Psychology Unit III PDF

A Text Book of Psychology
Unit-3rd COGNITIVE PROCESS
• Attention : Types, Determinants, Duration & Degree, Alteration, Implication for Nurses
Attention: The act or power of carefully thinking about, • Objective factors

listening to, or watching someone or something • Subjective factors
Or Objective factors: because these qualities are inherent in

Introduction: we come in contact with our environment the object which catches the attention of the individual.
through our sense organ. The environment around us sends Objective factors are
innumerable stimuli to our sense organs calling for attention. 1. Nature of Stimulus: whether it is visual or auditory
We cannot attend to all the stimuli simultaneously, but we experience. Stimulus that have form, colour and sound
select only one at a time and attend to it for example light in attract our attention for example in an advertisement, big
a room, student sitting, room temperature, noise etc. all these picture that attract more than the words.
stimuli which are calling our attention are in the field of our 2. Intensity: a strong stimulus will attract more attention
consciousness. Attention is awareness of the here and now in and more quickly than a weak one. Loud sound, bright
a focal and perceptive way. For early psychologists, such colour, smell and acute pain attract our attention more easily.
as Edward Bradford Kitchener, attention determined the 3. Size: large size of an object or bigger patch of colour,
content of consciousness and influenced the quality of draws our attention more easily for example full page
conscious experience. advertisement but some time small miniature size also attract
our attention e.g. small show-pieces
Definition: 4. Contrast: Any object that is strikingly different from its
01. “Attention as selective activity of consciousness”. surrounding will tend to stand out and attract our attention
(COLLINS & DREVER) for example, a small black dot on a white sheet.
02. Attention is defined as “selective set of consciousness”. 5.Repetition : sometimes a stimulus is not so intense or big
or has no advantage of movement -----------------------------
Types of Attention: for example, repeated cry, tapping the door, ringing of the
bell are easily notices.
1. Involuntary attention: It is nothing but attending 6. Movement: anything that moves even though small is
something with no intention or desire to do so. We do so able to draw -------------------
because we cannot help it does not require any conscious 7. Change: changes bring newness. Therefore changes in
effort to attend to an object. We attend to a certain stimulus voice, gestures etc, attract our attention but when it stops,
suddenly and unexpectedly at times for examples attending our attention is attracted.
to a sudden loud sound, flash of light, a pin-prick, electric 8. Isolation: a man sitting alone in some corner of the park
shock and smell. We attend to these things and situation is an isolated individual. Because of the isolation he draw
suddenly, involuntary and automatically. more attention.
2. Voluntary Attention: It is an act of attending 9. Duration :
intentionally, deliberately and purposefully. Much of our
attention is voluntary because there is always a motive or Subjective Factors: Certain factors are called subjective
interest behind the act of attending. For Examples: seeing a because they are within the individual who attends to
movie, listening to music or reading a novel. stimulus. These factors are following
3. Habitual Attention : There are certain types of stimuli 1. Innate or acquired interest: if a person is interested in a
which we attend to not because of external compelling particular object, it attracts his attention much earlier than
factors as found in involuntary attention but because of
interest, drives, motives, attitudes, prejudices, habits etc. in other object. For example, a student who is interested in
fact there is more or less permanent or readiness within us to particular book is attracted by it earlier than other books in
attend such things. For examples: attention that a nurse gives
to her patients, business attending a phone calls, a adolescent the library.
boy’s readiness to notice a beautiful girl.
2. Organic state: It plays a major role in the selection of
FACTORSAFFECTING/DETERMINING stimuli we attend to. For example, if one is tired, rest will be
ATTENTION
more effective, a hungry person will be attracted towards
The selective process by which we attend to a stimulus is food.
determine by various factors which are following
(1) Psychology for Nurse (Author: Omprakash Swami, Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Nursing College,
Sitapura, Jaipur
3.Habits: It helps in the selection of stimuli. All of us are attention from one aspect to another aspect of the same
habituated to react to the sound of coin. As a result of this, stimulus. Fluctuation is frequent, periodical and natural.
when we are going on a busy street, if a coin drops from the
3.Concentration of attention: this is also called sustained
pocket, it immediately attract our attention, “In spite of” the
attention. Concentration is restricted attention. The
noise all around
individual attention always remains on track and the activity
4.Temperament: a man having a religious temperament proceeds systematically without any serious distraction. It
will attend to religious matters. It is our tendency to take part develops thinking power.
in activities according our innate disposition.
4.Division of attention: refers to attending to two tasks
5.Attitudes & prejudices: when our attitude is unfavorable simultaneously while maintaining the efficiency. Studies in
towards a group or a person even a small mistake committed this line suggest that division of attention is not possible
by him will attract our attention than other things. In the without affecting the efficiency. For example, listening to a
same way the prejudices we foster against other make us to lecturer and writing simultaneously.
pay more attention to other’s mistake and weakness.
Alteration in attention
6.Social suggestion :
Alterations expected in attention process include distraction,
7.Experience: a child when seeing an apple for the first time division and variations in span of attention. Most of all
does not perceive it as something to be eaten. Different distraction should be avoided; otherwise the work process
people perceive the same object differently as per their will get affected.
experience
Distraction means any stimulus whose presence interferes
8. Preparatory set: a person’s readiness to respond to one with the process of attention or draws away attention from
kind of sensory input for example, a person who is expecting the object which we wish to attend. (HR Bhatia -1968)
an important call may hear a telephone ringing but another
Sources of distraction
person may not.
Distraction comes from both external and internal sources
Duration and degree of attention/ measurement of
attention External sources include factors such as visual triggers,
social interaction, music, text message and phone calls.
1.Span of attention: the maximum amount of material that
can attend in one period of attention is called span of Internal sources include factors such as hunger, fatigue,
attention it varies from individual to individual. It is the illness, daydreaming and worrying etc.
ability of the individual to apprehend immediately. For
How to eliminate distraction
example, if you are able to note 5 digits or 5 letters in a
single act of attention, your span of attention is five. Do the following thing
2.Fluctuation of attention: while paying attention towards 1. Stop pressure of advancement and digitalization
an object or an event it is not possible to hold attention 2. Give breaks in your work frequently
continuously with the same intensity for a longer duration.It 3. Maintain physical health
is also called shifting of attention. It refers to shifting of 4. Minimize negative people in your life
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5. Minimize the use of mobile phones
6. Start yoga, meditation and physical exercise
7. Avoid unnecessary stimulation
8. Motivate your self
Implication for Nurses
• Attention has to do with the immediate experience

of the individual; it is a state of current awareness.
• It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and
vivid form, of one out of what seem several
simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought.
•
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PERCEPTION when objects of similar shape, size, or colour tend to be
grouped together objects of same shape are seen as a group
Introduction And Meaning of Perception:
distinct from another shape for example
Perception is the process by which we discriminate
among stimuli and interpret their meaning and
appreciate their significance example when we hear
a sound, we are able to identify it as being produced Here circles will form into a unit and squares into another.
by an aeroplane or an automobile. perception is The factor of similarity has the advantage over the factors of
formed by a number of sensations which you nearness.
receive through your sense organ for examples 3.Principle of Symmetry or Good Figure : items that form
when you perceive an onion you will perceive symmetrical units are grouped together example,
colour, texture, smell, size or end up in tears.
Perception is the process of knowing objects by
means of senses. To perceive means to notice
something or to become aware of something We see three set of bracket rather than six unconnected lines.
through our senses. 4.Principle of Closure: It is the ability to see whole objects
Definition: when the object itself is not a complete one. It organizes the
William James – define as “A complex of sensory perception by filling gap in the stimulus. Gestalt
and imaginary element”. psychologists have shown that there is always a tendency for
Edmund Fantino & G.S. Renolds “Perception is incomplete figures to complete themselves. Example,
the organizing process by which we interpret our
sensory input”.
Principles of perception/organization of
perception: This is seen as letter M & a square & not at as disjointed
In grouping, the stimuli are grouped into the lines. Here items are perceived as complete units even
smallest possible pattern that has meaning.the though they may be interrupted by gaps.
founder of Gestalt psychology devised the 5.Principle of continuity :we tend to group the stimuli that
principles to explain the organization of perception. make the fewest interruption in outline, Example,
---------------------
1.Principle of Grouping/nearness or proximity: when
object are close to each other the tendency is to perceive
The pattern here is seen as a horizontal & vertical line
them together rather than separately. Example, we see three
because there is good continuation.
set of two lines each and not six separated lines
6.Principle of Inclusiveness: sometimes due to past
experience or training, objects whether similar or not, close
together or not if they are in a place, they will have a
tendency to form a unit and do not appear separate. For
2.Principle of Similarity & Likeness: Items that most example
closely resemble each other are perceived as units. It is seen
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Here dots both bigger and smaller irrespective of their size
e. cultural influences: Due to man’s psychological level of
will form a meaningful pattern
adjustment, cultural factors cannot be ignored.
7.Principle of Figure & Ground Relationship: According
Errors in Perception/abnormalities in
to this principle, objects are perceived against a background-
perception
Moon against the sky, picture against a wall, mountains and
Our perception is not always accurate. Due to reason internal
words are seen as figure and the sky, wall, cloud and page is
and external errors in perception occur. Such error in
seen as Ground.
perception can be classified into 2 categories.
1. Illusion 2. Hallucination
Factors Affecting Perception:
Illusion: it is wrong perception in the presence of real
a. Past experience: Past experiences or any special training external sensory stimuli eg. Snake instead of rope it is also
that we get, every one of us learns to emphasize some called wrong perception or mistaken perception. In this case,
sensory inputs and to ignore others. For example, a person an object is mistaken for something else. Illusion has an
who has got training in some occupation like artistry or other objectively reality or a physical stimulus but wrongly
skilled jobs can perform better than other untrained people. perceived.
Some illusion which occurs commonly in perception of
Experience is the best teacher for such perceptual skills.
geometrical figures are illustrated
For example, blind people identify the people by their voice
Muller –Lyer illusion:
or by sounds of their footsteps.
b. Mental set: Set refers to preparedness or readiness to
receive some sensory input. Such expectancy keeps the
These two lines are equal in length, invariably the line with
individual prepared with good attention and concentration.
arrow heads is perceived shorter than the line with feather
For example, when we are expecting the arrival of a train,
heads.
we listen to its horn or sound even if there is a lot of noise
Horizontal-vertical illusion:
disturbance.
c. Motives and needs: Our motives and needs will
definitely influence our perception. For example, a hungry
person is motivated to recognize only the food items among
other articles. His attention cannot be directed towards other In this picture both the lines are equal in length, the vertical
things until his motive is satisfied. line is perceived as longer than the horizontal line
d. Cognitive styles: People are said to differ in the ways Ponzo illusion:
they characteristically process the information. Every
individual will have his or her own way of understanding the
2 1
situation. It is said that the people who are flexible will have
good attention and they are less affected by interfering It is also called as a geometrical illusion. Circle 1 and 2 are
influences and to be less dominated by internal needs and of the same size but 1 appears to be bigger than 2
motives than or people at the constricted end. Zollner Illusion:
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when two parallel lines are intersected by numerous short A.Auditory Hallucination: (voice) This form of
diagonal hallucination is the most common and in this the sound
lines slanting in the opposite direction then the parallel line heard may be intense or soft, distinct or confusing,
are perceived recognized or unknown. In most auditory hallucinations it is
diverging, i.e. slanting backwards slightly instead of only one’s own voice that is heard.
being straight. b.Visual hallucination :(vision) In this the hallucination
pertains to vision, light and colours and in instances of it the
patient sees a strange man staring in at window or perceive
some long dead person standing before him. Person is often
found seeing ghosts, fighting and conversing with them.
c.Gustatory hallucination: (taste) A victim of this form of
hallucination finds tastes of various different tastes in the
food served to him. It is seen in suspicious nature.
Causes of Illusion d.Olfactory hallucination: (smell) This hallucinations
1.Due to peculiarity of sense organs: Sense of taste. When smell is found in a wide majority of mental patient and has
we drink a well sweetened cup of coffee immediately after its origin in the sense of guilt arising from masturbation. In
eating something sweet, coffee does not taste as sweet as it this the patient develops awareness of a displeasing smell.
really is e. Tactile hallucination (Touch): In a patient suffering
2.Due to expectancy: If we are waiting for a friend, every from this kind of disease there is a feeling of something
individual at a distance will be mistaken for the friend. moving on the skin of the individual. He sometimes also
3.Illusion due to Similarity: If two objects are similar in experience a feeling of an electric shock.
appearance, illusion occurs more easily than others. For eg. Difference between illusion and hallucination
Curled rope being mistaken for snake. Illusion Hallucination
4.Unanalyzed total impression: This is clear from Muller- It is normal and universal It is abnormal & intoxicated
Lyer illusion. Here we are compelled to perceive the total and mentally ill experience
figure including the appendages thought we are supposed to and also drug addicts ,
estimate only the actual length of the lines. E.g. A fat man alcoholic
appears shorter than he really is. Object is present No object is present
Hallucination: Hallucination is an extreme form of This is distinct stimulus Absence of stimulus as it
inaccurate perception in which one sees something or hears which involves image involves no image
some voice while nothing like that exists in the environment.
Eg. Perceiving a snake even in the absence of a rope or
The stimulus is external Internal stimulation like fear
seeing a ghost in the dark.
& conflict
It is nothing but mistaking the mental image for an object or
Misinterpretation of the Imaginary perception
a person.
stimuli(wrong perception)
Types of Hallucination:
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Extra Sensory Perception: implies perception without the
involvement of any sense organs.ESP was done by J.B.
RHINE. It include the possibility of some sort of influence,
from one brain to another, other than by way of sense
organs. This phenomenon is also called as para-
psychological phenomenon. They include
1. Telepathy: (transference of thought) action of one mind
on the other at a distance through emotional experience,
without communication through sense.
2. Clairvoyance: ability of seeing mentally what is
happening or existing out of sight.
3. Pre-recognition: perception of an future events.
4. Extra cortical memory: memory of previous birth.
5. Levitation: ability to float on water or walk on the
surface.
6. Psycho kinesis: moving object without physical force.
Perception is the processing, interpreting, selecting and

organizing of information.
Knowledge of perception help the nurse to identify the

actual condition of the patient.
In order to communicate effectively, nurse need to spend

time to fully investigate the patient.
Accurate perception is very important for a nurse to provide

effective services to the patient
Error in perception should be avoided to render effective

care to the patient.
Knowledge about perception, causes of perception, factor

affecting perception will help the nurse to provide effective
care to the patient.
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Learning: Nature, Types, Learner and Learning, Factor 4. Learning is continuous: learning always
continuous. Every day new problem are faced and
Influencing Laws and Theories, Process, Transfer, Study
the person has to bring changes in his behaviour.
Habit, Implication for Nurses Learning is always birth to death.
5. Learning is an adjustment: learning helps the
individual to adjust himself adequately to the new
Learning: Meaning and Nature: situation.
6. Learning take place as a result of practice :
Learning is a key process in human behaviour. Our learning always on the basis of drill and practice.
personality, habits, skills, knowledge, attitude, etc is the 7. Learning is not directly observable: we cannot
result of learning thus learning is a process by which the observe learning, but we can see only what is the
individual acquire various habits, knowledge and attitude performance of learner and the consequences of
that are necessary to meet the demands of life in general. performance.
8. All learning involves activities: These activities
The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced involve either physical or mental activities.
by the environment. This experience makes him to change or
modify his behaviour in order to deal effectively with it. Types of Learning
Therefore, learning is a change in behaviour, influenced by
previous behaviour. As stated above the skills, knowledge, 1. Motor learning: Most of our activities in our day-to-days
habits, attitudes, interests and other personality life refer to motor activities. For examples, walking,
characteristics are all the result of learning. running, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve
the muscular coordination.
Definitions
2. Verbal learning: Verbal learning means behaviour
Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in changes occur by speaking language and use of
behaviour that occurs as a result of practice and experience”. communication devices. Signs, pictures, symbols, words,
This definition has three important elements. figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We
use words for communication.
a. Learning is a change in behaviour—whether good or bad.
3. Auditory Learning: Occurs when tasks modify response
b. It is a change that takes place through practice or characteristics of neurons in various part of the auditory
experience, but changes due to growth or maturation are not system.
learning.
4. Concept learning: It is the form of learning which
c. This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent, requires higher order mental processes like thinking,
and it must last a fairly long time. reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from
childhood. For example, when we see a dog and attach the
(Gardner Muphy1968)- The term learning covers every term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular
modification in behaviors to meet environmental animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz.
requirements. abstraction and generalization. This learning is very useful in
recognizing, identifying things.
Nature of learning:
5. Discrimination learning:
1. Learning is universal: every human being that
lives learns. Learning is universal because every Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an
human being acquisition. positive learning is appropriate response to these stimuli is called discrimination
important for child growth and development learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like
2. Learning through experience: learning always bus, car, ambulance, etc.
involves some kind of experience through direct or
indirect. 6. Problem solving:
3. Learning from all sides: learning occurs from all
sides. Children learn from parents, teacher, This is a higher order learning process. This learning
environment, nature etc. requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as thinking,
reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This
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is very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by a gradual process where the individual will make many
the people. attempts to learn. The essence of this theory is-as the trials
increase, the errors decrease.
7. Attitude learning:
He constructed a cage called problem box. He put a
Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our hungry cat in the cage. There was only one door for exist
behaviour. We develop different attitudes from our which could be opened by correctly manipulating a latch. A
childhood about the people, objects and everything we fish was placed outside the box. The smell of the fish
know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending worked as a strong motive for hungry cat in the cage. There
upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her was only one door for exist which could be opened by
profession, patients, etc. correctly manipulating a latch.
Learner and Learning A fish was placed outside the box. The smell of the
fish worked as a strong motive for the hungry cat to come
out of the box. The cat was kept hungry to motivate it for
Someone who is learning something; beginner, or a action. The box was built in such a way that the door could
person who is seeking something to learn is called as learner. be opened only by pressing the lever, inside the box.
Each learner differ from one another, therefore the teaching Learning to press the lever to open the door is the criterion
learning situation is a differently by each learner and result of animal learning.
also differ because each learner respond differently.
Individual must learn by her/his own activity. The learner
respond as a whole situation or total pattern Consequently, the cat made every possible effort to
come out. The situation is described by Thorndike himself as
Learning is the process of acquiring new, or modifying it tries to squeeze through every opening; it claws and bites
existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, or preferences. The at the bars or wires, it thrust its paws through any opening
ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and and claws at everything it reaches. In this way it made a
some machines; Some learning is immediate, induced by a number of random movements. In one of the random
single event but much skill and knowledge accumulates movements, by chance, the latch was manipulated. The cat
from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning came out and got its reward.
often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned
material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be For another trial, the process was repeated. The cat was kept
retrieved. hungry and placed in the same problem box. The fish and its
smell again worked as motive for getting out of the book.
Theories of Learning:
It again made random movements and frantic efforts. But
Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and this time, it took less time in coming out. The same
why they learn. They have conducted many experiments on procedure was followed until the cat was able to open the
animals and children and come to certain definite door straight away without making any random movements.
conclusions which explain the modes of learning. These are As trials advanced the unnecessary and irrelevant movement
called as theories of learning. were gradually reduced. Finally, the cat learnt to operate the
lever straight away.
01. Thorndike connection or trial and error learning
02. Conditioning learning Thorndike laws of learning
a. Classical conditioning
b. Operant conditioning Three laws suggested by Thorndike
03. Cognitive theories of learning
Insight learning
01. Law of Effect
04.
02. Law of Frequency
03. Law of Recency
Thorndike connection or trial and error learning
Law of Effect: According to the law of effect, any
This theory was developed by an American psychologist EL activity that gives satisfaction of success has a tendency to
Thorndike (1874-1949). He argues that learning takes place be established and get fixed up. On the other hand any
through trial and error method. According to him learning is activity that does not lead to the desire goal and causes the
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feeling of disappointment and dissatisfaction has a tendency work of Ivan P. Pavlov, A doctor of medicine and
to be discarded or dropped out. physiologist by training.
Classical conditioning gets its name from the fact
According to Thorndike speed of learning or the speed of that it is a kind of learning situation that existed in
establishing the connection between the particular activity the early “classical experiments of Ivan P. Pavlov.
and the particular goal depends upon the satisfaction value “In one of the experiments Pavlov kept a
of the rewards. The efficiency of learning depends upon the dog Hungary for the night and then tied him on to
size of the reward and the length of time that lapses between the experimental table which was fitted with certain
the correct movement and the reward obtained. If the reward mechanical controlled devices. The dog was made
is very small or the interval is long, learning become slow. comfortable & distractions were excluded as far as
On the other hand if the rewards are big and the interval is it was possible to do so.
short, learning becomes full movement. The observer kept himself hidden from the
view of the dog but able to view the experiments by
means of a set of mirrors. Arrangement was made
Law of Frequency
to give food to the dog through automatic machine.
Every procedure time when the food was
According to this law any activity repeated a certain number presented to the dog same time he also arranged
of times has a tendency to be established permanently. Thus ringing of bell before presenting of a food to the
the repeated activity becomes stronger and easier to repeat it. dog. This activity or procedure repeated several
On the other hand any activity that is not repeated is likely to times and the amount of saliva secreted was
be disappear for want of repetition. Though wrong measured.
movement are also repeated, they will be dropped out After several trials the dog was given no
gradually for want of reinforcement or due to dissatisfaction food but the bell was rung. This time also the
attached to them. amount of saliva secreted was recorded &
measured. It was noticed that even the absence of
Law of Recency food the ringing of the bell caused the dog to
secrete the saliva.
Any act or activity which is done which is done recently has This theory states that CS (Bell) become a
an advantage of being repeated once again because of fresh substitute after pairing with UCS (FOOD) &
experience. So the right movements done recently acquires the capacity to elicit a response. It is
accompanied by reinforcement and repetition help trial and because of the association is formed between CS
error method. Thus these three laws or principles govern the (conditioned stimulus) and UCS (unconditioned
trial and error learning. stimulus)
Terminology given by the Pavlov to
Educational implication of Thorndike’s theory understand the learning by conditioning
01. CS : Bell in Pavlov’s experiments
02. UCS : Food in Pavlov’s experiments
1. In the process of teaching and learning
03. UCR : Saliva in respond to food
2. It is also emphasized that the past experience and
04. CR : Is a learned Response
learning give an adequate base for the new learning.
3. The child should be encouraged to do his work
independently.
4. The child must ready to learn about interest and UCS UCR
attitude. (Food) (Saliva)
CONDITIONING LEARNING Conditioning

CS CR
In literal sense, conditioning means ‘getting used’ to, or
(Bell) (Salivation)
‘adjusted ‘to a new situation, or a stimulus. It is a process of
substituting the original stimulus by a new one and Symbolic Presentation
connecting the response with it. There are two types of
conditioning theories:
Pavlov’s law of classical conditioning
a. Classical conditioning: the systematic study of
classical conditioning began in Russia with the 01. Extinction
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02. Generalization empty box skinner operated the machine and delivered a
03. Discrimination pellet of food. The hungry rat being disturbed by the tiny
noise, explored the box found a pellet in the container and
Extinction : if the unconditioned stimulus is omitted
ate it. A few minute later he delivered another pellet into the
repeatedly, the conditioned response gradually diminishes.
pan. The rat approached the food pan more promptly than
Generalization: Is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus before with a few more trials the rat learnt to approach the
to evoke similar response after the response has been food pan straight.
conditioned.
In day to day life also, much learning takes place in animals
Discrimination: Is the ability to differentiate between a as well as in human being.
conditioned stimulus & other stimuli that have not been
In order to confirm whether the rat has learnt the sequence,
paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
skinner introduced a horizontal bar along a wall of the box
Educational Implication near the food pan. He connected the horizontal bar with the
machine outside the box in such a way that the pressing
• Student should be active respondents to learning
down of the bar delivers a pellet of food into the pan. The
and in the learning process. they should be given an
hungry rat while exploring the box encountered the bar.
opportunity to actually behave or demonstrate
Accidently it pressed down the bar with its paw.
learning.
Immediately a pallet of food was delivered into the pan with
• The repetition os stimulus response habits can
a tiny noise. As it had already learnt to respond to the tiny
strengthen those habits
noise it ran to the pan, swathe food and ate it.
• Practice is important
• Breaking habits, in order to break habits The trial was repeated for a few more trials with the hungry
• In developing desirable habits, interest, attitude, rat. The rat had learnt to press the bar to deliver a pellet.
sense of application in the children etc. Here the sight of the bar is S1 (CS) and pressing the bar is
• The conditioning process may help the teacher and R1 (CR) .This CR was established with the help of
parents a lot. reinforcement (Food). Here the CR is instrumental to get
food.
2.Operant Conditioning
Law of Operant Conditioning
This method of conditioning developed by an American
psychologist B.F. Skinner. Operant conditioning is also 01. Partial Reinforcement: Operant conditioning
called as Instrument conditioning. shows a high degree of orderliness or lawfulness.
Illustration of orderliness is behaviour controlled by
Skinner kept a hungry Rat In a box which is known as
partial reinforcement that is, behavior taking place
Skinner box. Except a small tin container in a corner, the
when the response is reinforced only a fraction of
box was empty. Outside the box a small machine fixed. The
the time it occurs.
operation of the machine delivers a pellet of food in to the
02. Secondary Reinforcement : skinner experiment on
pan making a tiny noise. After the rat has adjusted to the
operant conditioning have extended conditioning
empty box skinner operated the machine and delivered to the
principles to kinds of response that cannot be
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elicited by recognized unconditioned stimulus. Kohler in one of his experiment on learning put the
Operant behaviour acts upon the environment to Chimpanzee, Sultan, inside a cage and a banana was hung
produce or gain access to reinforcement and from the roof of the cage. A box was placed inside the cage.
becomes strengthened by reinforcement. The chimpanzee tried to reach at the banana by jumping but
could not succeed. Suddenly, he got an idea and used the
Application of operant conditioning
box as a jumping platform by placing it just below the
In this experiments the result is the rewards hanging banana.
In the operant conditioning correct response are
reinforced and incorrect response are either ignored In another experiments, Kohler made his problem
or punished more difficult. No it required two or three boxes to reach the
We can eliminate or modify unacceptable bananas. Moreover the placing of one box over the another
behaviours using operant procedure required different specific arrangements.
Most of the maladaptive behaviours are learned

In a more complicated experiment, banana was
with the assistance of reinforcement
placed outside the cage of the chimpanzee. Two sticks, one
A child throw temper tantrum when his needs are
longer than the other, were placed inside the cage. One was
not immediately satisfied.
hollow at one end so that the other stick could be thrust into
A preschool child repeatedly throws glass and
it to form a longer stick. The banana was so kept that it
break them.
could not be picked up by any one of the sticks. The
A child wet his bed during night time
chimpanzee first tried these sticks one after the other but
All these maladaptive are learnt and can therefore
failed suddenly, he got a bright idea. The animal joined the
be modified during techniques of operant
two sticks together and reached the banana.
conditioning.
The process of modifying these behaviour is called
In these experiments, Kohler used many different
modification
chimapanzees. Sultan, who was the most intelligent of
Kohler’s chimpanzees, could solve all problems. Other
chimpanzees could solve the problem only when they saw
sultan solving them.
COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING

Insights involve following criteria:
Insight Learning: The learning theory named as “learning a. The situation as a whole is perceived by the learner
by insights” is the contribution of gestalt psychologists. b. The learner tries to see and judge the relationship
Wolfgang Kohler one of founder of Gestalt school has between various factors involved in the situation
emphasized the factor of perception in learning. Gestalt c. As a result, the learner is helped in the sudden
psychology used the term “INSIGHTS” to describe the grasping of the solution of the problem.
perception of the whole situation by the leaner and his
intelligence in responding to the proper relationship. Educational Implication
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The whole is greater than parts and, therefore 4.Attention: learner must learn to concentrate his attention
the situation viewed as a whole on learning. Attention play is more definitely focused to the
The use of blind fumbling and mechanical trial thing are required to learn. Distraction affects learning.
and error should be minimized. The learner
5.Physical and Mental Health : the child who is mentally
should try to see relevant relationship and act
and physically not developed, learn as a slow rate. The
intelligently.
learner should have good physical health. Defect like
The purpose or motive plays the central role in
blindness, myopia, hypermetropia, deafness, paralysis,
the learning process.
mutism etc.
The child should be motivated by arousing his
interest and curiosity and he should be Will affected learning process. For learning mental health of
acquainted well with the specific aims and learner is also important. Adjustment problem minor mental
purpose of his learning. problem like anxiety, stress, depression, manic condition
will affect learning.
Factors Influencing Learning
II. Factor related to Nature of Learning Material
It has been found that individuals difficulty a.Learning Element: The number of learning elements the
in leaning due to many factors. material has, whether it is too long or too short. Lesser
the number easier the learning.
They are following
b.Character of Learning Material : Meaningful learning is
I. Factor associated with learner
much easily done than learning a material without knowing
1.Motivation: If the learner has no motivation to learn any the meaning.
amount of force will be in cable of producing any useful
c.Complexity of Learning Material : Learning a foreign
result. Increase the motivation better will be the learning.
language may appear easy in the beginning but may be felt
2.Ability to learner : this include the level of intelligency hard as time goes on.
often encounter serious difficulty in mastering school work.
d.position of the elements: People will quickly learn the
Sometimes pupils unable to learn because of special
beginning and end of a lengthy material and make more
intellectual disabilities.
mistakes in the middle.
3.Maturation : we learn thing only according to
III. Factors Related to learning Methods
maturity of our body. The child who is physically and
mentally mature learns a subject at a faster rate. 1.Methods of Learning : The methods adopted by the
leaner is also important in determining his learning skills.
e.g. a child of 6 months cannot learn to ride a bicycle even
There are few methods which save the energy and time of
after vigorous training, because it requires muscular or
the learner.
physical maturity.
The following methods are
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A.Whole to Part Methods : This methods is based on the The completion of the learning cycle that include perceiving,
principle of Gestalt theory. According to this the general deciding acting or feedback.
nature of the whole material is grasped at first, following by
learning its parts.
b.Speed v/s Un-speed Methods : Learning continuously

without gap leads to interference in memory called
inhibition. Hence it is always advisable to keep small break
Perceiving input (cycle)
between each reading.
Leraner perceiving ideas
c.Recitation V/S Repetition: Just repetition of study
material becomes rote learning in which chances of Feedback
Deciding
forgetting are more. In recitation improve your attention, it Internal or external Processing in the brain
help to you correct the errors occurs in learning Asked to practice How we put the
futher cycle start information intoa
immediately. again response
2. Over Learning : It is proved that over learning helps

better learning and memory. Acting
Output
3.knowledge of results as feedback: It is essential to know
Movement
the amount of material grasped, so that changes may be
made in process of learning. Knowledge of results ferers to Learning Cycle
getting feedback by means of testing, examination, interview
Transfer of Learning
etc.
Transfer of learning is central to understanding how people
4.Environmental Factors: Good infrastructure needed For
develop important competencies. Learning is important
Learning is Under environmental factor. One of the factor
because no one is born with the ability to function
that affect the efficiency of Learning is the good
competency as an adult in our society.
infrastructure Or condition In which Learning take Place.
E.g. Classroom, Text Book Etc, in the school. Transfer define as the ability to extend what has been
learned in one context to new context
Learning Process
“The carryover of habits of thinking, feeling, or working of
Learning is relatively permanent changes in behaviour as
knowledge or of skills, from one learning area to another
result of practice.
usually is referred to as the transfer of training (1973-p323)
Learning process is a process in which people acquire new
Types of Transfer
knowledge, skills and finally changes their attitude, decision
and action. 1.Positive Transfer : it is said to be positive when learning
in one context, improves learning in another context. For
Learning process carried out to achieve educational activities
example, skill in playing violin facilitates learning to play
piano. Or driving a scooter facilitates driving motorbikes.
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2.Negative Transfer: It occurs when previous learning
cooperation and rivalry, are directly related to a complex
inhibits with learning in a new context. Or when learning in
psychology of motivation.
one task makes the learning of another task harder it is
(Environmental factor)Physical conditions needed for
known as negative transfer. For example speaking Telugu
learning is under environmental factor. One of the factors
language hindering the learning of Malayalam. Or left hand
that affect the efficiency of learning is the condition in
drive vehicle hindering the learning of rights hand drive.
which learning takes place. This includes the classrooms,
3.Neutral Transfer: In case of the previous learning make textbooks, equipment, school supplies, and other
no changes at all to the performance of the learner in the instructional materials.
new situation or when learning of one activity neither
facilitates nor hinders the learning of another task, it is a Theories of Transfer of Learning
case of neutral transfer. It is also called zero transfer. For
The theories of transfer of learning are
example; knowledge of history may neither help nor hinder
the learning of mathematics. 1.Mental discipline : this theory came to existence in 20th
century. This theory assume that mind is the central position
Factors Influencing transfer of learning
which is composed of several faculties. Example; memory,
Knowledge is necessary for transfer attention, and judgment. According to this theory, these
faculties are nothing but the “Muscles of the Mind” and the
Knowledge that is overly contextualized can reduce transfer
muscles of the body can be trained or strengthen through
Rote learning does not tend to facilitate transfer Physical training and exercise.
Motivation affects the amount of time, people are motivated 2.Theory of Identical Elements: This theory developed by
when they can see the usefulness of what they are learning. the E.L. Thorndike. This theory goes from on learning
situation to other situation. These identical elements may be
Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught,
in the form of content or techniques
faulty methods of work or study, and narrowness of
experimental background may affect the learning process of Similarity of content: The study of ‘Sanskrit’ helps one
any pupil. with the study of Hindi or Kannada language to an extent as
the two language contain identical elements such as
Physical factor affect the transfer of learning It is generally vocabulary and grammatical constructions.
recognized that ill health retards physical and motor Similarity in techniques: Playing cricket may be useful in
development, and malnutrition interferes with learning and playing badminton to the extent that there are common
physical growth. techniques to hit and judging and also use of physical
activity.
Mental factor affect the transfer of learning
3.Theory of Generalization: According to this theory
(Emotional & social factors)Personal factors, such as transfer of learning take place primarily through
instincts and emotions, and social factors, such as generalization and degree of transfer depends upon the
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extent to which experiences in the first situation are • Provide plenty of light. Having a well-lit space will keep
understood and consolidated into generalization. your child awake and focused and prevent them from
straining their eyes. keep on eye your child in case it
4.Theory of Transposition: it is advocated by Gestalt
becomes a distraction.
psychology. Transfer begin with understanding the fact and
• Do your own work in the space with your child. If you’re
perception of similarity by the learner. It is not the specific
watching TV while your child is studying, that’s only going
skill or facts which are important but the understanding of
to make them jealous and distracted. Sit down next to your
relationship between fact and principles are the real basis of
child and work on something while they study.
transfer.
2.Getting Organized :
5.Theory of Ideals: This theory given by W.C. Bagley. The • Set a study schedule to create a routine. Pick a few hours
ideal theory get transfer from one situation to another. Ideas each day that can be dedicated to studying and doing
homework.
like honest, truthfulness, love etc.
• weekly monthly lesson plans of your child should be
6.Theory of Learning to Learn: after practicing a tasks collected. Especially when your child is younger, they’ll
then the learner learns the capacity to learn the same thing. need your help to stay on top of assignments.
Learning to learn mean when learning starts from one • Make a calendar to keep track of assignments. Sit down
method then it goes to another methods. with your child’s lists of assignments and syllabi and fill in
all the big due dates for assignments, tests, school breaks,
Study Habit
and extracurricular events.
Habits: A settled tendency or usual manner of behavior. • Use a planner for daily and weekly tasks. You should also
her habit of taking a morning walk. It was his habit to take a
nap after dinner every evening. It's important that parents buy a planner to help your child make daily and weekly to-
teach their children good study habits. do lists. This can include smaller, short-term assignments as
To develop good study habit parents can encourage children well as the bigger ones.
from an early age is one of the most important. Help your • Make flashcards to do well on quizzes and tests. Especially
child to develop a lifelong love of learning by setting up a for learning formulas in math and science and memorizing
study space without distractions, getting organized, and
vocabulary in language classes, flashcards can be the perfect
helping them to feel positive about their schoolwork.
study tool.
1.Making the perfect study space
• Encourage your child to take good notes while studying.
• Pick a spot away from the television. Eliminate all the
3.Developing a Good Mind set
distractions you can, starting with the TV.
• Help your child ask questions and think critically. Make sure
• Set up rules for everyone’s cell phones. During study time,
your child isn’t just memorizing information.
everyone in the house should put their phones on silent and
• Make specific study goals. At the beginning of the school
limit their screen time.
year, sit with your child and write down three to five goals
• Accept the computer as a necessary distraction. Because so
related to their schoolwork and study habits
much homework is online now, you won’t be able to avoid
• Set your child up with a study buddy. Talk to your child to
the distraction of the computer. Either sit with your child or
find out if they have a friend they’d enjoy studying with, or
check in with them frequently to make sure they’re not on
check with your child’s teacher or a librarian at the local
social media or browsing the Internet when they should be
library to find a study buddy for your child.
studying.
• Make sure your child stays positive about their schoolwork.
• Focus on your child’s efforts instead of grades.
Sitapura, Jaipur
• The students must be made ready to learn. His interest,

attitude and psychological preparation is essential for the
smooth sailing in the reaching-learning process.
• The learning theory has brought motivation in the fore front

by assigning purpose and motive, the central role in the
learning process
• A nurse should understand the nature, types of learning,

characteristics and factor which will affect the learning.
• The teacher should try to make use of the previous

knowledge and experience of the student.
• Interest and effective caring by the nurse can bring desirable
impact on patient
• A nurse should have well defined purpose and goal in all
learning situation.
• Repetition in the practice is more useful in effective learning
and training.
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Memory: Meaning, Types, Nature, Factors Limited Duration: storage is easily broken and information
can be lost with distraction or passage of time.
Influencing, Developmental Theories & Methods
of Memorizing and Forgetting Encoding: it is primarily acoustic, even translating visual
information into second
Meaning of Memory: Memory is the means by which we Long Term Memory: Are all the memories we hold for a
draw on our past experiences in order to use this information period of time. LTM encompasses everything from what we
in the present. learned in first grade to our old addresses to what we work
Definition : yesterday.
01.The mental capacity or faculty of retaining & reviving Through the process of association & rehearsal, the content
facts, events, impression etc or of recalling or recognizing of short term memory can become long term memory.
previous experience. Long term memory is also susceptible to the forgetting
02. Internal record or representation of some prior event or process. In the LTM process the number of times you access
experience a memory can also play a role in the strength & duration of a
memory.
03. Memory is also a constructive process in which we
actively organize and shape information as it processed, Types of LTM:
stored and retrieved. 01. Declarative Memory: Also called as explicit
Types of Memory memory, include all of the memories that are
available in consciousness. It also divided into
Three types of memory episodic memory( is the memory of personal
1. Sensory 2. Short term 3. Long Term experiences and specific events) & semantic
memory(knowledge about the world)
Sensory Memory: The term sensory refers to the initial 02. Non-Declarative Memory: Also called as implicit
process of storing information that is perceived through our memories, this type or memory includes
senses. procedural memory which involves memories of
body movement an example of implicit memory is
The name sensory memory because of something perceptual
learning to ride a bike. You don’t need to
occurs. Sensory storage are image only in case of vision.
consciously remember how to ride car or bike; you
Although the actual stimulus may have disappeared, we may
still perceive it for a second or so. simply do. This is because of implicit memory.
Sensory memory divided into Nature of Memory
01. Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory is called Process of Memory: Three Phase of Memory
iconic memory although many people seems to
Encoding: Is the Process of receiving, Processing
believe that visual image last longer, they don’t , and combining information. Basically, encoding refers
they last approximately ¼ of a second. to translating incoming information in to a mental
02. Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory is representation that can be stored in memory. We can
called echoic memory. These seems to last up to 3 encode the same information in number of different
seconds way. For examples, we can encode information
according to its sounds ( acoustic code) what it looks
Short Term Memory: A limited capacity store that can like ( Visual codes ) or what it means (semantic code )
maintain information for approximately 20 seconds and the
capacity about 7 items. Rehearsing can help to keep In this stage we must change the information so that we
information in short-term memory longer when people may put the memory into the encoding process.
repeat a new phone number over & over to themselves, they
Storage: is the second memory stage or process in
are rehearsing it and keeping in short term memory. It has
which we maintain information over periods of times
three important point:
Limited capacity : it can store 7 items at a time
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This concern the nature of memory stores, i.e. where Development of memory:
the information is stored, how long the memory lasts
for, how much can be stored at a time (capacity) & what 1. Good Diet
Your dietary pattern is play a major role in improving your
kind of duration of information is held.
memory. Fresh vegetables are essential, as are healthy fats
Most adult’s person can store 5 and 9 items in their and avoiding sugar and grain carbohydrates. It is found that
STM. Information can only be stored for a brief vegetables, omega -3, antioxidant-rich diet may improve
duration in STM(0-30 Second) but LTM can last a life memory.
2. Exercise: Encourages your brain to work at optimum
time.
capacity by stimulating nerve cells to multiply,
Memory Retrieval: the calling back of stored strengthening their interconnections.
information in response to some cue for use in a process During exercise nerve cells release proteins known as
or activity. when we are asked to retrieve something neurotrophic factors. One in particular, called brain-derived
neurotrophic factor (BDNF), triggers numerous other
from memory, the difference between STM & LTM
chemicals that promote neural health, and directly benefits
become very clear. We must locate it & return it to our
cognitive functions, including learning.
consciousness. Retrieval memory is also known as
remembering. Memories of events tend to be recalled in 3. Stop Multitasking as soon as possible Ultimately,
the same order in which they were experienced, so by multitasking may actually slow you down, make you prone
thinking through a list or series of events. The tip of the to errors as well as make you forgetful.
tongue phenomenon occurs when an individual can Research shows you actually need about eight seconds to
almost recall a word but cannot directly identify it. This commit a piece of information to your memory, so if you're
is a type of retrieval failure. talking on your phone and carrying in groceries when you
put down your car keys, you're unlikely to remember where
Factors Influencing Memory: Following factors that you left them.
may affect your memory functions. You can then end your day with a 10- or 15-minute
01. Good Health: A individual with good health can meditation session to help stop your mind from wandering
and relax into a restful sleep.
retain the learns the learnt material better than a
person with poor health. 4. Get a Good Night's Sleep
02. Age: younger person can remember better than the Sleep immediately after learning strengthens connections in
old person. the brain and helps for clear memory. Sleep is also known to
03. Exercise: Daily physical exercises are necessary enhance your memories and help you "practice" and improve
your performance of challenging skills. In fact, a single night
for memory. All physical exercise including Yoga,
of sleeping only four to six hours can impact your ability to
Pranayama etc associated with mental process. think clearly the next day.
04. Intelligence: intelligence also affects memory As you might suspect, this holds true for infants too, and
more intelligent individual will have better memory research shows that naps can give a boost to babies'
power than a weak person. brainpower. Specifically, infants who slept in between
05. Food and supplements: news report that healthy learning and testing sessions had a better ability to recognize
patterns in new information, which signals an important
diet may improve cognitive performance. For
change in memory that plays an essential role in cognitive
examples, vegetables, omega -3, antioxidant-rich development.4 There's reason to believe this holds true for
diet may improve memory. adults, too, as even among adults, a mid-day nap was found
06. Drug and Chemicals: Alcohol and other illegal to dramatically boost and restore brainpower.5 You can
drug like cannabis, LSD, marijuana, cocaine and find 33 tips to help you get the shut-eye you need here.
metals like lead. Solvents, mercury, etc may cause 5. Play Brain Games
cognitive problem in the individual. If you don't sufficiently challenge your brain with new,
surprising information, it eventually begins to deteriorate.
07. Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful
What research into brain plasticity shows us, however, is
materials remain in our memory for longer period that by providing your brain with appropriate stimulus, you
than for nonsense material. can counteract this degeneration.
08. Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest immediately after
learning strengthens connections in the brain and One way to challenge your brain is via 'brain games,' which
you can play online via Web sites like Lumosity.com. Dr.
helps for clear memory.
Michael Merzenich, professor emeritus at the University of
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California, who I interviewed two years ago, has pioneered • Chunking, which is breaking up information into
research in brain plasticity (also called neuroplasticity) for smaller "chunks" (such as organizing numbers into the
more than 30 years, has also developed a computer-based format of a phone number)
brain-training program that can help you sharpen a range of
skills, from reading and comprehension to improved
3 More Smart Tips for Brainpower
memorization and more.
The program is called Brain HQ, and the website has many If you're serious about improving your memory and your
different exercises designed to improve brain function and it cognitive function, you'll also want to know about these
also allows you to track and monitor your progress over three important variables for brain health.
time. While there are many similar sites on the Web, Brain
HQ is one of the oldest and most widely used. Vitamin D
Activated vitamin D receptors increase nerve growth in your
If you decide to try brain games, ideally it would be wise to brain, and researchers have also located metabolic pathways
invest at least 20 minutes a day, but no more than five to for vitamin D in the hippocampus and cerebellum of the
seven minutes is to be spent on a specific task. When you brain, areas that are involved in planning, processing of
spend longer amounts of time on a task, the benefits weaken. information, and the formation of new memories. In older
According to Dr. Merzenich, the primary benefits occur in adults, research has shown that low vitamin D levels are
the first five or six minutes of the task. The only downside to associated with poorer brain function, and increasing levels
brain games is that it may become just another "task" you may help keep older adults mentally fit. Appropriate sun
need to fit into an already busy day. If you don't enjoy brain exposure is all it takes to keep your levels where they need
games, you can also try learning a new skill or hobby (see to be for healthy brain function. If this is not an option, a
below). safe tanning bed is the next best alternative, followed by a
vitamin D3 supplement.
6. Master a New Skill
Intermittent Fasting
Engaging in "purposeful and meaningful activities"
Contrary to popular belief, the ideal fuel for your brain is not
stimulates your neurological system, counters the effects of
glucose but ketones, which is the fat that your body
stress-related diseases, reduces the risk of dementia and
mobilizes when you stop feeding it carbs and introduce
enhances health and well-being.6 A key factor necessary for
coconut oil and other sources of healthy fats into your diet.
improving your brain function or reversing functional
A one-day fast can help your body to "reset" itself, and start
decline is the seriousness of purpose with which you engage
to burn fat instead of sugar. Further, it will help you to
in a task. In other words, the task must be important to you,
reduce your overall calorie consumption, which promotes
or somehow meaningful or interesting — it must hold your
brain cell growth and connectivity.
attention.
For instance, one study revealed that craft activities such as As part of a healthy lifestyle, however, I prefer
quilting and knitting were associated with decreased odds of an intermittent fasting schedule that simply calls for limiting
having mild cognitive impairment.7 Another study, your eating to a narrower window of time each day. By
published earlier this year, found that taking part in restricting your eating to a 6-8 hour window, you effectively
"cognitively demanding" activities like learning to quilt or fast 16-18 hours each day. To learn more, please see this
take digital photography enhanced memory function in older previous intermittent fasting article.
adults.8 The key is to find an activity that is mentally Gut Health
stimulating for you. Ideally this should be something that Your gut is your "second brain," and your gut bacteria
requires your undivided attention and gives you great transmits information to your brain via the vagus nerve, the
satisfaction… it should be an activity that you look tenth cranial nerve that runs from your brain stem into your
forward to doing, such as playing a musical instrument, enteric nervous system (the nervous system of your
gardening, building model ships, crafting or many others. gastrointestinal tract). There is a close connection between
7. Try Mnemonic Devices abnormal gut flora and abnormal brain development, and
Mnemonic devices are memory tools to help you remember just as you have neurons in your brain, you also have
words, information or concepts. They help you to organize neurons in your gut -- including neurons that produce
information into an easier-to-remember format. Try: neurotransmitters like serotonin, which is also found in your
brain and is linked to mood.
• Acronyms (such as PUG for "pick up grapes")
Quite simply, your gut health can impact your brain
• Visualizations (such as imagining a tooth to remember function, psyche, and behavior, as they are interconnected
your dentist's appointment) and interdependent in a number of different ways. In
• Rhymes (if you need to remember a name, for instance, addition to avoiding sugar, one of the best ways to support
think "Shirley's hair is curly) gut health is to consume beneficial bacteria. You can use a
probiotic supplement for this, but I'm particularly fond of
Sitapura, Jaipur
using fermented vegetables, because they can deliver
extraordinarily high levels of beneficial bacteria. Most Theory of Memory
people aren't aware that in a healthy serving of sauerkraut –
two to three ounces or so – you're getting the equivalent of 1. Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
nearly 100 capsules of the highest-potency probiotic you can
buy. It's clearly one of the most cost-effective alternatives. An influential theory of memory known as the multi-store
modelwas proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard
The Choline-Brain Connection Shiffrin in 1968.
Choline is an essential nutrient your body makes in small
The processes highlighted in the model are:
amounts. However, you must consume it through your diet
Attention - to move information from Sensory to Short Term
to get enough. In adults, choline helps keep your cell
Memory(STM) Rehearsal - to move information from Short
membranes functioning properly, plays a role in nerve
Term Memory (STM) to Long Term Memory (LTM)
communications, prevents the buildup of homocysteine in
Retrieval - to move information back into the Short Term
your blood (elevated levels are linked to heart disease) and
Memory (STM) from the Long Term Memory (LTM).
reduces chronic inflammation. In pregnant women, choline
plays an equally, if not more, important role, helping to
Information enters the memory from the senses - for
prevent certain birth defects, such as spina bifida, and
instance, the eyes observe a picture, olfactory receptors in
playing a role in brain development.
the nose might smell coffee or we might hear a piece of
Prior research has concluded that choline intake during music. This stream of information is held in the sensory
pregnancy "super-charged" the brain activity of animals in memory store, and because it consists of a huge amount of
utero, indicating that it may boost cognitive function, data describing our surroundings, we only need to remember
improve learning and memory, and even diminish age- a small portion of it. As a result, most sensory information
related memory decline and the brain's vulnerability to ‘decays’ and is forgotten after a short period of time. A sight
toxins during childhood, as well as conferring protection or sound that we might find interesting captures our
later in life.9 attention, and our contemplation of this information - known
If you're pregnant, making sure your diet includes plenty of as rehearsal - leads to the data being promoted to the short-
choline-rich foods is important, as research shows higher term memory store, where it will be held for a few hours or
choline intake led to changes in epigenetic markers in the even days in case we need access to it.
fetus.10 Specifically, it affected markers that regulate the
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which controls The short-term memory gives us access to information that
hormone production and activity. The changes in fetal is salient to our current situation, but is limited in its
genetic expression will likely continue into adulthood, where capacity.
they play a role in disease prevention. Eggs and meat are

two of the best dietary sources of choline; if you're a vegan 2. Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
or vegetarian who does not consume any animal foods, you Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart were critical of
may be at risk of deficiency and may want to consider explanation for memory provided by the multi-store model,
supplementation. so in 1972 they proposed an alternative explanation known
as the levels of processing effect. According to this model,
memories do not reside in 3 stores; instead, the strength of a
Sitapura, Jaipur
memory trace depends upon the quality of processing, process which can strengthen our memory of a particular
or rehearsal, of a stimulus. In other words, the more we sound.
think about something, the more long-lasting the memory we
have of it (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). 4. Miller’s Magic Number (Miller, 1956)
Prior to the working memory model, U.S. cognitive

Two types of processing that take place when we make an
psychologist George A. Miller questioned the limits of the
observation: shallow and deep processing.
short-term memory’s capacity. In a renowned 1956 paper
Shallow processing - considering the overall appearance or published in the journal Psychological Review, Miller cited
sound of something - generally leads to a stimuli being the results of previous memory experiments, concluding that
forgotten. people tend only to be able to hold, on average, 7 chunks of
information (plus or minus two) in the short-term memory
Deep (or semantic) processing, on the other hand,
before needing to further process them for longer storage.
involves elaborative rehearsal - focusing on a stimulus in a
For instance, most people would be able to remember a 7-
more considered way, such as thinking about the meaning of
digit phone number but would struggle to remember a 10-
a word or the consequences of an event.
digit number. This led to Miller describing the number 7 +/-
2 as a “magical” number in our understanding of memory.
3. Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)
Miller’s understanding of the limits of human memory
Whilst the Multi-Store Model (see above) provided a
applies to both the short-term store in the multi-store model
compelling insight into how sensory information is filtered
and Baddeley and Hitch’s working memory. Only through
and made available for recall according to its importance to
sustained effort of rehearsing information are we able to
us, Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch viewed the short-term
memorize data for longer than a short period of time.
memory (STM) store as being over-simplistic and proposed
a working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974), which
5. Memory Decay (Peterson and Peterson, 1959)
replace the STM.
Following Miller’s ‘magic number’ paper regarding the
The working memory model proposed 2 components -
capacity of the short-term memory, Peterson and Peterson
a visuo-spatial sketchpad (the ‘inner eye’) and
set out to measure memories’ longevity - how long will a
an articulatory-phonological loop (the ‘inner ear’), which
memory last without being rehearsed before it is forgotten
focus on a different types of sensory information. Both work
completely?
independently of one another, but are regulated by a central
executive, which collects and processes information from In an experiment employing a Brown-Peterson task,
the other components similarly to how a computer processor participants were given a list of trigrams - meaningless lists
handles data held separately on a hard disk. of 3 letters (e.g. GRT, PXM, RBZ) - to remember. After the
trigrams had been shown, participants were asked to count
The articulatory-phonological loop handles the sounds and
down from a number, and to recall the trigrams at various
voices that we hear. Auditory memory traces are normally
periods after remembering them.
forgotten but may be rehearsed using the ‘inner voice’; a
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6. Flashbulb Memories (Brown & Kulik, 1977)
given a list of word pairs to remember, so that they could
There are particular moments in living history that vast recall the second ‘response’ word when given the first as a
numbers of people seem to hold vivid recollections of. You stimulus. A second group was also given a list to learn, but
will likely be able to recall such an event that you hold afterwards was asked to memorize a second list of word
unusually detailed memories of yourself. When many people pairs. When both groups were asked to recall the words from
learned that JFK, Elvis Presley or Princess Diana died, or the first list, those who had just learnt that list were able to
they heard of the terrorist attacks taking place in New York recall more words than the group that had learnt a second list
City in 2001, a detailed memory seems to have formed of (Underwood & Postman, 1960).
what they were doing at the particular moment that they
heard such news. 9. False Memories
Can false memories be implanted in our minds? The idea

We are able to recall minute details of our personal
may sound like the basis of a dystopian science fiction story,
circumstances whilst engaging in otherwise mundane
but evidence suggest that memories that we already hold can
activities when we learnt of such events. Moreover, we do
be manipulated long after their encoding. Moreover, we can
not need to be personally connected to an event for it to
even be coerced into believing invented accounts of events
affect us, and for it lead to the creation of a flashbulb
to be true, creating false memories that we then accept as our
memory.
own.
7. Memory and Smell

10. The Weapon Effect on Eyewitness Testimonies
The link between memory and sense of smell helps many (Johnson & Scott, 1976)
species - not just humans - to survive. The ability to
A person’s ability to memorize an event inevitably depends
remember and later recognize smells enables animals to
not just on rehearsal but also on the attention paid to it at the
detect the nearby presence of members of the same group,
time it occurred. In a situation such as an bank robbery, you
potential prey and predators. But how has this evolutionary
may have other things on your mind besides memorizing the
advantage survived in modern-day humans?
appearance of the perpetrator. But witness’s ability to
produce a testimony can sometimes be affected by whether
8. Interference
or not a gun was involved in a crime. This phenomenon is
Interference theory postulates that we forget memories due
known as the weapon effect - when a witness is involved in
to other memories interfering with our recall. Interference
The weapon effect on eyewitness testimonies was the
can be either retroactive or proactive: new information can
subject of a 1976 experiment in which participants situated
interfere with older memories (retroactive interference),
in a waiting room watched as a man left a room carrying a
whilst information we already know can affect our ability to
pen in one hand. Another group of participants heard an
memorize new information (proactive interference).
aggressive argument,
Both types of interference are more likely to occur when two Methods of Memory:
memories are semantically related, as demonstrated in a 1.Recitation: Repetition or Recitation means reciting to
1960 experiment in which two groups of participants were oneself. Let the reader read his lesson twice or thrice, and
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then recite it to himself, prompting himself when he fails.
Learning a matter effectively requires the intention to
This active reciting method of study takes less time in
memorizing. Recitation is economical of time in remember. Unintentional learning is ineffective. The will to
memorizing, and fixes the mater more durably. If nonsense
learn is necessary if any learning is to be accomplished. The
syllables are replaced by sensible material, we get better
results. Recitation is a greater advantage for permanent testimony of eye-witnesses is very unreliable except for facts
memory than for immediate memory. that were definitely noted by them at the time of the
occurrence of an event.
2. Whole versus Part Learning:
In memorizing a long lesson should be divided it into parts,
and study each part by itself till getting mastering or read
the whole lesson repeatedly. Children are discouraged by a
long poem; they may show better results by following the
‘part method’. Some have found the ‘whole method’ to be
superior in all cases. With others two thirds have done better
with the ‘whole method’ and one-third better with the ‘part
method’. The ‘whole method’ yields good results for
permanent memory. The ‘part method’ yields good results
from immediate memory.
1. Spaced and Un-Spaced Methods:

Spaced methods are more effective than un-spaced learning.
The greater is the interval between one repetition and
another at one sitting the less is the time required to
memorize the matter. Spaced learning yields better result for
permanent memory. Un-spaced learning is good for
immediate memory. Spaced learning fixes the matter more
durably.
4. Cramming and Logical Memory:

Unintelligent memorizing or cramming is not effective. It
cannot incorporate the matter into the mental structure, and
fix it durably. It cannot establish associations between the
matter and other ideas in the mind. On the other hand,
intelligent memorizing of a sensible material is which the
connected meaning of the whole matter is grasped, is far
more effective.
5. Intention to Remember:
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Thinking: Types & Levels, Stages of Development, perceptual thinking as it economizes efforts in
Relationship with Language & Communication understating and helps much in discovery and
Thinking: invention.
The term Thinking is often used to means many kinds of 03. Reflective thinking or logical thinking : it is some
psychological activities . Recalling the past , Imagining, day what higher type of thinking which has a definite
dreaming, perception etc. sometimes the term thinking is purpose or end and is usually aimed to solve a
used to mean the process of solving problem. problem. It is differentiated from simple thinking ,
firstly on the grounds that it aims to solve complex
Definition: Valentine- “Thinking is an activity which
problems rather than simple problem. Reflective
consists essentially of a connected flow of ideas which are
thinking require recognition of all the relevant
directed towards some end of purpose”.
experience or removing an obstacles.
Maier- “Thinking is the perceptual relationship which There is an insightful approach in reflective
provide for the solution of the problem”. thinking.
04. Creative thinking: this type of thinking is, chiefly
Types of Thinking: Thinking is usually classified into the
aimed to create something new. It is in search of
following Types
new relationships and association to describe and
01. Perceptual or concrete thinking: it is the interpret the nature of the things, events and
simplest form of thinking. The basis of this types situations. The thinking of scientists is an example
of thinking is perception. Perception is defined as of creative thinking.
the process of interpretation of sensations according 05. Direct and non-directed thinking : in directed
to one’s experience. Then apple is offered to a thinking a purpose, a goal and a problem are to be
child, he thinks for a moment and at once refuses to solved through thinking. It is purposeful thinking. It
take it. His thinking at this time is purely perceptual is goal-directed thinking which includes reasoning,
as it is based on the interpretation of sensation problem –solving concept formation and creative
according to his previous experience. He thinking.
remembers the taste of a green apple which was 06. Non-directive thinking is a wishful thinking that is
offered to him a few days before. influenced by our needs, feeling, and wishes. It is
This type of thinking is also name as concrete also called autistic thinking. No-directive thinking
thinking as it has carried over the perception of has lack of reasoning and it involves fantasy and
actual or concrete objects and events. Small day dreaming.
children are mostly benefitted through this 07. Convergent and divergent thinking in this type of
02. Conceptual or abstract thinking : like perceptual thinking thinker wants particular ends results. That
thinking, it does not require the perception of actual is the solution is known. Such thinker follows the
objects or events. It is an abstract thinking where usual rules of problem solving. It is the rigid,
one makes use of concepts; the generalized ideas. stereotyped and operated by mechanically.
Language plays a big part in the development of Diverget thinking refer to having many varied
such perceptual thinking. This type of thinking to thought about the problem. Such people deviate
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from the routine solutions. Divergent thinking Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of
includes autistic thinking as well as convergent children.
thinking. Divergent type of thinking is The Stages
characteristic of creative people. Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that
included four distinct stages:
Levels of Thinking: there are six level of thinking which Sensory Motor Stage: Birth to 2 Years Major Characteristics
are following: and Developmental Changes:

• The infant knows the world through their movements
01. Knowledge level: At this point of thinking is found and sensations.
to operate at a very concrete level of knowledge. • Children learn about the world through basic actions
such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening.
02. Comprehension level: at this level of thinking
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even though
Comprehension is the understanding and
they cannot be seen (object permanence).
interpretation of what is read. To be able to • They are separate beings from the people and objects
accurately understand written material, children around them.
need to be able to decode what they read, make • They realize that their actions can cause things to
connections between what they read and what they happen in the world around them.
• During this earliest stage of cognitive development,
already know and think deeply about what they
infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
have read.
sensory experiences and manipulating objects.
03. Application level: At this level person is apply the • A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this
basic knowledge and understanding about the stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor
particular facts and things. responses.
04. Analysis level : At this level person is known to • It is during the sensory motor stage that children go
through a period of dramatic growth and learning.
analysis of facts. In this level break down material
• As kids interact with their environment, they are
into components parts so that its organizational
continually making new discoveries about how the
structure may be understood. world works.
05. Synthesis level: at this level put to parts together The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes
to form a new whole. place over a relatively short period of time and involves a great
06. Evaluation level: At this level of thinking deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical
actions such as crawling and walking, they also learn a great
evaluation level is the judge value of material for a
deal about language from the people with whom they interact.
given purpose.
Piaget also broke this stage down into a number of different sub
stages. It is during the final part of the sensory motor stage that
Stages of Development
early representational thought emerges.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that Preoperational Stage
children move through four different stages of mental Ages: 2 to 7 Years
development. Piaget's stages are: Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
Sensory motor stage: From birth to 2 years Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use
Preoperational stage: From the age 2 to 7 words and pictures to represent objects.
Concrete operational stage: From the age of 7 to 11 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see
Formal operational stage: From the ages of 12 and up things from the perspective of others.
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While they are getting better with language and thinking, they The final stage involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
still tend to think about things in very concrete terms. deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At
The foundations of language development may have been laid this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential
during the previous stage, but it is the emergence of language solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the
that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of world around them.
development. Children become much more skilled at pretend
play during this stage of development, yet still think very Thinking and the Nurse
concretely about the world around them. The nurse should practice good habits of thinking and
Concrete Operational Stage systematic problem solving in the profession and all areas of
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
her life like planning her career, problems in family life,
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
difficulties in family life, professional life and personal
During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about
concrete events. relationship.
They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the Daily problem solving is a major challenges for the nurse.
amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, Nurse should develop the following habits
skinny glass, for example.
Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still Collect as much factual information as possible
very concrete. Beware of your own prejudices as well as those of
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific patients
information to a general principle.
Do not jump to any hast conclusions
While children are still very concrete and literal in their
Think about all possible solution
thinking at this point in development, they become much more
adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the previous stage Listen to all solution suggested by others
begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how Keep an open mind by constant questioning of self
other people might view a situation. and others.
While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete
operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in Relationship with Language & Communication
development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical
A language is a system of communication which consists
concepts.
of a set of sounds and written symbols which are used by
children also become less egocentric and begin to think about the people of a particular country or region for talking or
how other people might think and feel. writing.
Formal Operational Stage Ages: 12 And Up Communication by voice in the distinctively human manne
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes: r, using arbitrary sounds in conventional ways
with conventional meaning is speech. Language helps to
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think reach the goal
abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems.
Abstract thought emerges. refer from : CET book
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical,
social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract
reasoning
reasoning.
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general
principle to specific information.
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Intelligence: Meaning, Classification, Uses, Theories mainly by “picture smart” people such as architects,
sculptors, painters etc.
Intelligence is the ability to think abstractly. Intelligence is
04. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: this types of
the ability to adjust oneself to a new situation.
intelligence involve in solving logical puzzles,
Definition experiments, strategy games, and arithmetic
problems.
Lolurto-1991- Intelligence is the ability to master the
05. Interpersonal Intelligence: in this intelligence,
information and skills needed to succeed within a particular
person interact with others in such a way that they
culture.
are able to understand and communicate well.
Jean Piaget- Intelligence is the ability to adapt to one’s
Interpersonal intelligence makes it possible for a
surroundings.
person to effectively communicate through verbal
Wechsker-1944- Intelligence is the global capacity of an
and nonverbal means. This type of intelligence seen
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal
in politicians, social workers, actors, leaders and
effectively with his environment.
teachers.
Classification: find out later
06. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: People with
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence have an almost
perfect sense of timing, and their mind-body
Gardner proposes eight types of intelligence
coordination is nearly faultless. People who possess
01. Naturalistic Intelligence: Naturalistic intelligence
this type of intelligence usually grow up to become
refers to a human being’s sensitivity to the natural world.
This is the ability to distinguish among nature’s different dancers, surgeons, athletes, and others.
features such as animals, plants, rock configurations, 07. Linguistic Intelligence: In this type of intelligence
cloud formations, and other such things. E.g. biologists person involved in reading, writing, listening and
and zoologists. talking.
02. Musical Intelligence: In this intelligence task 08. Intra-Personal Intelligence People who have the
involve in music. The intelligence involved in this remarkable ability to understand themselves, their
ability to recognize tone, rhythm, timbre, and pitch is thoughts, and their emotions and are capable of
musical intelligence. e.g. Musician using this knowledge to plan their lives possess is
03. Spatial Intelligence: Spatial intelligence is defined
called intra-personal intelligence. Examples:
as the human capacity to consider things in three
philosophers, spiritual leaders, writers, and
dimensions. This type of intelligence involves the
psychologists.
following core capacities: a dynamic imagination,
Theories of Intelligence:
image manipulation, mental imagery, artistic and
1. Factor Theories: Factor analysis theory based on analysis
graphic skills, and spatial reasoning. People with
spatial intelligence are highly creative. Young of scores of large number of person on different intelligence
children, people with high spatial intelligence are test using a statistical
deeply entrenched in puzzles or mazes, or they Some of the important theories are:
involve in using up their extra time by a) Thurston’s multifactor theory:

daydreaming. Spatial intelligence is demonstrated
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Thurston (1946) rejected the General theory of intelligence General factor works in conjunction with special ability. In
and instead presented his own theory. all types of intellectual activities of the human being along
with general ability, there will also be a special ability which
This theory states that the human intelligence includes 7 is related to particular action.
primary mental abilities (PMA). Though these abilities
appear to be different, they are related to each other. They c) Multi factor theory of intelligence:
are: SPNVWMR Proposed by EL Thorndike. According to Thorndike,
intelligence is not a single factor like general intelligence
Factor Ability Description rather it is a combination of multiple factors.
S Spatial Ability To perceive spatial These factors include:

relations (a)Abstract intelligence
(b) Concrete (technical) intelligence
P Perceptual Speed To grasp visual field
(c) Social intelligence, etc.
N Numerical Ability To deal with numbers

d) Guilford’s tri-dimensional theory:
JP Guilford (1961) developed a model of intelligence in
V Verbal To understand meaning
which he explained that every intellectual activity can be
comprehension of word
described in terms of three different basic dimensions, viz.,
content (what participant think)
W Word influence To think and use words
operation (kind of thinking participant asked )
rapidly
product ( what type of answered is required)
M Memory To remember
He has proposed his tri-dimensional theory of intelligence
R Reasoning To think logically represented by cubical model. This model is provided with
120 primary abilities, and is a combination of 4 contents, 5
operations and 6 products (4x5x6=120). Guilford describe
Thurston has developed a test called Primary Mental cube-shaped model of intellect to include 150 factors, which
Abilities test to assess these factors. includes 5 contents, 6 products and 5 operations
(5x6x5=150).
b) Spearman’s two-factor theory:
According to Spearman intelligence is the ability to think 2. Cognitive Theories of Intelligence:
constructively. Spearman (1927) proposes that intelligence These theories are otherwise called process-oriented
consists of two abilities, viz. theories. They focus on intellectual processes; the patterns of
‘G’- General ability thinking and reasoning in people, used to solve problems.
‘S’- Special ability. The important theories are:
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Cattell and Horn’s Theory: iv. Applying the inferred relationship (application)
Cattell (1971) and Horn (1978) have proposed this theory in
which they have distinguished two types of intelligence. v. Justifying the correct solution (justification)
a. Fluid intelligence: vi. Provide the correct solution (response).
This is an innate, biologically or genetically determined

Jensen’s Theory of Mental Functioning:
capacity and not influenced by education or training. This
Arther Jensen (1969) proposed this theory. According to
capacity helps the person in learning and problem solving.
him, the functioning of one’s mind depends upon the type
This is the ability which is useful in understanding and
and degree of intelligence one possesses. Jensen splits
adjusting to strange situations. This ability develops fully in
intelligence into two types of abilities- associative abilities
people by the end of an individual’s adolescence.
and cognitive abilities.
b. Crystallized intelligence: Assessment of Intelligence

It is a learned or acquired capacity. It is influenced by Intelligence can be accessed through psychological
environmental factors like education, training, culture, testing. Alfred Binet was the first psychologist who
knowledge and learned skills. This ability can be observed in develop a intelligence test. Generally intelligence test can
the behaviour of a person while dealing within culture, be categorized into two broad categories.
traditions in society, his knowledge in worldly affairs,
. Individual Tests:
through the skills in handling machinery, tools, etc. These tests are administered to one individual at a
Generally it continues throughout life. Though both types of time. These cover age group from 2 years to 18 years.
intelligence are independent, they are interrelated. Tests involving the use of language are administered to one
individual at a time, e.g. the Stanford Binet scale, Revised
Information Processing Theory of Intelligence: Tests by Terman, Wechsler Test.
This theory was proposed by American Psychologist Robert The development of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Sternberg (1984). He distinguished between information Scales : Initiated the modern field of intelligence testing,
processing components and meta-components. Components originating in France, then revised in the U.S. The Stanford-
are the steps to solve a problem and the meta-components Binet test started with the French psychologist Alfred
are the basics of knowledge that one has to know to solve Binet (1857-1911), whom the French government
the problem. commissioned with developing a method of identifying
intellectually deficient children for their placement
Information processing includes the following steps: in special-education programs. As Binet indicated, case
i. Identifying the relevant information (encoding) studies might be more detailed and helpful, but the time
required to test many people would be excessive. In 1916,
ii. Drawing the necessary inferences (inferring) at Stanford University, the psychologist Lewis
Terman released a revised examination which became
iii. Establishing relationship between past and present
known as the "Stanford-Binet test".
experiences (mapping)
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The intelligence quotient (IQ) is previous versions of the test. The WISC contains several of
the subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale and has been
Mental Age revised five times into the fall 2014 version, the WISC-V.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) = X100 The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Adults
Chronological Age the Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS) is the best
standardized intelligence test in clinical practice today. The
test contains 10 subtests and 5 supplemental tests. The core
tests comprise the entire IQ scale, and determines the
capacity of a person to act and think purposefully and
rationally and to deal effectively with his environment. It
takes around 90 minutes to complete.
The WAIS is appropriate for adults and adolescents ranging
Terman classification
from 16 to 90 years of age.
Scoring and Administration:
Level IQ
Each test is comprised of two groups of subtests: Verbal and
Idiot 0-25
Performance. Verbal scales measure general knowledge,
Imbecile 26-50
language, reasoning, and memory skills.
Moron 51-70
The Full Scale IQ score is determined by a formula that
Borderline 71-80
sums the Verbal and Performance IQ scores. A score beyond
Low normal 81-90 130 is considered superior or "gifted", 120-129 is "very
Normal 91-110 high", 110-119 are considered "bright normal", and anything
Superior 111-120 less than 90 is considered average to low average. Anything
Very Superior 121-130 lower than a 70 signals borderline mental functionality, and
Genious 140 and above any lower than 69 signals mental retardation.
Non-Verbal and Non-Language Tests:

Wechsler intelligence scale:
These tests involve activities in which the use of language is
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale is an intelligence test not necessary. Performance tests are the typical examples for
that can be administered to both children and adults. these type of tests. Here the individual is tested through
Developed by Dr. David Wechsler, at new York university material objects, where he is instructed orally and the
medical centre and Bellevue psychiatric hospital. reactions of the person are assessed with respect to the
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children individual’s approach towards the work. Then needed
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children is an directions are provided to him
individually administered test for children between the ages
of 6 and 16. It can be completed without any reading or 2. Group Tests:
writing, and takes 65 to 80 minutes to complete. It generates Group tests are administered to a group of people Group
an IQ score, which represents a child's cognitive ability. tests had their birth in America – when the intelligence of
The test is divided into 15 subtests, 10 of which are from
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the recruits who joined the army in the First World War was (ii) Drawing figures, especially human figures,
to be calculated.
(iii) Completing pictures and patterns.
These are:
(a) The Army Alpha and Beta Test, (iv) Analysing space relationship from diagrams (two
dimensional),
(b) Terman’s Group Tests, and
(v) Analysing cube relationship.
(c) Otis Self- Administrative Tests.
(vi) Drawing lines through figures to break them up into
Among the group tests there are two types: given section, as in Minnesota paper form board test.
(i) Verbal, and
(vii) Mechanical relationship, tracing relationship of
(ii) Non-Verbal. interlocking gears-pulleys, shown in pictorial form.
Verbal tests are those which require the use of language to (viii) Memory for design.
answer the test items.
Uses of Intelligence Test:
3. Performance: 1 Selection:In the school children are chosen for
These tests are administered to the illiterate persons. These various purposes and activities through intelligence
tests generally involve the construction of certain patterns or tests.
solving problems in terms of concrete material. 2 School work: A teacher can use the intelligence
tests together with all other information available
Some of the famous tests are: about the child to place him with others of his
(a) Koh’s Block Design Test, ability in smaller groups, the composition of which
will vary from subject to subject and from time to
(b) The Cube Construction Tests, and
time. Students may be classified not according to
C.A. but M.A.
(c) The Pass along Tests.
3 Use in Diagnosis: We can compare the score

Performance Tests:
representing in a school subject and the mental age
The importance of non-verbal or performance was discussed
and find the retardation in the subject. Like
above. Here we mention the composition of such tests.
diagnosis the cause of behaviour and provide
Non-verbal tests include such items as: suggestion to possible treatment, and arranging
(i) Relationship of figures, which may be either (a) suitable action.
functional or (b) spatial.

4 Optimum level of work:
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The primary aim of education is to assist each child to make At the elementary school level when a child has little choice
the best possible use of all his capacities. It is a general of subjects, the readiness test is valuable as a diagnosis. It
measure of a pupil’s capacity to succeed in his school work. gives the teacher information about the areas in which the
The mental age gives the mental level at which a child can child needs more training.
be expected to work most efficiently in academic subjects.
09. Combination of all informates for Educational
4. Identification of intellectual deviations: Guidance:
It is a problem to find who is bright and who is dull. This is The teacher and counselor should get as much information
to be found, otherwise a teacher may force adult child to do as possible about the pupil. The prognosis test will be very
what is beyond his capacity, or fail to assist the gifted to valuable in predicting success in particular subjects, and
make use of his exceptionally great capacity. So the extreme when combined with intelligence test will be even more
cases are to be discovered. effective. The use of achievement test will increase the
reliability of the prediction.
5. provision of guidance: The fact that intelligence is
positively related to vocational competence and to 10. Use in Research:
attainments in college work has definite practical Intelligence test results can be pooled and utilized for
implications. The educational or vocational counsellor can research purposes.
use the score on the intelligence test along with other data to
predict a pupil’s success in college or in many vocations.
Though vocational success depends upon other factors as
well: health, persistence, interest and aptitudes, but
intelligence is a potent factor.
6. Level of ability:
In a class or school, the abilities of different teachers can be
appraised in terms of the average attainments of their
respective classes when these are made equal in the level of
intelligence. Similarly comparisons of schools can be made
only when the levels of ability of the students of the two
schools are also determined.
7. Measuring special abilities:

Aptitude tests can predict the ability to achieve in music, art
and various mechanical and social lines.
8. Diagnosing Subject-Matter Difficulties:
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• Aptitude : concepts, types, individual difference
& variability
Aptitude: our capacity for achievement is determine in

part by the quantum of general ability. It is also
influenced by the nature and extent of any special
aptitudes that we may process.
Definition
Freeman-1971: an aptitude is a combination of

characteristics indicative of an individual’s capacity to
acquire some specific knowledge, skill, or set of
organized responses, such as the ability to speak a
language, to become a musician, to do mechanical
work.
Bingham-1937: aptitude refers to those qualities

characterizing a person’s way of behaviour which
serves to indicate how well he can learn to meet and
solve certain specified kinds of problems.
Concepts of Aptitude:
It is a condition or set of qualities in an individual
An aptitude may be physical or mental. Aptitude is
inborn potential to do certain kinds of work
whether developed or undeveloped. Ability is
developed knowledge, understanding, learned or
acquired abilities (skills) or attitude.
Individual is born with certain qualities and start to
learn immediately.
Aptitude can be measured by test of general mental
ability which are used to facilitate prediction of
scholastic success.
Aptitude is inborn potential to do certain kinds of
work whether developed or undeveloped.
Ability is developed knowledge, understanding,
learned or acquired abilities (skills) or attitude.
The innate nature of aptitude is in contrast to skills
and achievement, which represent knowledge or
ability that is gained through learning.
Types of aptitude :
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Psychology Unit III PDF

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A Text Book of Psychology

Unit-3rd COGNITIVE PROCESS

Attention: The act or power of carefully thinking about, • Objective factors

Or Objective factors: because these qualities are inherent in

Implication for Nurses

• Attention has to do with the immediate experience

motives than or people at the constricted end. Zollner Illusion:

Implication for Nurses

Perception is the processing, interpreting, selecting and

Knowledge of perception help the nurse to identify the

In order to communicate effectively, nurse need to spend

Accurate perception is very important for a nurse to provide

Error in perception should be avoided to render effective

Knowledge about perception, causes of perception, factor

CONDITIONING LEARNING Conditioning

or punished more difficult. No it required two or three boxes to reach the

behaviours using operant procedure required different specific arrangements.

Most of the maladaptive behaviours are learned

COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING

b.Speed v/s Un-speed Methods : Learning continuously

2. Over Learning : It is proved that over learning helps

Implication for Nurses

• The students must be made ready to learn. His interest,

• The learning theory has brought motivation in the fore front

• A nurse should understand the nature, types of learning,

• The teacher should try to make use of the previous

Sensory memory divided into Nature of Memory

Limited capacity : it can store 7 items at a time

genetic expression will likely continue into adulthood, where capacity.

they play a role in disease prevention. Eggs and meat are

Prior to the working memory model, U.S. cognitive

Can false memories be implanted in our minds? The idea

7. Memory and Smell

1. Spaced and Un-Spaced Methods:

4. Cramming and Logical Memory:

are following: and Developmental Changes:

involve in using up their extra time by a) Thurston’s multifactor theory:

S Spatial Ability To perceive spatial These factors include:

N Numerical Ability To deal with numbers

a. Fluid intelligence: vi. Provide the correct solution (response).

This is an innate, biologically or genetically determined

b. Crystallized intelligence: Assessment of Intelligence

Non-Verbal and Non-Language Tests:

3 Use in Diagnosis: We can compare the score

(i) Relationship of figures, which may be either (a) suitable action.

functional or (b) spatial.

7. Measuring special abilities:

8. Diagnosing Subject-Matter Difficulties:

Aptitude: our capacity for achievement is determine in

Freeman-1971: an aptitude is a combination of

Bingham-1937: aptitude refers to those qualities

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