94 -0.06 21.95 -0.05 23.22 0.22 22.02 0.02
5 21.5 -1.5 21.5 -0.5 22.95 -0.05 21.95 -0.05 23.22 0.22 22.02 0.02

DISCUSSION AND OBSERVATION

Despite the precaution taken when performing this experiment the
error however due to the instrument used which is the INHERENT ERROR
was still encountered. However the concept of standard error will be used
to evaluate this error.
 The standard error in each of the readings of the instrument will be
calculated be computed as shown below.

ERROR IN THE STEEL RULE

In cylindrical component

ȳ = 22.0 + 22.0 + 22.5 + 23.0 + 21.5

ȳ = 22.2mm

Standard Error in Steel Rule for Cylindrical Component = 23 – 22.2

=0.16

Measurement of the diameter of cylindrical component is 22.2 ± 0.16 mm

In slip gauges

ȳ = 22.5 + 22.0 + 22.0 + 22.0 + 21.5

ȳ = 22.0 mm

Standard Error in Steel Rule for Slip Gauge = 22.5 – 22.0

= 0.1

Measurement of the length of the shining part of a slip gauge is 22 ± 0.1

mm

ERROR IN THE VERNIER CALIPER

In cylindrical component
 ȳ = 22.95 + 22.93 + 22.94 + 22.94 + 22.95

ȳ = 22.942

Standard Error in Vernier Caliper for Cylindrical Component = 22.95 –22.942

= 0.0016

Measurement of the diameter of the cylindrical component is 22.942 ±

0.0016 mm

In slip gauges

ȳ = 21.96 + 21.95 + 21.94 + 21.95 + 21.95

ȳ = 21.95

Standard Error in Vernier Caliper for Slip Gauges = 21.96 – 21.95

= 0.002

Measurement of the length of the shining part of the slip gauge is 21.95 ±
0.002 mm

ERROR IN MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

In cylindrical component

ȳ = 23.22 + 23.22 + 23.22 + 23.22 + 23.22

ȳ = 23.22
Standard Error in Micrometer Screw Gauge for Cylindrical Component =
23.22 – 23.22

=0

Measurement of the diameter of the cylindrical component is 23.22 mm

In slip gauges

ȳ = 22.02 + 22.02 + 22.02 + 22.02 + 22.02

ȳ = 22.02

Standard Error in Micrometer Screw Gauge for Slip Gauge = 22.02 – 22.02

=0

Measurement of the length of the shining part of the slip gauge is 22.02
mm

CONCLUSION
Inherent errors are the errors involved in the statement of a problem.
Since this error is due to the measuring instrument used, an attempt has
been made in this experiment to determine the amount of error that can be
encountered in different measuring experiment.

From the error analysis done under discussion above, it will be observed
that for steel rule; the error in taking the measurement for diameter of the
cylindrical component is bigger than the error in the measurement of the
length of the slip gauge. What can be infer from this is that, it is better to
use the steel rule for the measurement of linear length than the
measurement of circular length.
 Also, for the vernier caliper the error observed in taking the measurement
for diameter of the cylindrical component is smaller than the error in the
measurement of the length of the slip gauge. What can also be infer from
this is that, it is better or preferable to use the vernier caliper for the
measurement of circular length than for the measurement of linear length

Analysing the micrometer screw gauge, based on the calculation and

analysis on the discussion above, the micrometer screw gauge appears the
most accurate instrument used. This conclusion is actually based on the
calculation of the errors.

REFERENCES
1. J.R. Taylor, An Introduction to Error Analysis (University Science Books,
Mill Valley, California, 1982).
2. Bartholomew, Davis, Electrical Measurement and instrumentation chaps
1,2 Boston. Allyn and Bacon , Inc 1963.
3. Maloney Timothy Electrical Circuit and Application chap 1 Englewood
cli_s, N.J prentice- Hall Inc 1984