mmmmm cubic system

THE VISUAL
DICTIONARY of
CRYSTAL SYSTEM

PHYSICSIn ultraviolet light, rock

appears brightly coloured
Clamp

Glass
sphere
enclosing
gas sample

Glass
beaker

Phosphorescent
screen glows
when hit by
electrons

Vertical film
where bubbles
meet

Bowl

Vacuum

wton
meter

^ERC in
i

Thermometer
FORCES ON A
Gravity— SHALLOW SL( i
THE VISUAL
DICTIONARY of

Physics
Here is an entirely new kind of dictionary

one that is packed with superb, full-color

photographs and illustrations, and with

thousands of scientific terms.

The VISUAL DICTIONARY

OF PHYSICS will give you
instant access to the

specialized vocabulary

relating to physics in

a way that is clear,

informative, and easy to understand.

If you have heard of a particular scientific

process, but don't understand how it works,

then turn to the labels around the illustrations.

Alternatively, if you know a term but don't

know exactly what it refers to, then the

comprehensive index will direct you to

the illustration that bears the name.

This volume forms part of a series that,

like the Dorling Rindersley Eyewitness

Books builds thematically into

a comprehensive and

exquisitely illustrated treasure

trove of words and pictures,

providing high-quality

information for readers

of all ages.

m
 yj
EYEWITNESS VISUAL DICTIONARIES

THE VISUAL
DICTIONARY of

PHYSICS
Ammeter
shows that
current is

flowing

4.5 V
butters
Current produces
magnetic field

Compass
I (triable
resistor
adjusted to Compass
needle aligns
allow current
with magnetic
toflow
fieldproduced
by wire

ELECTROMAGNETISM AFFECTING A COMPASS NEEDLE

 EYEWITNESS VISUAL DICTIONARIES

THE VISUAL
DICTIONARY of

PHYSIC written by

Jack Challoner

Axis
& Metal
Bearing
guard

Gyroscope
precesses

Spinning
wheel

Newton
meter

GYROSCOPE

Newton meter measures

limiting friction
P-
DK PUBLISHING, INC
 A

\ l)l\ PI BUSHING BOOK

Art Editor Simon Mlrrell
Project Editor Peter Jones
Editorial Assistant Des Reid
US Editor Jill Hamilton
US Consultant Meta Brown
Deputy Art Director Tina Vaugiian
Managing Editor Sean Moore
Senior Art Editor Tracy Hambleton-Miles

Photography Andy Crawford

Illustrations Chris Lyon, Janos Marffy
Picture Research Ann\ Lord
Production Meryl Silbert
\
Wire
RESULTANT FORCE

Heading 5.8 N Newton meter

held id an

Force acts
Force acts
atan angle

1 kg mass

BR BR
J 10 N weight
QC5
.C425
1995
First American Edition 1995
468 109 7 5
Published in the United States bi
DK Pi rushing, Inc., 95 Madison Avenue, New York, New York, 10016
Copyright© 1995 Dobling Kindersley Limited, London
Text Com right © 1995 u:e Cii u.loner .1

'All rights reserved under International vnd Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, oh
TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR B> INY MEANS, ELECTRONIC, MECHANICAL, PHOTOCOPYING, RECORDING, OR OTHERWISE, WITHOUT THE PRIOR WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER.
Pi blished in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited.
Distributed by Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston
\ isit s on the World Wide Web at
i

in i'://www.dk.com
i

Library of Congress C\taloguing-in-Publication data

Challoner, Jack
The visual dictionary of physics/ written by Jack Challoner. - -
1st american ed.
p. cm. - - (Eyewitness \ isi \l dictionaries)
Includes glossary and index.
ISBN 0-7894-0259-4
1. Physics—Dictionaries Iuvenile. [1. Physics.] i. Title.
ii. Series.
QC5.C425 1995
550'.03-dc20 95- 1957
CIP
Reproduced ry Coi \, Singapore AC
PrjntedandbocndinSpainby.v im [cas Toledo, S.
D.L. TO: I
 Pulley wheel

"
\mmeter

Contents Current
flowing
.
through
Newton meter resistor
Matter and Energy 6

Measurement and Experiment 8

Forces i 10
Connecting
Forces 2 12 wires

Friction 14
Simple Machines 16
4.5 1 battel
SIMPLE PULLEY
Circular Motion 18 Resistor
TANCE
Metal dome
Waves and Oscillations 20

Heat and Temperature 22

I bltage of tens
of thousands Solids 24
of volts T Small force
Liquids 26 exerted by
thumb
Belt driven by Gases 28
electric motor
Electricity and Magnetism 30
Electric Circuits 32

Electromagnetism 34

Electricity Production 36
Electromagnetic Radiation 38 Force concentrated to
produce high pressure
Color 40 DRAWING PIN

Reelection and Refraction 42 llelmholtz. coils

VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR
Optical Instruments 44

Bubble is I erlical film forms

Wave Behavior 46
thicker at where two bubbles meet
the bottom Atoms and Electrons 48
Electrons
Nuclear Physics 50 travel in
circular path
Particle Physics 52
Formulas and Appendix 54

Glossary 56
Index 60
Acknowledgments 64

SOAP BURBLE GVTHOOE HV\ 11 BE

 g .

MASS AND WEIGHT

Measurement Mass is the amount

matter in an object, and is
measured in kilograms.
Gravitational force gives
of

and experiment the mass its weight. Weight

is a force, and is measured
in newtons (see pp. 10-11),
using a newton meter like
the one shown on the right.
Spring
stretches

Pointer
moves
-

Tl IK SCIENCE OF PHYSICS IS BASED on the formulation It is common to speak of down

and testing of theories. Experiments are designed to test weight being measured in scale
kilograms, but in physics
theories and involve making measurements: of mass, length, this is not correct. Pointer
time, or other quantities. In order to compare the results reads 10 N
of various experiments, standard units are necessary. The
kilogram (kg), the meter (m), and the second (s) are the Spring in meter
fundamental units of a system called SI units (Systeme produces force to
balance weight
International). Physicists use a variety of instruments Fulcrum
for making measurements. Some, like the Vernier
callipers, traveling microscopes, and thermometers
SCALES
are common to many laboratories, while others will
The metal object and the
be made for a particular experiment. The results powder shown here have the
of measurements are interpreted in many ways, same mass and therefore
the same weight. Powder-
but most often as graphs. Graphs provide a way to be
of illustrating the relationship between two Metal weighed
object 0.2-kg
measurements involved in an experiment. For mass
example, in an experiment to investigate falling 0.2-1,
mass
objects, a graph can show the relationship
between the duration and the height of the fall.
Scale pan NEWTON METER AND
Jaws measure either internal KILOGRAM MASS
or external diameter of object
MEASURING DISTANCE
Jaws VERNIER CALLIPERS Adjustable TRAVELING MICROSCOPE
Physicists often use Vernier eyepiece A Vernier scale makes the traveling microscope
I

^^ callipers for the an accurate instrument for measuring small

Y^/ accurate measurement
Eyepiece contains
distances across objects. Two readings are taken
of an object's width. and the difference between the positions of the
y
I This is read off a fine crossed wires microscope on its sliding scale provides
Vernier scale, which here the measurement.
Measured * allows reading to an
object accuracy of 0.1 mm.

I ernier
scale

Diecast body

Ordinary
Turning
scale.
knob moves
microscope
along rails

••
 '

-20 THERMOMETERS FREEFALL EXPERIMENT

There are two types of thermometer commonly used in modern
physics. The mercury thermometer has a glass bulb containing
mercury that expands as the temperature rises, while the digital
thermometer contains an electronic probe and has a digital readout
-C Electromagnet
DIGITAL THERMOMETER

Mercury Electronic Digital Plastic case

column p ro b e (LCD) contains
readout electronics
Glass tube
Steel ball is

held up by
MERCURY THERMOMETER Scale, electromagnet

Mercury bulb \ Human body Glass lubel

temperature (3 7°C)

MAGNIFIED VIEW OF II ire from

MERCURY THERMOMETER second

switch
Glass bulb
INTERPRETING DATA
TABLE OF RESULTS FOR A FREEFALL EXPERIMENT
A steel ball is dropped from a variety of heights and the duration of each
fall is timed. The results of these measurements are entered into a table.

HEIGHT (m) 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

TIME (s) 0.10 0.14 0.17 0.21 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.27 0.30 0.31

APPARATUS FOR
TIMING THE FALL
RESULTS OF A FREEFALL EXPERIMENT IX GRAPH FORM OF AN ORJECT
A graph allows us to identify visually the relationship between the time and the \ s\\ itch turns olT

height of the fall. There is an element of uncertainly or error in everj result the electromagnet,
obtained, so each is plotted on the graph as a short range of values forming an error
bar instead of a point. The curve is drawn so that passes through all the bars. il
fr Ball
accelerates
due to the
pull of
releasing the ball
while simultaneously
starting the timer. \s
the ball hits the ring
Y-axis
0.35 gravity stand base, a second
sw itch is activated,
"liest Jit" curve
0.30 ..--£- and the timer stops.
..-* rimes of falls from
Result is plotted
as a short range
h various heights arc
0.25
,..-*! Ball approaches measured, and plotted
of 'a I ues
i

terminal velocity on a graph (sec lell I.

a2 ° ,--l
2 .."? )
Some points fall II

§ Bars show below curve

Cm
0.15
,¥ margin of error
o
a o.io
o
0.05
Some points fall
Is ball hits base,
second switch is
)
above curve tivaled
y — I

0.05
1

0.10 0.15
1

0.20
1
- — i

0.25
1

0.30
1

0.35
1

40
1

0.45
r—
0.50 Second switch J
I

X-axis/ Height of fall (m) (two contacts j

Ring stand
base
 —

REACTION FORCES

Forces 1 FORCES ON A LEVEL SURFACE

A table provides a force called a reaction, which exactly
balances the weight of an object placed upon it. The resultant
A FORCE IS A PUSH OR PULL, and can be large or small. The usual force is zero, so the object does not fall through the table.

unit of force is and forces can be measured using

the newton (N),
a newton meter (see pp. 8-9). Force can be applied to objects 1-kg
mass
at a distance or by making contact. Gravity (see pp. 12-13) and
10-N reaction force
electromagnetism (see pp. 34-35) are examples of forces that Solid
can act at a distance. When more than one force acts on an object, surface

the combined force is called the resultant. The resultant of

several forces depends on their size and direction. The
object equilibrium if the forces on an object are
is in
balanced with no overall resultant. An object on a solid
flat surface will be in equilibrium, because the
10-N weight
surface produces a reaction force to balance the
object's weight. If the surface slopes, the object's
weight is no longer completely cancelled by the FORCES ON A SHALLOW-SLOPED
reaction force and part of the weight, called a SURFACE Reaction force
Gravity acts downward on the produced by
component, remains, pulling the object toward 1-kg mass shown. The sloped surface
the bottom of the slope. Forces can cause rotation surface provides a reaction
force that acts upward,
as well as straight line motion. If an object is free
perpendicular to the slope
to rotateabout a certain point, then a force can and counteracts some of
the weight. All that
have a turning effect, known as a moment. remains of the weight is
Wire a force acting down
RESULTANT FORCE the sloped surface.
A 1-kg mass has a weight of 10 N. Here, this weight is
supported by two lengths of wire. Each wire carries a 2.4-Nforce
force that pulls against the other at an angle. The down slope
combination or resultant of these forces is 10 N 2.4 N will
Shallow stop mass
vertically upward and exactly balances
sloped
the weight. The force carried by each from sliding
surface
wire is measured by newton meters.

Part of weight
10-N weight
acting into slope

Newton
meter.
FORCES ON A STEEP-
SLOPED SURFACE
As the slope is made
Reaction force
steeper, the reaction
force of the sloped
produced by
surface decreases,
surface
and the force
pulling the mass
down the slope
which is measured
by the newton 6-Nforce
Force acts meter — increases. will stop
THE METER READINGS at an angle This force can pull mass from
Between them, the two objects downhill. sliding
v\ ires support a weight mass
of 10 N, so why is the
reading on each newton
meter more than 5 N? In 1-kg 6-Nforce
addition to pulling mass down slope.
upward, the wires are Part of
polling sideways against weight
each other, so the acting into
11 force showing on
Steep slope
it ris 5.8 N.
• sloped
10 V weight surface. Weight ION

"
10
 TURNING FORCES
TURNING FORCES AROUND A PIVOT OBJECT SUSPENDED AT CENTER OF GRAVITY
A force acting on an object that is free to rotate Counterclockwise Suspended at center Clockwise
will have a turning effect, or turning force, also
moment. of gravity moment
known as a moment. The moment of a force is

equal to the size of the force multiplied by the

distance of the force from the turning point
around which it acts (see p. 54). It is measured i
in newton meters (Nm). The mass below exerts
The weight of the beam above is spread along its
a weight of 10 N downward on a pivoted beam.
length. The moments are balanced if the object is
—
The newton meter twice as far from the suspended at its center of gravih
—
pivot measures 5 N, the upward force needed
Newton
to stop the beamturning. The clockwise
moment created by the weight and meter OBJECT SL SPENDED \\\ AY FROM CENTER OF GRAVITY
counterclockwise moment created by the
upward pull on the newton meter are equal, Reading 5 N. Resultant
Center of turning
and the object is therefore in equilibrium.
gravity
effect ,

Weight 1 ON, 0.25

Ring stand from the pivot
4

\\hen this beam

suspended at a
is
point away from its
center of gravity, there
is a resultant turning effect.
Counterclockwise
moment, 2.5 \m The beam turns until the center of
(') \ x O.J m) gravity is under the point of suspension

PRESSURE
Mass of Weight of Why draw ing pin be pushed into a wall, and
can a \el a
Small force
block 2 kg block 20 N. building will not sink into the ground? Forces can act over
exerted by
large or small areas. A force acting over a large area will
exert less pressure than the same force acting over a small
thumb
area. The pressure excited on an area can be worked out
simply b\ dividing the applied force by the area over which
it acts (see p. 54). Pressure is normally measured in units

of newtons per square meter (Nm -'). \ drawing pin

concentrates Force to produce high pressure, whereas
Tiny area
e foundations of a building spread the load to reduce
pressure. Cases also exert pressure (see pp. 2cS-29). at pin point
concentrates
force to product
Mock high pressure
Mass oj IIlight of
block I kg block 10 N. DRVWINGPIN

Mass of
block 2 kg

Height of
block 20 \
Pressure everted Pressure exerted
40,\ m 40 \m'
(10 X+ 0.2) J
m) (20 \ + 0.) m')

Grid with
squares of
area 0.01 nr'
 NEWTON'S LAWS

Forces 2 NEWTON'S FIRST LAW

When no force acts on an
continue its
object, it will remain in a state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line.
When the forces on an orject do not
cancel each other out, they will change the
motion of the object. The object's speed, No force acts Cart is

on cart stationary
direction of motion, or both will change. The
rules governing the way forces change the
No force, no acceleration: state of rest
motion of objects were first worked out by Sir
Cart is moving
Isaac Newton. They have become known as at constant speed
Newton's Laws. The greater the mass of an No force
acts on cart
object, the greater the force needed to change
its motion. This resistance to change in motion

is called inertia. The speed of an object is

usually measured in meters per second (ms ). 1

Velocity is the speed of an object in a particular No force, no acceleration: uniform motion

direction. Acceleration, which only occurs

when a force is applied, isthe rate of change in NEWTON'S SECOND LAW
When on an object, the motion of the object will change. This
a force acts
speed. It is measured
meters per second per
in change in motion
called acceleration and is equal to the size of the force
is

second, or meters per second squared (ms 2). divided by the mass of the object on which it acts (see p. 54).

One particular force keeps the Moon in orbit Spring Cart accelerates only Cart with small mass
around the Earth and the Earth in orbit around exerts force when force acts on it accelerates to a high speed
the Sun. This is the force of gravity or on cart.

gravitation; its effects can be felt over

great distances.

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW IN ACTION

Trucks have a greater mass than cars. According to
Newton's second law (see right) a large mass requires a
I Force acts on small mass: large acceleration
larger force to produce a given acceleration. This is why
a truck needs to have a larger engine than a car.
Mass on
Car. , Small mass cart
Small
engine Same
force acts Cart with large
Large mass on heavier mass accelerates
cart to a low speed
Truck

I Same
,.vt.a\a

force acts on large mass: small acceleration

\ Large engine
NEWTON'S THIRD LAW
If one object exerts a force on another, an equal and opposite force, called
the reaction force, is applied by the second to the first.

First cart Spring exerts force to An equal and opposite reaction Second carl
moves to left the left on first cart force acts on the right-hand cart moves to right

Action and reaction

 FORCE AND MOTION
In theimages below, eacb row of balls is a record of the motion of one ball, photographed
once each second beside a ruler. This shows how far the ball moved during thai second
and each subsequent second, giving a visual representation of speed and acceleration.

SPEED MOMENTUM
Speed the distance an object travels in a set
is The momentum of an object is equal to its mass
amount of time. It is calculated by dividing distance multiplied by its velocity (see p. 54). Momentum is

covered by time taken (see p. 54). In physics, speed Ruler measured in kilogram meters per second (kgms '). .
Ruler
is measured in meters per second (ms '). The two balls below have the same momentum.

1,1,1 1,1,1,1,1,1
Rail \fter 6
lias
seconds, ball
moved 6 meters
/ Hall
lie traveling
al / ms
Ball, mass
I kg
Ball traveling
al I ms
Momentum
1 kgms

Rail, mass Rail traveling Momentum

0.5 kg. al 2 ms 1 kgms

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW APPLIED TO ACCELERATION

BALE ACCELERATES AT 1 ms 2

Force of Rail reaches

\fler ) seconds, ball
\
^^ 5 seconds
•
/
lias moved 6 meters, ms' after ^^
ft ) '

Rail, mass I l,i

ACCELERATION
Force of BALL 1CCELEB VTES AT 2 ms J
Acceleration is the rate that the speed of an object
changes. It is calculated by dividing the change in speed 2 \,
Twice theforce
by the lime it look for that change (see p. 54). It is
measured in meters per second per second (ins -').
produces tuice
twice /
Ruler the acceleration

Rail, mass I kg
ISVLL ACCELERATES AT 1 ms-
force of
2 \

Rail [Iter 2 seconds, After 4 seconds,

#- /
accelerating the ball is the ball is Rail. Doubling both force and mass
al I ms 2 moving at 2 ms moving al 4 ms ' mass 2 kg/ leaves acceleration unchanged

GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
Gravitation, or gravity,
Earth Distance Moon
is a force that acts on

all matter. The force

between any two
objects depends upon
their masses and the
distance between them
Moon exerts Earth exerts
(see p. 54). force on Earth force on Moon

If the Moon had twice

the mass thai it docs,

the force between the
Earth and Moon would
be twice as large.

Twice
Four times theforce
If the Moon were half the force
Earth
the distance from Ihe Half the
Earth, the gravitational distance
force would be four
times as large. 'Ibis
Moon
is because the force"

depends upon the

square of the distance.

n
 AIR RESISTANCE
resistance is a type of friction that occurs when an object moves
\ir

Friction through the air. The faster an object moves, the greater the air resistance.
Falling objects accelerate to a speed called terminal velocity, at which
the air resistance exactlj balances the object's weight. At this
speed, there
is no resultant force and so no further acceleration
can occur.
|-'i;u riON ISAP( ni( i ni \ i SLOWS now \ or prevents
FALLING
FALLING
motion. \ ramiliar Form of friction is air resistance, which FEATHER BALL
Ball accelerates
limits the speed al which objects can move through the due to its weight
air. Between touching surfaces, the amount of friction
Feather
depends on the nature of the surfaces and the force or accelerates due
forces pushing them together. It is the joining or bonding to its weight
of the atoms at each of the surfaces that causes the friction.
\\ hen you an object along a table, the object
trj to pull
Air resistance on
will not mo\e until the limiting friction supplied by
feather increases
these bonds has been overcome. Friction can be reduced quickly and soon
in two main ways: or by the use of rollers.
b\ lubrication matches weight
II eight oj
Lubrication involves the presence of a fluid between two Air resistance
feather. on ball slowly
surfaces; fluid keeps the surfaces apart, allowing them to increases
move smooth!) past one another. Rollers actually use Feather
reaches
friction to grip the surfaces and produce rotation. Instead
terminal
o\ sliding against one another, the surfaces produce velocity Weight of
turning forces, which cause each roller to roll. This ball

leaves \er\ little friction to oppose motion. Terminal velocity of

ball much higher
FRICTION RETWEEN SURFACES than feather's
low LIMITING FRICTION
Limiting friction musl be
overcome before surfaces can
move over each other. Smooth
surfaces produce little friction.
Onlj a small amount of force
isneeded lo break the bonds
between atoms.
.
I

mass
-kg
Vewton meter
measures
limiting friction
3-Nforce just
overcomes friction

#
Smooth plexiglass surface
produces little friction

Itomsform weak bonds

between the tiro surfaces

Smooth surface
ofplexiglass

MICROSCOPIC VIEW
HIGH LIMITING FRICTION 6-Nforce just
Rougher surfaces produce a largei overcomes friction
friction force. Stronger bonds are
Wewton meter
made between the two surfaces measures
and more energ) is needed lo limitingfriction
break them. The mass requires
a large force lo slide
tndpaper.

Lower surface of
I -kg mass
[tomsform strong
bonds between the
tiro surfaces

Irregular surface of
sandpaper
i
ipt rsui MICROSCOPIC VIEW
limi
 LUBRICATION
MOTORCYCLE BRAKE The presence of oil or another fluid between two surfaces
Friction is put to good use keeps the surfaces apart. Because fluids (liquids or gases)

V in the disk

force
brakes of a
motorcycle. The friction
between disk and
flow, they allow movement between surfaces. Here, a
lubricated kilogram mass slides down a slope, while an
unlubricated one is prevented from moving by friction.
brake pad slows down
the rotation of the wheel,
Lfnlubricated mass
reducing the vehicle's remains stationary
speed. In doing so, it Patch of oil
converts the kinetic - reduces friction
High fi-iction prevents '

energy of the vehicle

into heat (see p. 7).
mass from moving

Brake pad (inside

Piston caliper unit)

Caliper unit Metal brake disk Inclined plane

BALL BEARINGS
Bearings are a type of
rollerused to reduce
frictionbetween moving
machine parts such as a
wheel and its axle. As a
wheel turns on its axle,
the balls roll around
inside the bearing,
drastically reducing the
Lubricated mass
friction between wheel moves down slope
and axle.

race

ROLLERS

THE ACTION OF A ROLLER ON A SLOPE

Friction causes the roller to grip the slope so that it turns. If there
were no friction, the roller would simply slide down the slope.

Roller

Force down
the slope

Flat surface
USING ROLLERS TO AVOID FRICTION
Rollers placed between two surfaces keep the surfaces apart. The rollers Friction forces between surfaces Mass mores
allow the underside of the kilogram mass to move freely over the ground create a turning force that smoothly
An object placed on rollers will move smoothl} if pushed or pulled. turns the rollers over surface

15

\
 . ,

AN INCLINED PLANE

Simple machines The

less
force needed to drag an object up a slope is
than that needed to lift it vertically. However,
the distance moved by the object is greater when
pulled up the slope than if it were lifted vertically.
In PHYSICS, A MACHINE IS ANY DEVICE that can be used to transmit a
force (see pp. 10-11) and, in doing so, change its size or direction.
When using a simple pulley, a type of machine, a person can lift a
load by pulling downward on the rope. By using several pulleys
connected together as a block and tackle, the size of the force can
be changed too, so that a heavy load can be lifted using a small
force. Other simple machines include the inclined plane, the lever,
the screw, and the wheel and axle. All of these machines illustrate
the concept of work. Work is the amount of energy expended
when a force is moved through a distance. The force applied
to a machine is called the effort, while the force it overcomes
is called the load. The effort is often smaller than the
load, for a small effort can overcome a heavy load
Inclined Tension
if the effort is moved through a larger distance. plane force
The machine is then said to give a mechanical
Turning force (effort)
advantage. Although the effort will be smaller
when using a machine, the amount of work SCREW
done, or energy used, will be equal to A screw is like an inclined plane
Ax wrapped around a shaft. The
handle or greater than that without force that turns the screw is
the machine. converted to a larger one, which
moves a shorter distance and
drives the screw in.

Screw thread
unraveled
WEDGE Metal ax
The ax is a wedge. The applied
blade
force moves a long way into the
wood, producing a larger force,
which pushes the wood apart
a short distance.
Small force
applied

Screw is pulled into wood with

force greater than the effort

CORKSCREW
Block of The corkscrew a clever combination of several
is
wood different machines. The screw pulls its way into the
cork, turned by a wheel and axle. The cork is lifted
by a pair of class one levers (see opposite).

Large force l-< i

:
J food
produced splits
apart
;

v"-"*kI '
ill I* ,

Sri I W
1
II pf
tiflf Handle and
shaft form a
wheel and axle

Neck of Screw
bottle

16

M
 PULLEYS

Pulley Rope is Rope is

wheel attached to attached to

upper pulley upper pulley

Load shared
between ropes Load shared
between
Newton
four ropes
Lower meter
Newton pulley
meter- wheel

I -kg mas

W-N weight (load)

W-Nforce W-N weight (load)
(effort). J-Nforce (effort)
2 .5 -N force (effort)^

SIMPLE PULLEY DOUBLE PULLEY Ql VDRIPLE PULLEY

A simple pulley changes I lie direction of a force \ double pullej will lift a one-kg mass with Lifting a one-kg mass with a quadruple pulley,
but not its size. Mere a one-kg mass, weighing only a Bve-newton effort, because the force in which the rope goes over four pulley

ten newtons, is lifted by a ten-new (on force. in the rope doubles up as the rope does. wheels, feels almost effortless. However,
The mass and the other end of the rope However, pulling the rope by one meter pulling the rope by one meter lifts the mass
move through the same distance. only raises the mass by half a meter. by only one quarter of a meter.

THREE CLASSES OF LEVER

CLASS ONE LEVER
In a class one lever, the fulcrum (pivot point) is between the effort and the load. WHEEL AND AXLE
The load is larger than (he effort, but il moves through a smaller distance. \s the pedal and chainwheel of a bicycle turn through one
revolution, the pedal mm es farther than the links of the chain.
Wort, Load For this reason, the force applied to the chain is greater than
Effort
Ihe force applied to the pedal. The steering wheel of a car is
Load another example of a wheel and axle.

(f the pedal were on a shorter

crank it would be more
Fulcrum Fulcrum difficult to turn the pedal ,

CLASS TWO LEVER

In a class two lever. Hie load is between the fulcrum and effort. Mere again, the
load is greater than the effort and il moves through a smaller distance.

Fulcrum Effort ,

Load
Fulcrum
Effort

Load

CLASS THREE LEVER

In a class three lever, the effort is between the fulcrum and the load. In this case,
the load is less than Hie effort but it moves through a greater distance.

Load Effort

L 4
Effort
Fulcrum
(main
 —

CENTRIPETAL FORCE

Circular motion In the experiment below, centripetal force is provided by

tension in a length of string, which keeps a 1-kg mass
moving in a circle. The mass can move freely as it floats like
a hovercraft on the jets of air supplied from beneath it. When
WHEN AN OBJECT MOVES IN A CIRCLE, its direction is continuously the circle is twice as large, half the force is needed. However,
moving twice as fast requires four times the force (see p. 54).
changing. Any change in direction requires a force (see pp. 12-13).
The force required to maintain circular motion is called CONTROL EXPERIMENT
centripetal force. The size of this force depends on the size of Speed of Radius of
the circleand the mass and speed of the object (see p. 54). The object 1 ms'L circle 0.2 m
centripetal force that keeps an object whirling around on the end
of a string caused by tension (see pp. 24-25) in the string. When
is

the centripetal force ceases —

for example, if the string breaks
the object flies off in a straight line, since no force is acting upon
it. Gravity (see pp. 10-11) is the centripetal force that keeps

planets such as the Earth in orbit around the Sun. Without this
1-kg Frictionless \ Air
centripetal force, the Earth would move in a straight line through
mass table hole
space. On a smaller scale, without friction to provide centripetal
5-/V tension
force, a motorcyclist could not steer around a corner. Spinning, a provides the
form of circular motion, gives gyroscopes stability. centripetal
force.

MOTION IN A CIRCLE TWICE THE SPEED, FOUR TIMES THE FORCE

Speed of Radius of
ASPECTS OF CIRCULAR MOTION object 2 ms 1 circle 0.2 m
The force that continuously changes the direction of an object moving in a circle
is called centripetal force. It is directed toward the center of the circle. The
smaller the radius of the circle, the larger the force needed.

Object moves Direction of

in a circle motion at
one instant
Circular
path
Centripetal 1-kg
force acts mass
toward
center of
20-N centripetal
circle
Direction Higher speed
requires greater
of motion
centripetal force
changes
continuously. Radius determines
force required

HAMMER THROWER
Tension muscles provides the centripetal force needed to whirl a
in
TWICE THE RADIUS, HALF THE FORCE
hammer around in a circle. When the thrower releases the chain, no Speed of y 1-kg , Radius of
force acts upon the hammer and it moves off in a straight line. object circle 0. 4 m
ms

Hammer
t 1

thrower
Hammer
moves in a
straight line
Chain

Hammer

2.5-N
Larger radius centripetal
Hummer moves
in a circle M requires smaller
centripetal force
force
 PLANETARY ORBITS Gravity provides the
centripetal force
GRAVITATIONAL FORCES Orbital
The orbit of a planet around the path
Sun is an ellipse (like a flattened
circle). Centripetal force is
needed to keep the planets from
moving off in a straight line into Gravitational
outer space. Gravity provides force on lenus
Gravitational Sun
this centripetal force. It acts force on the Earth
toward the center of the Solar
System, the Sun. Venus is
roughly the same mass as the
Earth, but travels much faster.
This is possible because Venus Earth
is closer to the Sun, so the force Orbital speed
of gravity, and therefore the oflenus:
centripetal force, is much 34,900 ms'
greater (see p. 54). Orbital speed of the Distance of Earth
Earth: 29,X00 ins' Distance oflenus to the Sun:
to the Sun: 149
108 billion meters
billion meters
GYROSCOPE
,
Bearing
Gyroscope
TURNING A CORNER precesses Metal

FRICTION
One of the forces acting on a motorcycle as it turns a corner
is the centripetal force caused by the friction between the
tires and the road. Without this friction, for example on
an icy surface, a motorcycle would simply continue in a
straight line.

Spinnin
Rider leans into wheel
curve to balance
centripetal force

JsA
WGl'FVR MOMENTUM
Any spinning object, like a
Plastic
wheel or a lop. will behave
Eviction force stand
like agyroscope. Once spinning,
increases
a gyroscope possesses angular
with the
momentum. This gives the
sideways gyroscope stability. The force of
direction iii a\ acting on the gj roscope
it\

will not topple it. \s gravity tries

Friction occurs
to tilt the axis, its axis moves at
between tires and
right angles to gravity's force.
road
This causes a motion called
precession, in which the axis
No friction force acts traces a small circle.
in sideways direction

Motorbike
moves in a
straight line
 .

PENDULUM

Waves and
An oscillation is any motion back AND FORTH, such as that of
oscillations
Bob is
String

displaced
a pendulum. When that motion travels through matter or space, it
to the left Tension in
becomes a wave. An oscillation, or vibration, occurs when a force acts the string
that pulls a displaced object back to its equilibrium position, and the
Restoring force
size of this force increases with the size of the displacement. A mass Forces are is the resultant
on a spring, for example, is acted upon by two forces: gravity and not balanced
of the weight
the tension (see pp. 28-29) in the spring. At the point of equilibrium,
and the tension

the resultant (see pp. 10-11) of these forces is zero: they cancel Momentum
Pendulum bob
each other out. At all other points, the resultant force acts in a of the bob
takes it
direction that restores the object to its equilibrium. This results through the
in the object moving back and forth, or oscillating, about that equilibrium
force pulls position
position. Vibration is very common, and results in the phenomenon
bob back to
of sound. In air, the vibrations that cause sound are transmitted equilibrium
position
as a wave between air molecules; many other substances -

transmit sound in a similar way.

WAVES IN SPRINGS
Equilibrium
position *- Weight
of bob
TRANSVERSE WAVE Energy travels along spring LONGITUDINAL WAVE
Spring Rarefaction

<

'

Spring Compression Energy- travels along spring

Wavelength I
Amplitude

A
OSCILLATION
MOTION OF MASS ON SPRING MOTION OF MASS ON SPRING, MASS SEEN IN ISOLATION
The mass shown (below left) is in equilibrium. The two forces
first
—
acting on it its weight and the tension in the spring exactly cancel — Wave nature of motion
each other out. The mass is given an initial downward push. Once the A becomes apparent A
A^l_
AA
mass is displaced downward (below center), the tension in the spring
exceeds the weight. The resultant upward force accelerates the mass back
up toward its original position, by which lime it has momentum, carrying
it farther upward. When the weight exceeds the tension in the spring
mass
4 I Appears as
*Aa* A a

(below right), the mass is pulled down again. This cycle repeats. i

transverse wave

Spring

Tension 10 N
Tension in the Tension in
spring increases spring now
1-kg mass at as the mass is less than 10 N
equilibrium displaced and
I -kg mass
position now exceeds ION
Net downward
Forces cancel
restoring force
out 1-kg mass
Mass will remain at Mass will slow to
The forces no
equilibrium
longer balance a stop and move
and there is a downward
Weight is ION net upward
re storing force Weight ION

Weight ION
Ring stand Ring stand Ring stand

20
 SOUND AS VIBRATION OF THE AIR
PROPAGATION OF SOUND Air molecules
A vibrating such as the tuning fork shown here, causes variations
object, The compression trace Is closer than
in pressure in the surrounding air. Areas of high and low pressure, as a wave at about usual
known as compressions and rarefactions, propagate (move) through 330 meters
the air as sound waves. The sound waves meet a microphone, and per second
create electrical oscillations displayed on an oscilloscope.
High-pressure area
Low-pressure area
(compression)
(rarefaction)

Tuningfork
produces Sound
sound wave

COMPRESSION
Microphone produces
electrical oscillations

Cable takes Have has a

I electrical signal I frequency
to oscilloscope j of 440 f/z
Pressure variations
move outward
from tuningfork
Wavelength
Prongs of
fork vibrate
at 440 times

J
each second

Tuningfork
rated at 440
iirmolecules
farther apart
than usual.
M*1 %
Compressions and
rarefactions reach
the microphone

Oscilloscope
(cathode ray
oscilloscope)/
Maximum
points of wave
correspond to
1

Minimum
points of wave
correspond to
hertz (Hz) RAREFACTION compression rarefaction

NOTES PRODUCED BY COLUMNS OF AIR

FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH LOUDSPEAKER
The distance between each compression of a sound wave is called its \ changing is fed to the voice coil of a
electrical signal
wavelength. Sound waves with a short wavelength have a high frequency loudspeaker, which within the magnetic field of a
lies
and sound high-pitched. The Frequencj of a note is the number of permanent magnet. The signal in the coil causes it to
vibrations each second, and is measured in hertz (Hz). The columns of behave like an electromagnet (sec pp. 54-55), making
air in these jars produce different notes when air is blown over them. it push against the held of the permanent magnet. The

speaker cone is then pushed in and out b\ the coil in time

lirblown across with the signal.
I he top of the jar
produces sound If the signal is from a sound

recording the original sound

Large variations
trill he reproduced
in pressure Large variations
in pressure
Half of one
wavelength Half of one / bice coil
Collai
wavelength
Air column
0.1 4- m Ions
iir column
0.28-m long

\ No variations No variations Speaker

in pressure in pressure cone is
pushed in

Sound Sound and out to

produced has produced has produce

afrequency oj sound
afrequency of
about 1,240 Hz about 62() Hz
and sounds and sounds
high-pitched lower pitched

Colored Narrow Permanent

water glass jai magnet
Terminal

2\
 RANGE OF TEMPERATURES

Heat and temperature About 14 million A

(14 million °C,
25 million °F):
Heat IS a FORM OF ENERGY (see pp. 6-7). This energy is the kinetic energy of Center of the Sun.

the atoms and molecules that make up all matter. The temperature of a substance
is related to the average kinetic energy of its particles. Units of temperature
30,000K
include the degree Celsius('C), the degree Fahrenheit ("F), and the Kelvin (R).
(30,000°C,
Some examples of equivalent values are shown below. At absolute zero 54,000°F):
Average bolt
(zero R), particles of matter do not vibrate, but at all other temperatures,
of lightning
particles have some motion. The state of a substance is determined by its JD-V

temperature and most substances can exist as a solid (see pp. 24-25), a >,800K (5,530"C, 10,000"F):
Surface of the Sun
liquid (see pp. 26-27), or a gas (see pp. 28-29). If two substances at
U
different temperatures make contact, their particles will share their 3J00K (3,027 C; S,480°F):
Metals can be welded
energy. This results in a heat transfer by conduction, until the
temperatures are equal. This process can melt a solid, in which 1.808K (1,535"C, 2,795°F):
case the heat transferred is called latent heat. Heat can also be Melting point of iron
transferred by radiation, in which heat energy becomes
electromagnetic radiation (see pp. 38-39), and does not need /^ j 933K (660"C, 1,220'F):
Natural gas flame
a material medium to transfer heat
600k (327"C\ 620"F): TEMPERATURE SCALES
Melting point of lead All temperature scales
73K (-200"C, 184K (-89"C, -128'F): 273.1 5K(0°C, 32'F): except the Kelvin scale
-328°F):Air Earth's lowest (R) need two or more
Freezing point of
523R (250°C, 482'F): reference temperatures,
liquifies temperature water Wood burns such as boiling water and
melting ice. Under
controlled conditions,
4S7K(184°C,363°F):
these two temperatures
Paper ignites
are fixed.

73.15K(100"C,212"F):
i ling point of water

'0K(-273.15"C, 234K(-39°C, 33 IK (58"C, 136°F):

-459.67°F): -38.2"F): Earth's highest
Absolute zero Freezing point temperature GAS
of mercury Heat energy applied to a liquid allows
become free of each other and
particles to
become a gas. However if enough energy
is removed from a gas, by cooling, it

STATES OF MATTER condenses to a liquid.

SUPERCOOLED LIQUID
The particles of a
supercooled liquid are Sublimation Evaporation
in fixed positions, like (solid to gas or
(liquid to gas)
those of a solid, but they gas to solid)
are disordered and
cannot be called a true Condensation
solid. Supercooled
(gas to liquid)
liquids flow like liquids,
but very slowly, and
thej have no definite
melting point. Crystallization Supercooling
(glass to solid) (liquid to glass)

SOLID LIQUID
The particles of a solid Particles in a liquid do
normally have no motion not occupy fixed
relative to each other, as positions like those in
they are only free to vibrate a solid, but neither are
about a fixed position. An they completely free,
input of energy breaks the as in a gas. The particles
bonds between particles, Freezing Melting (solid or move over one another,
and the solid melts. SOLID MATTER (liquid to solid) glass to liquid) LIQUID allowing a liquid to flow.

22
 EQUALIZATION OF TEMPERATURES
OBJECTS AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES TRANSFER OF HEAT
The particles of objects at different When two objects at different temperatures are
temperatures have different kinetic energies. brought into contact, a transfer of kinetic-
The colors of the blocks below are an — —
energy in the form of heat takes place.
indication of their temperature. Here, the hot and cold blocks are touching.
EQUAL TEMPERATURES
Eventually, the average kinetic energies of
particles in two touching objects become equal.
The temperatures of the two objects are then
said to be equal, as shown by the blocks below.

Hot
object $ — Reading
of 104.5° C
i Reading
of-9.3°C
Reading #
of81°C^S
Reading
,Cool object
Reading i
of47.TC/y
Reading
of4i.rc/y
J
gains heat

Heat is

transferred from
Hot
hot to cold
object
loses heat
energy Blocks at the same
Cool temperature
object

BLOCKS SEPARATED BLOCKS IN CONTACT NO FURTHER HEAT TRANSFER

Atoms in hot block Atoms in cool object Vb further net
have high energy gain kinetic energy heat transfer

499 Atoms
cool block
in
9 999 9 9 9^4
999 999 vibrate a 99999999 99999999
999 little
00999999 The kinetic 9999999^
999 999 Atoms in hot
object lose 09900099 energy is shared.
—999999
999 kinetic energy Q £

MOLECULAR VIEW MOLECULAR MEW MOLECULAR VIEW

LATENT HEAT TRANSFER OF HEAT BY RADIATION
An object at room temperature produces radiation
HEATING A SUBSTANCE MELTING A SUBSTANCE
called infrared radiation. A hot object, such as the lamp
Heat transferred from a hot At the melting point, the supplied energj must
flame to a cooler substance break the attraction between all the particles, below, produces a lot of infrared. This radiation can heat
can cause the substance melting all the solid, before the temperature up oilier objects. The hot object cools as it loses energy
as radiation.
to melt. The temperature will rise again. This extra supplied energj is
of the substance (here, called latent heat. Metal block at
naphthalene) rises room temperature
with the transfer of
more energy, until
it reaches the

melting point.

Temperature stays the

same during melting Desk lamp

Temperature of
filament about
2,5 00K (about
2.2(H) "C)

Radiation
absorbed b}
particles in
the block

RADIATION
 STEEL RAILS
Solids The expansion of a solid with an increase in
temperature (see below) would cause rails
to buckle badly in hot weather. To prevent

THE ATOMS OF A SOLID ARE CLOSELY PACKED, giving it a greater density this, rails are made in sections. The gap
between the two sections allows each
than most liquids, and all gases. A solid's rigidity derives from the strong section to expand without buckling.
attraction betweenatoms. A force pulling on a solid moves these
its Train can pass smoothly Expansion
atoms farther apart, creating an opposing force called tension. If a over diagonal joint I

joint

force pushes on a solid, the atoms move closer together, creating

compression. Temperature (see pp. 22-23) can also affect the nature
of a solid. When the temperature of a solid increases, its particles gain
kinetic energy and vibrate more vigorously, resulting in thermal
expansion. Most solids are crystals, in which atoms are arranged
in
one of seven regular, repeating patterns (see below). Amorphous
solids, such as glass, are not composed of crystals and can be molded
into any shape. When the atoms of a solid move apart, the length of
the solid increases. The extent of this increase depends on the applied
force and the thickness of the material, and is known as elasticity.

THERMAL EXPANSION
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THERMAL EXPANSION Metal atoms ibration

• •Of
/

When a substance is heated, atoms gain kinetic

its gain energy around lire (I
energy. In a solid, this results in the atoms vibrating point
more vigorously about their fixed positions. As a The higher- the
result, solids expand when heated. Below, a thin
steel rod is heated by a gas flame, and the resulting
expansion is measured using a micrometer.

Micrometer measures
temperature,
the greater
the vibration^
—•• MICROSCOPIC VIEW
Steel rod pushes
against rigid block

small increase in length

'Thin steel
rod.

Clamp Clamp
Gas
flame
Bunsen
burner
EXTERNAL FEATURES
The seven crystal systems
are based on the external
THE SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
shapes of crystals, but
The unit cell of each crystal system has an identifiable form, based on
they also correspond to
hypothetical axes composed by joining up the particles of the cell. A group
the arrangement of
of unit cells form a crystal lattice.
atoms within. The basic
arrangement that is
repeated in the crystal is
called the unit cell.
Axes
equcd
90" angle Unequal A 90" angle

Axes equal

90" angle / ^,90" angle

90" angle \ 90° angle

90" angle
90" angle -

i£=t?
A CUBIC SYSTEM TETRAGONAL SYSTEM ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM
Moms cubic system are
iu a All of theangles within the cell All of theangles within the cell
equally spaced, and the angle are 90° and, of the three axes are 90", but none of the three
between each axis of the (shown in black), two are the axes (shown in black) is
repeating cell is always 90°. same length. equal in length.
 ,

Wooden SOLIDS EXTEND

Hook support
UNDER TENSION

<
ATOMS IN ATOMS IN RUBBER ATOMS UNDER
LiNEX TENDED RUBBER UNDER TENSION GREATER TENSION

+++++ <<

+ + +.+.+H Thick rubber

strip

Strip is twice
Atoms in Bonds Bonds Atoms in as thick as
Rubber slrip rubber between between rubber- thin strip
move atoms atoms move apart
apart extend extend Rubber strip
Length of slrip farther nine has
15 cm Rubber strip length of
original length now has length force would 1 7 cm
of rubber strip of 1 9 cm break bonds

Rubber slrip Extension

Extension of 2-kg mass
now has length 2 cm
rubber 2 cm (weight 20 N)
of 17 cm

Much larger Join Extension of

would break the rubber 4 cm
EXPERIMENT TO TEST ELASTICITY material
An elastic substance is a solid
that gels larger (extends) under
tension, gets smaller under
compression, and returns to its
original size when no force acts
on it. All nonamorphous solids
are to a certain extent elastic. This
experiment, which tests rubber
under different degrees of tension,
shows that twice the tension force
results in twice the extension.

I -kg mass 2-kg mass

(weight 10 N) (weight 20 \) CROSS-SECTION \L VRE V

Another factor involved in

elasticity is the cross-sectional
area of the material involved. The
thick rubber strip (above) extends
less under the same tension than
the thinner one (above left).
All three
120" angle angles
different
No axes
equal

W" angle
No angles
Two axes
equal
equal
90"
angle ill axes

equal

MONOCLINIC SYSTEM HEXAGONAL SYSTEM TRIGONAL SYSTEM TRICLINIC SYSTEM

Two of the axes of the cell meet at The edges form angles of 120" and No two edges meet No two edges meet at 90". No
90". No two axes (shown in black) 90°. Two of the three axes (shown at 90". All of the edges are two axes (shown in black) are
are equal in length. in black) arc equal in length. equal in length. equal in length.
 LIQUID DROPS AND BUBBLES

Liquids Surface
tension ,
COHESIVE FORCES
No resultant force acts on any particle
within the liquid, because cohesive
UNLIKE SOLIDS, LIQUIDS CAN FLOW. Their particles forces pull it in every direction. But
at the surface, the resultant force
move almost independently of each other but are on each particle pulls it inward.
not as free as the particles of a gas. Forces of This causes surface tension,
between the which pulls drops and bubbles
attraction called cohesive forces act
into spheres. A water drop on
particles of a liquid. These forces create surface a surface will be flattened
slightly by gravity.
tension, which pulls liquid drops into a spherical
shape. If the surface tension of water is reduced
by dissolving soap in then pockets of air can
it, Cohesive Curved
forces act in surface Surface
stretch the surface into a thin film, forming a bubble. all directions, of drop particle
Forces of attraction between liquid particles and
adjoining matter are called adhesive forces. The
balance between cohesive and adhesive forces causes
SPHERICAL SOAP BUBBLE
capillary action, and the formation of a meniscus curve
Curved surface Particle
at the boundary between a liquid and its container. within
of drop
Liquids exert pressure on any object immersed in liquid

them; the pressure acts in all directions and increases

with depth, creating upthrust on an immersed object.
If the upthrust is large enough, the object will float. W ATER DROP ON A SURFACE SURFACE TENSION

LIQUIDS IN TUBES
Narrow 0.5-mm MENISCUS
CAPILLARY ACTION capillary tube 4-rnin diameter Where a liquid meets a solid surface, a curve
Water adheres to glass. This glass tube called ameniscus forms. The shape of the
adhesion can lift water up into a
meniscus depends on the balance between
glass tube; an effect known as
cohesive and adhesive forces.
capillary action.
. 5-mm diameter DOWNWARD MENISCUS
glass tube
Mater
Water is higher in a
lifted level
narrow tube than in a wide Narrow tube.
one because the narrow -Glass
column of water weighs less Hater
Downward
Shallow meniscus forms
glass dish
because adhesion
is stronger than

cohesion
Body of liquid Water drop

If all of glass tube

MOLECULAR VIEW
Capillary action
>.+. Molecules of
UPWARD MENISCUS
is

...
caused by adhesive
and cohesive forces
between particles of
glass and water. Here,
..
>..-
the glass

Water
upward by
is pulled
Narrow tube.

water molecules |
adhesive forces . Glass
adhere to glass and Upward meniscus
the adhesive force lifts
the edge of the water ... Water
[molecules
forms because
cohesion is
up the glass. The
cohesive forces
... Cohesive forces
stronger than
adhesion
between water pull other water
molecules means that molecules up
this lifted edge also Drop of
raises wati molecules
lying farther out from
the edge of the glass.
... fr*?*** mercury
 PRESSURE INCREASES WITH DEPTH
UPTHRUST ON IMMERSED ORJECTS The pressure at any point in a liquid depends on the weight
of liquid above that point. So pressure increases with depth.
Liquids exert pressure on immersed objects,
resulting in an upward resultant force called
upthrust. The upthrust is equal to the weight of
iquid displaced by the immersed object. Here, a 1-kg
A In the experiment shown below w ater from a large tank
,

escapes through holes at various depths. The greater the

pressure, the faster the water escapes.

mass, weighing 10 N in air, displaces water weighing

The pressure of a
1.2 N. Consequently the apparent weight of
liquidis measured in
the submerged mass is 8.8 N (10 N - 1.2 N). Newton
newtons per square
meter
8.8-N meter (Nnv2)
tO-N reading
Water level reading
IJ (tier displaced rises as Atmospheric
Newton by immersed object is
pressure above
meter object immersed the water's
surface is
100,000 Ym -__

Pan Pressure gauge

Weight of Clear plastic

water 1.2 N tank

Scale graded Pressure al

in newtons 0.1 -m depth is
101,000 \mi
OBJECT SUSPENDED
IN AIR OBJECT IMMERSED IN WATER Only a
dribble
UPTHRUST AT WORK
If the upthrust on an object is greater than the weight of the object, then of water
the object will float. Large metal ships float, because their shape means escapes
that they displace huge amounts of water, producing a large upthrust.

3 2T

Hater
escapes
quickly
\ Metal hull I pthrust force from the water equals the
downward force of the ship's weight

THE WATER JETS Pressure at

The water coming from the lank breaks into
in the jets 0.2-m depth i
(hops as falls. Surface tension pulls the water into drops
it
102.000 \mi
as the jet weakens and cohesive forces keep the drops in
a near spherical shape. When Hie drops fall into the tray,
they form a pool. Unlike solids, liquids can flow, so under
Pressure (d
the influence of gravity the surface of this pool becomes
0.i-m depth is
flat and horizontal.
103,000 Nm2
^

II ater pressure

greatest al I

of the lank
Clear
plexiglass
Gases
shield A GAS COMPRISES INDEPENDENT PARTICLES— atoms or molecules— in random
motion. This means that a gas will any container into which it is placed.
fill

If two different gases are allowed meet, the particles of the gases will mix
to
together. This process is known as diffusion. Imagine a fixed mass of gas that —
is, a fixed number of gas particles. It will occupy a particular amount of space,
or volume, often confined by a container. The particles of the gas will be in
constant, random motion. The higher the temperature of the gas (see pp. 22-23),
the faster the particles move. The bombardment of particles against the sides of
the container produces pressure
DIFFUSION
(see pp. 10-11). Three simple The random movement of gas particles ensures that any
laws describe the predictable two gases sharing Hie same container will totally mix. This
is diffusion. In the experiment below, the lower gas jar
behavior of gases. They are contains bromine, the top one air.
Boyle's Law, the Pressure
Law, and Charles' Law. Each Random
Random motion motion of the
of the gas laws describes leads to random molecules
a relationship between mixing of the leads to the
molecules. complete
the pressure, volume, mixing of air
and temperature of a gas. Mr and bromine-
Slip separating
air from bromine
Some
BOYLE'S LAW removed
bromine
The volume of a mass
of gas at a fixed mores into
temperature will change in relation to the air and
the pressure. If the pressure on a gas mixes with it
increases, its volume will decrease.
The apparatus on the left is used to Some mores
cur
illustrate Boyle's Law. A foot pump bromine
into the
is used to push a column of oil up and mixes with it
a sealed lube, reducing the volume
occupied by the gas in the top part of
Bromine
the tube.
gas ^MP
Pressure is measured GRAPH OF PRESSURE AND
at various volumes VOLUME READINGS
and the results are
shown as a graph
-
Doubling
30
the pressurt
halves the
25
volume

20

15 -

After each
100 120 160 180 200
pressure
change, Pressure (x 1,000 Nm 2
)

apparatus
is alio iced
to revert
to room
temperature

Connecting pipe
 PRESSURE LAW CHARLES' LAW
The pressure exerted by a gas at constant volume increases as the temperature The volume mass of gas at a fixed pressure depends on
of a
of the gas rises. The apparatus shown is used to verify the Pressure Law. A mass its temperature. The higher the temperature, the greater the

of gas is heated in a water hath, and the pressure of the gas measured. When volume. The apparatus shown is used to illustrate Charles'
plotted as points on a graph the results lie on a straight line. Law. The volume of a gas sample in the glass bulh is noted
at various temperatures. A graph shows the results.
Doubling the temperature GRAPH OF PRESSURE AND
doubles the pressure
TEMPERATURE READINGS
Thermometer
. Opening clip keeps
measures
I, pressure of gas
temperature
sample constant
of the water
bath
(

Reservoir tube can

be used to supply
gas other than air
0. 100

300 310 320 340

Temperature (K)
II (iter stirrer
ensures
water is at
an even
temperature

Glass
Thermometei sphere
enclosing
gas
sample
I olume
M ire of gas I later
mesh measured
against scale

Bunsen Temperature ofgas is Bourdon

burnei the same as that of gauge
water bath measures
gas pressure

Class beakei

HOT AIR BALLOON CHARLES' LAW

- l\ ACTION
The air in the envelope of a
hot air balloon is heated by a Hire
gas burner. As its temperature mesh
rises, the gas expands in
accordance with Charles'
Law. The envelope is open
al the bottom, so some hot
air escapes. Because air has
mass (and therefore weight),
the balloon weighs less
Tripod
once some air has escaped,
although its volume is still
large. The pressure of the air
GRAPH OF TEMPER V IT RE \M)
outside the envelope produces
\ Oil ME READINGS
an upthrust, which, if enough
airhas been lost from the
34
envelope, will be great temperature
enough to lift the balloon. doubles the volume
32

Envelope
30
Hot air escapes
Gas burnei
Basket
290 300 310 320 330 340 350

Temperature (K)

29
Electricity and magnetism
ALL ELECTRICAL EFFECTS ARE CAUSED by electric charges. ELECTRIC FIELDS AND FORCES
Charges of the same type repel, while charges of a different
There are two types of electric charge, positive and negative.
type attract. One way to think of an electric field is as a set
These charges exert electrostatic forces on each other. An of lines of force, as illustrated below.
Charges attract
electric field is the region in which these forces have effect.
In atoms, protons (see pp. 48-49) carry positive charge, while
electrons carry negative charge. Atoms are normally neutral,
having equal numbers of each charge, but an atom can gain or
lose electrons, for example by being rubbed. It then becomes a
charged atom, or ion. Ions can be produced continuously by a
Van de Graaff generator. Ions in a charged object may cause
another nearby object to become charged. This process is called
induction. Electricity has many similarities with magnetism
(see pp. 34-35). For example, the lines of the electric field
between charges (see right) take the same form as lines of
magnetic force (see opposite), so magnetic fields are equivalent
to electric fields. Iron consists of small magnetized regions
called domains. If the magnetic directions of the domains in a
piece of iron line up, the iron becomes magnetized.
TWO DIFFERENT CHARGES Charges repel
each other
STATIC ELECTRICITY
GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE INDUCTION
A polyethylene rod can gain extra When a charged object is brought near to other materials,
, electrons when it is rubbed. Touching such as paper, electrostatic forces cause a displacement
Electrons
the charged rod to the top of an of charge within that material. This is called induction.
electroscope causes electrons to move
pushed by Negative charges in the paper are displaced so the
into the electroscope. The electrons in
extra electrons Metal edge of the paper nearest the rod becomes positively
the central strip and in the gold leaf in rod (do/ns charged and clings to the negatively charged rod.
f
repel each other, and the leaf lifts.

Polyethylene Charged
Charged rod. polyethylene
polyethylene rod Electrons rod
touches top transfer— Paper clings
Metal top to rod

Meted top
»

TRANSFER OF CHARGE
«>
Electrons
push apart
Glass case Small pieces Rod has overall
to stop air Electron of paper negative charge
currents
Molecule Edge of
Central
in paper paper
strip . Charges in
molecules
Thin gold shift
leaf-

Leaf is \ Positive end

lifted
attracted to
REPULSIVE FORCE rod
Gold leaf
Deflection Positively
scale charged end
of molecule

INDUCTION IN PAPER
 VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR
Metal Electrons jump from metal GENERATION OF IONS
dome_ objects neutralizing A Van de Graaff generator separates electrons from
positive ions in the dome, the atoms of a moving belt. The positive ions
appearing as a spark created are carried upward by the belt, and take
electrons from atoms of a metal dome. The electric
Voltage of field around the dome becomes very strong.

tens of
thousands
of volts

Millions of
Metal object
positive ions
brought
Metal
near dome
dome
Rotation
of belt

Metal Positively charged belt

Pulley
support strips negative charges
wheel
dome via
(electrons) from
metal comb, giving dome
Insulating column
a positive charge
prevents charge from
Moving rubber leaking away
belt gains a
positive charge

Positive metal comb

strips negative
charges (electrons) Negatively charged
from belt metal plate

Base unit Connection to Puller wheel

containing positive electrical
motor supply

Connection Rotation
to negative of belt
electrical supply

MAGNETISM
MAGNETIC COMPASS M 1GNETIC FIELDS VND FORCES
Walkers and magnetic compasses
sailors use
Iron Pi ofde of South-seeking seeking
to find their way. The needle of a compass lines magnetic
filings
up with the Earth's magnetic field, and always field
points North-South. The Earth's magnetism is

thought to be caused by currents in its molten

iron core.

Needle is a small Needle is

Every magnet
magnet that is suspended has two ends
or- poles
free to turn in fluid

Bar- \orlh- Like .North- Opposite

magnet sceking poles seeking poles
pole repel pole attract

MAGNET DOMAINS
Direction of magnetization
Direction of within domain has aligned
magnetization
within domain Domain aligned with
magnetization has grown
is random
Domain not aligned
Domain _ with magnetization
Domain has shrunk
Bearing
readings art boundary. Direction of overall
takenfrom magnetization
this scab UNMAGNETIZED IRON MAGNETIZED IRON
 V 1

Electric circuits ELECTRIC CURRENT

Regions of positive or negative charge, such as those at the
terminals of a battery, force electrons through a conductor.
A\ ELECTRIC CIRCUIT IS SIMPLY THE COURSE along which an The electrons move from negative charge toward positive.
Originally, current was thought to flow from positive to
electric current flows. Electrons carry negative charge and can
negative. This is called "conventional current."
be moved around a circuit by electrostatic forces (see pp. 30-31).
A circuit usually consists of a conductive material, such as a Direction of
Metal "conventional
metal, where the electrons are held very loosely to their atoms, wire current"
thus making movement possible. The strength of the electro-
Free
static force is the voltage, and is measured in volts (V). The
resulting movement of electric charge is called an electric ! electrons

current, and is measured in amps (A). The higher the voltage,

the greater the current will be. But the current also depends !
on the thickness, length, temperature, and nature of the
material that conducts it. The resistance of a material is the ^p
which it opposes the flow of electric current, and is
extent to Direction of
clcclron tlou
measured in ohms (Q). Good conductors have a low resistance,
which means that a small voltage will produce a large current. In Electrons more from Metal
negative to positive atom
batteries, the dissolving of a metal electrode causes the freeing
of electrons, resulting in their movement to another electrode
and the formation of a current. RESISTANCE
OHMS LAW
A thin wire has a resistance to the flow of current. The
22 Q RESISTANCE
longer and thinner the wire, the higher the resistance.
Electrical components called
Current flowing resistors allow current in
An object's resistance can be worked out by dividing
through resistor: circuits to be controlled. The
the voltage by the current (see p. 54).
0.1S I current flowing around a
circuit can be worked out
\mmetei using Ohm's Law.

nm* Negative
terminal

Connecting Positive
wire I terminal

4.5 V battery
1
22 Q. resistoi
[inmeter
47a RESISTANCE
The larger the resistor, the

~
smaller the current. The
smaller the resistor, the
larger the current.

Current flowing through

resistor: 0.09 A

Negative
terminal

Positive
terminal

4.5 Vbattery
vAAA/WX/VN
47 Q. resistor

52
 WORKING ELECTRIC CIRCUIT BLLBS IN A CIRCUIT
In this circuit, a 4.5V battery creates
a current \s the current flows
Ammeter around the circuit, it divides. The
reads 1.91 A bulbs in the circuit have a high
resistance, and thej use most of the
energy of the electrons to produce
light energy. Two bulbs in series
(one after the other) share the
battery's energy.

Connecting aire

LIGHT BULB SWITCH

Thin metal Plastic piece Most circuits include Tonal
Many electrical i

separates some kind

components can make filament of s\\ itch.
use of the energy of tiro wires V su itch consists of
moving electrons. Glass metal pieces that can
They include light bulb touch each other,
bulbs. When current Connection to so that a current can
flows through the flow, or held apart
Screw screw thread
bulb, a filamenl inside so that il cannot.
l It re ad
glows as it gets hot. Wire front bottom
of bulb
Metal
Glass piece separates screw
thread from bailout of bulb case Connecting wire
 — ,

Electromagnetism MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A

ANY ELECTRIC CURRENT WILL PRODUCE magnetism that CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE
affects iron filings and a compass needle in the same way The magnetic field produced by a current in a single
wire is circular. Here, iron filings sprinkled around
as an ordinary, "permanent" magnet. The arrangement of a current-carrying wire are made to line up by the
"force lines" around a wire carrying an electric current magnetic field.

its magnetic field —

is circular. The magnetic effect of
No current flowing White Iron
electric current is increased by making the current- through wire card filings
carrying wire into a coil. When a coil is wrapped around
an iron bar, it is called an electromagnet. The magnetic
field produced by the coil magnetizes the iron bar,
strengthening the overall effect. A field like that of a bar
magnet formed by the magnetic fields of the
(see p. 31) is

wires in the coil. The strength of the magnetism produced

depends on the number of coils and the size of the current u
flowing in the wires. A huge number of machines and NO CURRENT THROUGH WIRE
Each piece of iron
appliances exploit the connection between electricity and lines up with the
Circular Wire carrying field to form a
magnetism, including electric motors. Electromagnetic magnetic field large current circular pattern
coils and permanent magnets are arranged inside an
electric motor so that the forces of electromagnetism
create rotation of a central spindle. This principle can
be used on a large scale to generate immense forces.
I
ELECTROMAGNETISM AFFECTING A COMPASS NEEDLE
A compass needle is a small magnet that is free to swivel around. It
normally points north-south, in line with the Earth's magnetic field.
But when a current flows in an adjacent wire, the needle swings
CURRENT THROUGH WIRE
around to line up with the field created by the current.

NO CURRENT, NO CURRENT FLOWING,

MAGNETIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD
PRODUCED
Ammeter shows U - No current
that there no
is
flowing Ammeter
current flowing shows that
in circuit current is

flowing

4.5 V
4.JF
battery
battery

Compass
No current needle aligns
flows in with magnetic
wire field produced
by current
ariable
Compass
I I ariable
needle points
resistor resistor
north-south
clicked off adjusted
toprevent to allow
flow of current
current to flow
rent

Am Compass
produces
magnetic
field

54
 ELECTROMAGNETS
THE STRENGTH OF AN ELECTROMAGNET A SOLENOID
\n electromagnet is a coil of wire wrapped around an iron The magnetic field around a coil of current-carrying wire resembles
bar. It behaves permanent magnet, except that it can
like a thataround an ordinary bar magnet. The fields of each individual
be turned off. Here, the size of the magnetic force produced wire add up to give the overall pattern. A coil like this, with no iron
by an electromagnet is measured by the number of paper- bar at its core, is called a solenoid.
clips it can lift. The strength of an electromagnet depends
on the number of turns in the coil and the current flowing Direction of magnetic
Electric current
through the wire. Held (from north pole
to south polej-
produces
magnetic field

Coil
of 100
,
turns

ELECTRIC MOTORS
Inside the motor, an electric current is senl through a series of

wire coils one In one. providing a magnetic field around each

coil, one alter the other. The magnetism of the coils interacts with
the magnetic Belds of permanent magnets placed around them.
The push and pidl of this interaction turns the motor. \s the
rotor turns, a new coil is activated and the motion continues.

Iron core ^
Coated copper aire

Commutator
makes contact
to each coil in
turn

Permanent magnet Spindle

 —

GENERATOR

Generating Inside a generator, you will find coils of wire and magnets
(or electromagnets). In the generator shown, electromagnets
spin rapidly inside stationary coils of wire. A voltage is then
produced in the coils.

electricity An
flow
electric current will
if the terminal is Terminal
connected to a circuit box
THERE ARE MANY WAYS TO GENERATE electricity.
The most common is to use coils of wire and Main rotor turns in
magnets in a generator. Whenever a wire and magnetic field produced
by coil of wire in stator
magnet are moved relative to each other, a
voltage is produced. In a generator, the wire is

wound into a coil. The more turns in the coil

and the moves, the greater the
faster the coil
voltage. The coils or magnets spin around at
high speed, turned by water pressure, the wind, Drive end
or, most commonly, by steam pressure. The
steam is usually generated by burning coal
or oil, a process that creates pollution.
Renewable sources of electricity such —
as hydroelectric power, wind power,
Shaft
solar energy, and geothermal power
produce only heat as pollution. In a generator,
the kinetic energy of a spinning object is Bearing
converted into electrical energy. A solar housing
cell converts the energy of sunlight Secondary
directly into electrical energy, using (exciter) rotor Coil of wire

layers of semiconductors.
WATER POWER
HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION Transformer
Insulator
Water flows into a hydroelectric
power station from a reservoir Switch geai High voltage
above. The water exerts pressure including cable
on turbines within the power
circuit
station. The pressure pushes the
breaker
water through the turbines, turning Rotor house
them at great speed. The turbine
runs a generator, which
produces the electricity.

Screen

Potential energy of
water admitted
turns turbine

Water builds up in
reservoir and flows
through turbines Afterbay

Tailrace

Water that
flows out
Draft tube has lost
some energy

16
 WIND POWER OTHER SOURCES
Two further examples of renewable sources are tidal power and
WIND TURBINE geothermal power. The tides are a result of the gravitational pull
Energy from the wind is converted to of the Moon. Geothermal heat is produced by the disintegration of
electricity by wind turbines. The rotating radioactive atoms in the Earth's core.
turbine blades are connected to a generator,
which produces a voltage. The faster the
wind blows and the larger the blades, the Excess hot
greater the energy available. water carried
away to heat
homes Steam
emerges
Steam turns
turbine to
Water
produce pumped
electricity.
underground
becomes
very hot
GEOTHERMAL POWER
Water pumped underground is turned into high-pressure
steam by geothermal heat. The steam returns to the surface
under pressure and turns turbines.

Barrier

Turbines in
barrier turn
to produce
electricity

TIDAL POWER STATION

Large numbers of Seawater isheld back by a barrage as it rises and falls. When
turbines stand together there is a difference in height between the water on either side of
in a wind farm the barrage, the water escapes through tunnels, turning turbines.

SOLAR ENERGY
The energy of sunlight produces electricity in solar cells In causing Solar cells are
electrons to leave the atoms in a semiconductor. Each electron Leaves usually made of
behind a gap, or hole. Other electrons move into the hole, lea\ ing silicon crystals
boles in their atoms. This process continues all the wa\ around a
circuit. The moving chain of electrons is an electric current

Sunlight Top layer of

semiconductor
material
Current
collector

Wire to
I Bottom layer of electric
semiconductor circuit
material
Electrons flow
Silicon around the
atom circuit

Top layer Electron is

has positive attracted by
charge positive charge

Sunlight Electron
displaced
from atom
Bottom
Electron moves
layer has
into hole created
negative
by displaced
electron

MICROSCOPIC VIEW SOLAR CELL

 radiation as particles and waves

Electromagnetic OSCILLATING FIELDS

All electromagnetic radiation has behavior typical
of waves, such as diffraction and interference. It
can be thought of as a combination of changing

radiation electric and magnetic fields.

Electricity and magnetism are directly related electric field Direction of wave's
motion is at right
(see pp. 34-37): a changing electric field will produce a
angles to the electric
changing magnetic field, and vice versa. Whenever an and magnetic field
electric charge, such as that carried by an electron,
accelerates, it gives out energy in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. For example, electrons moving up and down a radio
antenna produce a type of radiation known as radio waves.
Electromagnetic radiation consists of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields. There is a wide range of different types of
electromagnetic radiation, called the electromagnetic spectrum, Oscillating
extending from low-energy radio waves to high-energy, short- magnetic field
wavelength gamma rays. This includes visible light and X-rays.
Electromagnetic radiation can be seen as both a wave motion PHOTONS
All electromagnetic radiation also has behavior
(see pp. 20-21) and as a stream of particles called photons typical of particles. For example, its energy comes
(see pp. 48^19). Both interpretations are useful, since they provide in individual bundles called photons.

a means for predicting the behavior of electromagnetic radiation

Antenna, Radiation
spreads in all
RADIO WAVES
Photon as wave
directions PRODUCTION OF RADIO \\ U ES packet of energy
The electric current in a radio antenna changes
direction rapidly, and produces a changing
magnetic field around the antenna. This
magnetic field produces an electric field, which Red light has
in turn produces a magnetic field, and so on. long wavelength

Magnetic field produced

bv electric current PHOTON OF RED LIGHT
Rlue photon has
One section of about twice the
the radiation energy of red
photon; the shorter
the wavelength,
the higher the
energy

Rlue light has

shorter wavelength,
waves are more
Changing tightly packed
magnetic
field
PHOTON OF RLUE LIGHT
produced by-
Electric field
changing magnetic field
Oscillating
Direction of wave magnetic field

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Very-high-
Long-wave Medium-wave Short-wave frequency Infrared
radio radio radio Q TIF) radio Microwaves radiation
\\ V\ ELENGTH J .. I I „ L L
(METERS)
10

ENERG1
(JOULES)

58
 THE WHITE LIGHT SPECTRUM RADIATION FROM HOT ORJECTS
Human eyes can detect a range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, The atoms of a solid vibrate (see pp. 22-23). Atoms contain electric
from "red light" to "blue light." When all of the wavelengths within that charges in the form of protons and electrons. Because they vibrate,
range are perceived together, they produce the sensation of white light. these charges produce a range of electromagnetic radiation. The
Glass prism rate of vibration, and therefore the wavelengths of radiation
produced, depends on temperature, as this steel bar shows.
t

Red light (wavelength:

6.2-7. 7 x 10 7
m) Hot metal atoms produce some red light Steel bar
i Lg.mu.iu-H- '

Orange light (wavelength

5.9-6.2 xl0 m) 7

Yellow light (wavelength:

5.7-5.9 x 10 7 m) ORJECT HEATED TO Cooler atoms radiate
ABOUT 900K (627°C) invisible infrared
At 900K, objects give
Green light (wavelength:
out a range of radiation,
4.9-5.7 x ia m) 7
\o blue light
mainly infrared. The
graph shows how much produced
Blue light (wavelength:
of each wavelength
4.5-4.9 xl0 m)Jj^ 7

is radiated.

Violet light (wavelength:

3.9-4.5 xl0 m) 7

X-RAYS Radiation now

PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
Near the high-energy end of the electromagnetic spectrum come X-rays. In an appears yellow
X-ray tube, electrons are accelerated by a strong electric field. They then hit a
metal target, and their kinetic energy is turned into electromagnetic radiation.
Oil prevents Electrons leave
High leakage of X-rays filament
:

voltage
positive
OBJECT HEATED TO
supply — ABOUT 1,500K(1,227°C)
As the metal atoms
Vacuum vibrate more
vigorously, the \ lure of the

Glass radiation has more spectrum is

envelope energy. It therefore radiated
Low includes more of the
voltage
Copper visible spectrum.
supply to
anode
filaments

Tungsten Fast-moving \ Heated

Radiation now
target. X-rays electron filament
appears white
X-RAY PHOTOGRAPH
The main use for X-rays
is in medical photography.
Radiation from an X-ray tube
does not pass through bone,
so when an image is
recorded on paper sensitive OBJECT HEATED TO
to X-rays, an image of the ABOUT 1,800k (1.527°C)
bone remains. Thus fractures Near its melting point,
can be investigated without the bar produces even
the need for surgery. more light. The range
of light now includes
Bones can be examined the entire \ isible
for fractures without the spectrum. This is uhv
need for surgery it looks bright white.

of bone

Visible Ultraviolet
light radiation X-rays Gamma cars
I L I

'0"\ to 1 10' 10' l()"'\ 10' 10'-'\ 10' 10'

III 10' 10' 10' 10 "I 10 "I 10' 10 i:

\
10'

59
 CONE SENSITIVITY
Color Sensitivity of green
cone peaks in the green
part of the spectrum
Sensitivity of blue
cone peaks in the
blue part of the
THE HUMAN EYE CAN ONLY PERCEIVE a small section of the spectrum
electromagnetic spectrum (see pp. 38-39). We call this section Sensitivity of red
cone peaks in the Red
"visible light." Different colors across the spectrum of visible light red part of the and blue
correspond to different wavelengths of light. Our eyes contain cells spectrum sensitivity
does not
called cones, which are sensitive to these different wavelengths and .overlap
allow us to see in color. Three different types of cone are affected
by light in the red, green, and blue parts of the spectrum. These
correspond to the primary colors. Different light sources give out
different parts of the spectrum, which appear as different colors.
When combined, colored lights appear as different colors. This is
called the additive process. Adding primary light sources in the \White light
correct proportions can produce the sensation of other colors in our (visible) spectrum
eyes. When light hits a pigment in an object, only some colors are
COLOR VISION
reflected. Which colors are reflected and which absorbed depends There are three different types of cone in
the normal human eye, each sensitive to
on the pigment. This is the subtractive process. Looking at a a different part of the spectrum. White light
colored object in colored light may make the colors appear different. stimulates all three types of cone cells.

This is because pigments can only reflect colors that are present in
the incoming light.
SOURCES OF LIGHT
This spectrum shows which kill) produces colors in the
colors are produced green part of the spec trum

All colors of light together LED appeals green

combine to produce white
BRIGHT FILAMENT LAMP GREEN LED
With a high electric current, the \nLED (light-emitting diode) is
whole spectrum of visible light is made of a semiconductor, and
produced (see p. 39). produces certain colors of light.

BRIGHT FILAMENT LAMP GREEN LED

Twocolors of light very close
Red, yellow, and green light together in the orange part of the
combine to produce orange spectrum are produced

Lamp appears No blue light Lamp appears orange

orange produced
SODIUM LAMP
DIM FILAMENT LAMP In a sodium lamp, an electric current
With a smaller current, the excites electrons in sodium vapour,
temperature of the filament giving them extra energy. The
(see pp. 32-33) is low. electrons give the energy out as light.

DIM FILAMENT LAMP SODIUM LAMP

Only certain colors
Lamp produces certain colors
characteristic of neon
in each part of the spectrum are produced

muni
Ml three types of cone are stimulated
and lamp appears white Lamp appears orange
FLUORESCENT LAMP NEON TUBE
In a fluorescent lamp, chemicals In a similar way sodium lamp,
to a
called phosphors produce colors a neon discharge lamp produces a
in many parts of the spectrum. characteristic orange glow.
FL1 ORESCENT LAMP NEON TUBE

in
ADDITIVE PROCESS
Adding red, green, and blue light in the correcl
proportions can create the illusion of any other
color. These three colors are called primary
BLUE LIGHT (PRIMARY)
colors. \ color made horn adding any two
primary colors alone is called a secondary color. Primary blue light
stimulates the blue cone

MAGENTA (SECONDARY) CI \N (SECOND \RY)

Primary red and primary blue Primary green and primary blue
combine to appear as magenta combine to appear as cyan

WHITE LIGHT GREEN LIGHT (PRIMARY)

All the primary colors together stimulate Primary green light
all types of cone and appear while

RED LIGHT (PRIMARY) Primary red light YELLOW (SECONDARY)

stimulates the red cone Primary red and primary green
combine to appear as yellow
The primary pigment colors arc
different to the primary light colors
SUBTRACTIVE PROCESS
These three filters contain pigments which
absorb some of the colors in the while light
passing through them from a light beneath. By
CI VN FILTER (PRIMARY)
mixing primary pigments together, all colors
except true while can he produced.
I primary cyan filter will absorb all
light except blue and green

BLUE (SECONDARY)
GREEN (SECONDARY)
Magenta and cyan fillers together
Cyan and yellow filters together
allow blue light through
only allow green light through

BLACK (NO COLON) ^ ELLON FILTER (PRIMARY )

Where all three filters overlap, they I primary yellow Jitter absorb
will
absorb all colors, and appear black all light except red and green

MAGENTA FILTER (PRIMARY) RED (SECONDARY)

I primary magenta Jitter will Magenta and yellow Jitters together
absorb all light except red and blue ,
FOR THE SI BIB \C Tl\ E PROCESS will (dlow red light through
Blue pot
Green pot
COLORED OBJECTS IN COLORED LIGHT appears
Blue pot Red pot black
appeals Green pot appears appeal
green appears black black
White pot k black
reflects all
Red pot
colors appears
red
II Idle pot
reflects the
blue light and Green pot U lute pot
appears blue S' appears black appears green
IN WHITE LIGHT IN BLUE LIGHT IN BED LIGHT IN GREEN LIGHT
The green pot only reflects the When onlj blue light is available. When onlj redlighl is available, N hen onlj green light is available.
green pari of the spectrum, the green pigment can reflect no the green pigment can reflect no the green pigment reflects green
absorbing the other colors. green light, and appears black. green light, and appears black. light and appears green.
 Reflection and refraction
LlGHT IS A FORM OF electromagnetic radiation SEEING BY REFLECTED LIGHT Light source
Light travels out from a source and hits
(see pp. 48-49). In free space, it travels in a straight objects such as this plant. The plant
line at 300 million meters per second. When a beam reflects some of this light, a proportion
of which will enter our eyes.
of light meets an object, a proportion of the rays may
be reflected. Some light may also be absorbed, and Light travels in
all directions
some transmitted. Without reflection, we would only
be able to see objects that give out their own light.
Plant is visible to
Light always reflects from a surface at the same angle us only because it

at which it strikes it. Thus parallel rays of light meeting reflects light

a very flat surface will remain parallel when reflected.

A beam of light reflecting from an irregular surface
will scatter in all directions. Light that passes through
an object will be refracted, or bent. The angle of
refraction depends on the angle at which the light
meets the object, and the material from which the
object is made. Lenses and mirrors can cause light rays
todiverge or converge. When light rays converge, they Conve.i
lens
can reach a point of focus. For this reason, lenses and
mirrors can form images. This is useful in binoculars Plant does not
and other optical instruments (see pp. 44-45). emit its own light

REFLECTING AND REFRACTING

The illustrations below show what happens when TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
parallel beams of light reflect regularly and When light moves from one medium to another, for example from glass to air,
irregularly and when they refract. some of the light will normally be reflected. When the light striking the boundary
— —
reaches a certain angle the critical angle all of the light reflects back. This is
called total internal reflection. It is put to use in binoculars, where the light path is
folded by prisms so that it can be contained within a compact case.
_ Beams
remain Light
parallel source

Flat surface
such as a Slit produces
REGULAR REFLECTION mirror narrow beam
Small glass
prism
Beams
scatter in all DEMONSTRATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION Light undergoes total
directions internal reflection at
Eyepiece glass-air boundary
Irregular
surface such
IRREGULAR REFLECTION Focusing
as paper
mechanism
Prism
Sturdy case
Light
is bent Light reflects
as it
enters

Block Total
internal
Light
reflection
is bent

as it
leaves Objective lens

REFRACTION IN A GLASS BLOCK BINOCULARS

12
 LENSES AND MIRRORS
The images below show how beams of light from a bulb are affected by have surfaces that curve outward at the center, while concave lenses
concave and convex mirrors and lenses. Convex lenses and mirrors curve inward and are thicker at the edges.
CONCAVE LENS (BENDS LIGHT OUTWARD) CONVEX LENS (BENDS LIGHT INWARD) Light rays converge

\
Light \ Light rays \ Convex lens bends ^Concave Light ray First convex Convex Focal length Light focused
source travel out in diverging rays into lens diverge lens produces lens to a point
straight lines straight beam Convex parallel beam Concave
CONVEX MIRROR (REFLECTS LIGHT OUTWARD) mirror. CONCAX E MIRROR (REFLECTS LIGHT INWARD) mirror,

Light Convex lens bends Parallel light Light rays Light (Convex lens bends Light rays Focal
source diverging rays into a rays diverge as source diverging rays into converge as length
straight beam they reflect straight beam they reflect

CONCAVE LENS LENSES IMAGE FORMATION

Concave lenses make objects Because they foe us light, convex lenses can be used to project images onto a screen.
appear smaller, and allow a The screen must be placed at a point \\ here the rays focus in order for a clear image to
larger field of vision. Objects be produced. >n ly objects that lie within a range of distances from the lens, called the
<

Lying within the focal depth of Field, \\ ill be in focus at an\ one time.
length of a convex lens PROJECTED IMAGE
IMAGE INVERTS
appear larger.

/" Ray I starts Black arrows drawn

_ I concave lens is
,

Convex lens on tracing paper

parallel to ,

often Jilted to the

optical axis
rear window of a
vehicle to improve a
driver's field of vision Optical Hay 1 goes

axis through the

CONVEX LENS focal point
in front qf
A convex lens Convea
lens the lens
can be used as
a magnifying
slass
Screen
through centei
Hay I is bent and
of lens so is
goes through
undeviated
focal point of lens
Hay J is bent
parallel to the Focused
optical axis — image on
screen
The rays, locus on
Squares the opposite side
of the optical Image is inverted
appear
axis so the vertically and
magnified
image is inverted) horizontally
through lens

43
 CAMERA

Optical The cutaway view below shows the main features of a single
lens reflex (SLR) camera. The light is focused onto film at
the back of the camera by a lens or a combination of lenses.

Shutter Pentaprism

instruments release
button
directs light
into viewfinder

The HUMAN EYE CONTAINS A LENS that produces animage by

focusing the light that passes through But the eye does not
it.
45° mirror
record images, or allow us to see objects that are very small, or
/lipped out of
very far away. To achieve these tasks, we need to use optical the way to
instruments. A camera, for example, records an image on light-
onto film
sensitive film. To see objects that are very small or very far
away, we need to produce a magnified image, which the eye
can then observe. By using a compound microscope, light from
Film
a very small object can be made to produce a magnified image.
plane
A telescope produces a magnified image in a similar way to a
Light reaches
microscope, using lenses to focus light. There are limits to the use
film only
of optical instruments. Even the most precise lenses suffer from when this

—
chromatic aberration (see opposite) a problem that can be shutter opens

solved by pairs of lenses known as achromatic doublets.

[perture Light enters through lens
Together, the lenses in attached to this aperture
a microscope produce
COMPOI M) a magnified image
MICROSCOPE MICROSCOPES LIGHT PATH THROUGH
A basic optical microscope consists of two lenses, MICROSCOPE
Eyepiece the objective and the eyepiece. Light is focused by the
objective, which has a very small focal length. The light Light enters eyt
passes up inside the body tube, and is focused by the
eyepiece into the eye. Eyepiece lew
focuses light

Different
objective lens
gives different
magnification

Light passes
through body
of microscope

RED BLOOD CELLS SEEN THROUGH MICROSCOPE

Prepared
specimen
\ngled mirror placed on slide

Mirror directs
light through
the specimen

Base

II
 ~
TELESCOPES
At the front of a refracting telescope is an
objective lens th.it collects Light and focuses it,

producing an image in the telescope's tube. Objective lens

The eyepiece greatly magnifies this image.
A reflecting telescope uses a mirror
instead of an objective lens.

Telescope tube

Small vieivfmder
telescope used to
position larger
telescope
Equatorial mount
allows user- to track
move

Prism bends balance

light into
Eyepiece eyepiece
TELESCOPE [MAGE OF THE MOON
SMALL REFRACTING TELESCOP In a telescope, tbe greater the difference between focal lengths
of objective and eyepiece, the greater the magnification. A larger
objective lens will yield a brighter image for a given magnification.

REFRACTING TELESCOPE
Eyepiece \ convex objective lens focuses light from a distant star. Tbe
eyepiece is lived in a tube that can be moved in and out of the
Concavi telescope lube.
eyepiece
Two rays show the path of light Convex objective
through the telescope lens

Focal point of Objective lens I

Telescope tube Lightfrom the object eiders
ACHROMATIC DOURLET through the objective lens
\ single lens will refract ligbl of different wavelengths b\ different amounts. For
REFLECTING TELESCOPE
example, red ligbl focuses at a different point from blue ligbl. This chromatic
Eyepiece . In this c.ise. a concave objective
aberration can be eliminated by using two lenses made of different types of glass.
mirror focuses the light. \ small
lied focuses plane (flat) mirror directs light
I// colors focus at through a tube off the side of the
Compi the same point telescope to the eyepiece.
lens

n
 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

Wave behavior When

This
and
is

is
two waves meet, they add up or interfere.
called the Principle of Superposition,
common to all types of wave.
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
All types of wave can combine or interfere, if
Peak offirst wave Peak is point Peak
two waves are in step, so that the peaks coincide, the
in stepwith peak of maximum
interference results in a wave that will be larger than the of second displacement
original one (constructive interference). If the waves are out
of step, the peak of one wave will cancel out the trough of
another (destructive interference). Where the waves are +
equal in size, they can cancel out entirely. As waves pass
around objects or through small openings, they can be Mien a peak meets
diffracted, or bent. Diffraction and interference can be a peak, the resulting
wave is larger
observed in water waves, using a ripple tank. The colors seen
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
in soap bubbles are the result of some colors being removed
Peak of first wave is in step
from the white light spectrum by destructive interference. with trough of second wave
Light reflected off the front and back surfaces of the film Peak

interferes. One source of very pure light waves is a laser. The

light produced by a laser is coherent. This means that all of
+
the waves are in step and of exactly the same wavelength. The Where a peak
Trough is meets a trough, the
light is produced by a process called stimulated emission. To the point of waves cancel out
understand this process, light must be thought of in terms of minimum
displacement
particles called photons (see p. 48), as well as waves.
Waves radiate in
DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE semicircles.

Ring II arcs diffract

stand around edge
Bright lamp projects
light onto table top
Plane
waves
created
by bar
Edge of object Small hole
placed in water in barrier
Electric motor turns in water.
eccentric wheel
Plane waves
created
Eccentric wheel by bar
mores bar up
and down EDGE DIFFRACTION DIFFRACTION THROUGH
SMALL HOLE
Waves interfere
Mater constructively at
this point
. Shallow
tank Waves interfere
destructively
Rubber at this point
Support tops on
Oscillating bar or balls
legs stop
for bar creates waves on
unwanted
surface of water Circular wave
vibrations
travels out in
RIPPLE TANK all directions
Diffraction and interference are probably best
observed using a ripple tank. A bar moving up Circular wave
and down (oscillating) creates plane waves in produced by
shallow water. These waves bend around oscillating ball
edges and produce semicircular waves after
passing through a small hole. Oscillating ball

INTERFERENCE
THIN FILM INTERFERENCE Soap bubble
White light reflects off the front and hack
it this point, film is
surfaces of a soap film. The two reflected
heams of light interfere. Some wavelengths, xlO'm thick
and therefore some colors, will he lost At this point, film is
from the white light hy destructive 3 x 10 m
7
thick
interference. Which colors are lost At this point, film is
depends on the thickness of the film. 5 x 10 7 m thick

Vertical film where At this point, film is

two bubbles meet 6 x 10

7
m
thick
At this point, film is
Soap 8xW m 7
thick
bubble

Film is thicker at
Colors produced bottom as water
by interference drains down

Bowl

Incoming
red light
Light reflects
off back
surface
Reflected
waves are
Reflected waves
out of step
are in step

Light reflected Light reflected

Film thickness
back from back from increases lower
front surface front surface
down
Light interferes Light reflected
Light reflected
destructively, so no from back
from back surfaci
surface green light will be
observed at this point I

Film is afew
GREEN LIGHT, wavelengths thick RED LIGHT,
DESTRUCTIVE IVI ERI ERFNCE CONSTRI CTTi E INTERFERENCE

LASERS
STIMULATED EMISSION LASER St ROERY
Light behaves as waves and Laser light exhibits all of the
particles. Lasers have found man]
behavior common to waves, including interference and applications in medicine.
diffraction. But to understand the operation of a laser, light must be I [ere, a laser is being used to
thought of as being composed of particles called photons. Each destroj a cateract in a
photon is emitted as the result of the stimulation of an excited patient's eye.
electron by another photon within the laser.

Incoming
Photons Outer casing
photon Electron
reflect back Half silvered supplies excited
and forth end of rod
..A*
inside

Each
photon can
excite more
electrons EXCITATION OF ELECTRON
Light emitted
Electron loses
is coherent
^\photon energv-emitting

Rod has
reflective end Light is
RUBY LASER Flash tube emitted
Ruby rod EMISSION OFFICII!'

i:
 ANATOMY OF A FLUORINE ATOM

Atoms and A fluorine atom has nine electrons around its nucleus. There
are two electrons in the first shell, in an s-orhital (Is). The
remaining seven electrons are found in the second shell, two
in an s-orhital (2s) and five in p-orbitals (2p).

electrons Orbitals are a

variety of shapes,
Nine negatively
charged electrons
arranged in orbitals
ALL ORDINARY MATTER (see pp. 6-7) consists of tiny shown here in blui
particles called atoms. There are 92 naturally occurring Positively
2p-orbital
types of atom. Each consists of a central, positively charged nucleus
Is-orbital
charged nucleus (see pp. 50-51), surrounded by
negatively charged electrons. An element is a substance
made up of one type of atom only. Atoms of different
elements have different numbers of electrons. For
example, atoms of the element fluorine have nine
electrons. Electrons in the atom do not follow definite
paths, as planets do, orbiting the Sun. Instead, they are
said to be found in regions called orbitals. Electrons in
orbitals close to the nucleus have less energy than those
farther away and are said to be in the first electron shell.
Electrons in the second shell have greater energy.
Whenever an excited electron releases its energy by
falling to a lower shell, the energy is radiated as light.
This is called luminescence. Electrons can be separated
from atoms in many ways. In a cathode ray tube, a strong First
electron Each orbital
electric field tears electrons away from their atoms. Free holds up to
electrons in the tube are affected by electric and magnetic Second two electrons
2s-orbilal
electron
fields. Cathode ray tubes are used in television, where a shell
beam of free electrons forms the picture on the screen.
FLUORESCENCE
SOAP POWDER
How does soap powder make clothes appear so bright? Soap powder daylight. The electrons fall hack to their original shell immediately and
exhibits a form of luminescence (see above) called fluorescence. reemit the energj as visible light. The color of the light depends upon the
Electrons around atoms in the powder are excited into high-energy she! difference in energy between the higher and lower shells. This extra
by incoming energy, in this case invisible ultraviolet light found in light emitted by the powder in the clothes makes them appear bright.

Powder appears Soap powder In white light, willemiti Ililleniite

white in white contains substances appears brown contains zinc
light called optical and manganese
» ^ brighleners

Region of Sodalite is a
quartz ./
«'
grayish
St* material in
white light

SOAP POWDER IN \\ HI IE LIGHT \\ ILLEMITE IN WHITE LIGHT SODALITE I.N WHITE LIGHT
IJ illemite
Ultraviolet is
appears
invisible, so
brightly
everything
colored in
normally
ultraviolet
looks black

Optical Electrons
brighteners absorb
give off blue ultraviolet
glow in and give out
ultraviolet yellow light
light

SOAP TOW DER IN ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT WILLEMITE IN ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT SODALITE IN ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
CATHODE HAY TUBE Vacuum ELECTRON BEAMS Electron
Inside a cathode raj lube, an
electric current heats a Phosphorescent Inode connected shadow of
small filament. The heal to positive supply Maltese cross
save u
generated gives electrons Green glow
extra energy, moving them II ires
where
farther from their nuclei. \ connecting electrons
strong electric field then heater and hit screen
completely removes electrons cathode to
from their atoms. The Ivvv power
electrons are attracted to the supply
positive anode, and pass
through it as a cathode ray.
Hire
connecting
Beam of electrons (cathode Maltese
ray) made visible by cross to
phosphorescent screen positive
electrical
supply
DEFLECTING THE ELECTRONS Hire
Because electrons have electric connecting
charge, forces can be applied to anode to Glass tube
them by electric and magnetic Phosphorescent
power material
fields in thecathode raj tube. The supply
direction of the force depends upon
the direction and type of the field. SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW
Screen flairs inode connected to Electrons curve Negative
when hit by positive supply in parabolic terminal Electrons travel in
electron path due to part old circular
electric field path due to
magnetic Held
(j lass
lube -
Hires
connecting
heater and
I acuiuu cathode to Helmholtz coil
power supply produces
Electrons magnetic field
travel in
straight line

Wire 4.> I

connecting batten
anode to
STIWIGNTCVTIIODE WW IN It 151. power supply DOWNW \RI) DEFLECTION in DOWNW\R|) DEFLECTION in
ELECTRIC FIELD MAGNETIC FIELD

HOW \ TELEVISION WORKS

DEFLECTED ELECTRON RE VMS PHOSPHORESCENCE
M the heart of most televisions W hen the cathode rays hit the special coating
is a cathode raj tube. Electron on glows because
a television screen, the screen
beams are produced at the hack Med, green, and it phosphorescent. Phosphorescence is a form
is

of the lube. Coils of wire around blue electron guns of luminescence where the incoming energj is
the lube create magnetic fields, lot reemitted immediately but is stored

which deflect the electron and reemitted over a period of

beams to different parts of the time. This means thai as the
screen. The screen itself is cathode raj quicklj
coaled with phosphorescent scans the picture, the
materials called phosphors. phosphor glows for
ong enough for a w hole
picture to form.
Electron beams
(cathode rays)
Electromagnetic coils are
Phosphorescent Jed with varying electric
screen signal from antenna
which builds up a picture Signal received
from the electron beam from television
Picture built up antenna consists
as beams scan Cathode Electronic circuits process of a varying
across the screen ray lube and amplify the signal electric current

+9
 FLUORINE- 19 NUCLEUS

Nuclear physics The number of protons in a nucleus defines what

element the atom is. For example, all fluorine atoms
have nine protons. Fluorine has an atomic number of 9.
Tbe number of neutrons can vary. Fluorine- 19 has ten
At THE CENTER OF EVERY ATOM LIES a positively charged neutrons, while fluorine- 18 has nine.

nucleus. It and neutrons. The number of

consists of protons Neutron
protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number. Because they — Fluorine- 19 has an
atomic mass of J 9
all have the same electric charge, protons repel each other.

The nucleus holds together despite this repulsion because of the Nucleus of
strong nuclear force (see pp. 52-53). The balance between the fluorine- 19
Proton
repulsive force and the strong nuclear force determines whether
Nuclear
a nucleus is stable or unstable. On the whole, small nuclei are diameter
more stable than larger ones, because the strong nuclear force 10'"" m
works best over small distances. An unstable, larger nucleus can
break up or decay in two main ways, alpha decay and beta decay.
Ten
These produce alpha and beta particles. In each type of decay, the
atomic number
nucleus, because the
of the

also completely split into

new nucleus is different from the original
number of protons present alters. Nuclei can
two smaller fragments, in a process
••••• neutrons

called fission. In another nuclear reaction called fusion, small

nuclei join together. Both of these reactions can releasehuge
amounts of energy. Fusion provides most of the Sun's energy,
••••• Nine
protons
while fission can be used in power stations to produce electricity.
RADIOACTIVITY
Smaller and
potentially ANALYZING RADIOACTIVITY
more stable Because of their electric charges, a strong magnetic field will
nucleus deflect alpha and beta rays in a cloud chamber. Cloud chambers
Ip/ia particle:
are used to show these paths as in the illustration below.
two neutrons
and tiro protons
Large unstable \

nucleus I gamma ray is \ Cloud chamber contains

\
(dso released \
carbon dioxide

ALPHA DECAY Beta ray

An unstable nucleus may reduce its
size by releasing an alpha particle.
New nucleus has one Drops form, indicating
more proton and one course of particles, from
less neutron which mass and charge
Potentially mot can be calculated
stable nucleus
Alpha ray
1 Fast electron
Unstable (beta particle)
Gamma ray
unaffected by
nucleus
^ A gamma magnetic field
ray is also
BETA DECAY released Radioactive source
In beta decay, a neutron of an unstable nucleus
GEIGER-MULLER TUBE
changes into a proton and an electron. The proton
As they pass through the air, alpha and
remains in the nucleus, while the electron is released beta rays hit atoms, separating electrons
at high speed.
and creating ions, which can
COSMIC RAYS be detected inside a
The Earth is constantly Geiger-Miiller tube.
bombarded by particles from
space. Most of these are
protons, from atoms of the
most abundant element,
hydrogen. Occasionally, the
protons collide with atoms in
the air, producing showers of
secondary particles called
cosmic rays.

Tracks left by cosmic rays

ina bubble chamber

50
NUCLEAR FISSION
A neutron

these neutrons can cause other

nuclei to split. The process may
continue, involvin
nucleus may split
hitting a large, unstable
or fission into two smaller, more stable fragments
releasing large amounts of energy. Often, more
free neutrons are produced by this fission, and

3
hiss ion fragment
(daughter nucleus)

Fission
I Large
unstable
nucleus,
Nucleus becomes
distorted
begins
b to

_^^U
T
and
split
'

'
,
Fission fragment
(daughter nucleus)

#
Large I

unstable nucleus
Free neutron

41
releases free
many nuclei in a
chain reaction. neutron,

Free
Fission releases
neutron
large amount Large amount of
Large
unstable
of energy energy released
nucleus j^. — Free neutron
ree
Free neutron
Fission fragment
Nucleus becomes
(daughter nucleus)
distorted and Fission fragment
begins to split (daughter nucleus) Large
unstable
NUCLEAR FUSION
nucleus
Just as large nuclei can split, so some small nuclei can
Large
join together, or fuse. Like fission, fusion can release
unstable
energy. One of the highest energy fusion reactions Free neutron
nucleus
involves nuclei of hydrogen, which collide at great
speed, forming a nucleus of helium.
Nucleus becomes
distorted and

+ \ ucleus of
hydrogen-2
New nucleus of
helium-4

Neutron ejected
from helium
begins to split

Fission fragment
(daughter nucleus)
Large
amount
of energy-
released

Hate offission

* Nucleus of
hydrogen-3
nucleus multiplies as more
neutrons air released

NUCLEAR POWER
Large unstable
nucleus

M CLEAR POWER STATION

Steam Heat Water in heat A nuclear chain reaction releases huge amounts of heat. This
generator exchange} exchanger turns heal can be used to generate electricity (see pp. 56-37).
to steam in a nuclear power station. The reactions occur in the nuclear
eactor, and the heat produced is used to make steam.

Concrete
shielding

Transformer
increases collage
lo 100,000 rolls

Pylon carries
high voltage
electricity

High voltage
cable
Moderaloi
(water) Hot water to
cooling tower

Enriched Coolant (water) Water pumped

uranium fuel i
lakes heat from reactor back into steam '
Cold water from
core lo heat exchanger generator cooling tower

51
 PARTICLE COLLISIONS

Particle physics
The images below show the results of collisions
between particles in particle accelerators. Particles
of opposite charge curve in different directions in
the strong magnetic field of the detector.
Spiral tracks
PARTICLE PHYSICS ATTEMPTS TO EXPLAIN matter and force of electrons
in terms of tiny particles. The atom, once thought to be in the bubble
chamber
the smallest particle, is actually made of protons, neutrons,
Point of
and electrons. But the proton and the neutron are collision
themselves made up of smaller particles, known as quarks.
There are four types of force acting between matter, Track of
antiproton
namely gravitational force, the electromagnetic
Tracks of
force, the strong nuclear force, and the weak
other
interaction. According to current theory, each of these particles
forces is explained by the exchange of particles called
ANNIHILATION
gauge bosons between the particles of matter. For example, When a particle and an antiparticle meet, they
the nucleus holds together as a result of the exchange of destroy each other and become energy. This
energy in turn becomes new particles.
particles called mesons (a type of gauge boson) between
the protons and neutrons present. These exchanges can be
Proton
visualized in Feynmann diagrams, which show the particles
involved in each type of force. The most important tools of Photon does
not leave a
particle physics are particle accelerators, which create track as it
and destroy particles in high energy collisions. Analysis of has no
charge
these particles helps to prove or disprove the latest
Tight
theories about the structure of matter and the origin of spiraling
forces. One of the current aims of large particle accelerators, electron
tracks
such as the Large Hadron Collider at CERN (opposite),
A number of
is to prove the existence of a particle called the Higgs
particles are
PROTON-PHOTON COLLISION
boson. It may be responsible for giving all matter mass. This collision between a photon and a proton
created in
look place in a type of detector called a bubble the collision
HADRONS chamber, 'the colors in this photograph have
V hadron is ;i particle consisting of quarks. There are six types of quark,
been added for clarity.
including the "up" and "down" quarks. Protons, neutrons, and mesons are Track of a
examples of hadrons. The quarks of hadrons are held together bj gluons. particle
One "down One "up" called a
quark, quark, muon
charm charge: 2/, Tiro "rioiriT [nli "down" Incoming
Gluons quarks, quark, charge: electron
'/.

HKS SSfKP
In
charge: -'/ Point of
iiaris2,-< collision
^^H ^m^mr^^'^^ ^HVAvHHK^V^^^^I
Incoming
p" quark
M^Lm positron
"I

Tiro "up" Total charge: 2/3 Pi mesons

quarks, charge: Gluons produced
PROTON charge: -'/,
NEITRON PI-PLIS MESON ELECTRON-POSITRON COLLISION by collision
Here, an electron collides with its
antiparticle, a positron. The detector is
FEYNMAN DIAGRAMS linked to a computer, which produces this
These diagrams show which gauge bosons are exchanged to transfer each picture of the collision.
of the four forces. The horizontal lines represent the guage boson, whereas
the diagonal lines and circles represent the two interacting particles.
Possible
Electromagnetism Gauge bosona gluon or a
is IV or Z particle graviton as Gravitation
Photon is the affects any particles combination of quarks such is the gauge the gauge affects all
gauge boson with charge as a meson Neutron boson Electron boson matter.
Quark

Proton
Strong nuclear force Weak interaction Iny \ny
Electron Proton affects any particles affects electrons particle particle
made of quarks and quarks
ELECTROMAGNETISM STRONG NUCLEAR EORCE WEAK INTERACTION GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

52
 THE LARGE HADRON COLLIDER
MAP OF THE SITE
The Large Hadron Collider (LUC), at CERiN near Geneva, will be a huge another particle accelerator, the Large Electron Positron (LEP) collider,
particle accelerator, in a tunnel about 100 meters below ground. The Two beams of protons will move around in tubes at very high speed,
tunnel will be a ring 27 kilometers long, which is already used for and will be made to collide in detectors, such as the CMS (see belo\y j.

Protons and other

particles will collidi
in the detector
chambers Cryogenic unit

Site of
detector
Two sets of protons
will travel in
opposite directions

Cryogenic unit
produces liquid Site of CMS
helium detector

Super proton
synchrotron
(SPS) ring The ring is
accelerates 27 km long
protons and
injects them
into the LHC

Protons in
the LHCwill
Proton synchrotron travel at
(PS) ring accelerates close to the
protons and injects speed of light
them into the SPS _

Linear The ring is

injector- between 70 m
and 140
underground

One beam Different layers of detector

Pipe containing Thermal
of protons deled different particles
liquid helium at shield,
eiders
4JK(-268.7°C) Iron yoke prevents Itryforward, here Collision takes Hadron calorimeter
themagneticfield calorimeter place here
Radiation
from leaking out Superconducting
shield
Electromagnets are cod
kept extremely cold
by liquid helium

Collars hold
tubes in place
Tube holding
proton beams
Each tube is 0.056 m
in diameter
Quench
discharge pipe
Pipe containing
helium gas that
removes heat Coils
electromagnet/

Support post One beam ofprotons eiders here

THE ACCELERATOR THE COMP u: SOLENOIDAL (CMS) DETECTOR
I

In the main experiment of the LHC, protons injected into the ring Several detectors will be built for detecting the particles
will he accelerated nearly the speed of light, traveling in opposite
to produced by collisions in the LHC. The detectors have
directions in two tubes. Centripetal force provided h\ powerful different parts that delect different types of particle, flic
electromagnets keeps the protons moving in a circle. hadron calorimeter, for example, can onlj detect hadrons.
 Formulas
MANY OF THE PRINCIPLES EXPLAINED IN THIS BOOK can be expressed
as formulas. The use of symbols to represent different values enables
the physicist to make quick calculations, reducing even complicated
physical phenomena to simple mathematical formulas.

WEIGHT GRAVITATION ELASTICITY

Weight is equal to mass multiplied by Gravitational force equals a constant, The extension of a solid is proportional
acceleration clue to gravity multiplied by mass one, multiplied by mass to the force applied to it
two, divided by the distance between
W = mg the masses squared
Fax
W = weight
F = Gm,m /d 2
x = extension of solid
m = mass 2 F = applied force
g = acceleration due to gravity F = gravitational force between two
objects GAS LAWS
TURNING FORCE G= gravitational constant
m, = mass of object one BOYLE'S LAW
Turning force is equal to force
multiplied by distance of applied force
m 2
= mass of object two Volume is proportional to one divided
d = distance between the two objects by pressur?
from pivot
T = Fd FRICTION Va 1/P
T = turning force (moment) Frictional force between two surfaces is equal
F = applied force to the coefficient of friction multiplied by the CHARLES' LAW
d = distance force acting to keep the surfaces together Volume is proportional to temperature

PRESSURE F= u N VaT
Pressure is equal to force applied F = frictional force
divided by area over which force acts u = coefficient of friction; this varies with PRESSURE LAW
materials Pressure is proportional to temperature
P = F/A N = force between two surfaces
P = pressure PaT
F = applied force AIR RESISTANCE
A = area over which force acts Force is proportional to speed THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION
Pressure multiplied by volume is equal to
Fav
FORCE AND MOTION ideal gas constant multiplied by temperature
F = force of resistance due to air
v = speed of motion through air PV = RT
NEWTON'S SECOND LAW
Acceleration is equal to force
V = volume
divided by mass WORK P = pressure
Work is equal to force multiplied by distance T = temperature
a = F/m R = the ideal gas constant
W = Fd
SPEED
W = work done ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
F = applied force
Speed isequal to distance
d = distance moved in line with force
divided by time OHM'S LAW
Current is equal to voltage divided by resistance
v = d/t CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Force is equal to mass multiplied by the speed I = V/R
CONSTANT ACCELERATION squared divided by the radius
Acceleration is equal to change in speed F = mvVr POWER
divided by time taken for that change Power is equal to voltage multiplied by current
F= centripetal force
a = v,-v,/t m = mass of object P = VI
v = speed of circular motion = current
I
r = radius of object's path
MOMENTUM V = voltage
Momentum is equal to mass R = resistance
multiplied by speed
LIQUID PRESSURE P = power
Pressure is equal to the liquid's density
p= mv multiplied by acceleration due to gravity IMAGE FORMATION
multiplied by height of water above point One divided by the focal length is equal to one
F- applied force P = pgh divided by the object's distance from lens
v = speed added to one divided by distance from the lens
t = time
P = pressure
to the image
d = distance p = liquid density
g = acceleration due to gravity l/f= l/u+ 1/v
p = momentum
m = mass h = height of water above f = focal length
a = acceleration measured point u = object's distancefrom lens
v = distance from lens to image

54
Appendix: useful data
PHYSICISTS USE STANDARD UNITS of measurement TEMPERATURE SCALES
called SI units (Systeme International), which include
the kilogram, the meter, and the second. In addition To convert Into Equation

to these standard units, there are many other units of Celsius (C) Fahrenheit (F) F=(Cx9-5)+32
measurement. The tables below give details of these. Fahrenheit Celsius C = (F-32)x5-9
Celsius Kelvin (K) K = C + 275
Kelvin Celsius C = K-275
Fahrenheit Kelvin K = ((F- 52) x 5- 9) + 273

METRIC - IMPERIAL CONVERSIONS IMPERIAL - METRIC CONVERSIONS

Multiply by To convert Into Multiply bj

Length Length
Centimeters inches 0.3937 Inches centimeters 2.540
Meters feet 3.281 Feet meters 0.3048
Kilometers miles 0.6214 Miles kilometers 1.609
Meters yards 1.094 Yards meters 0.9144

Mass Mass
Grams ounces 0.03527 Ounces grams 28.35
Kilograms pounds 2.205 Pounds kilograms 0.4556
Metric tonnes tons 1.102 Tons metric tonnes 0.9072

Area Area
Square centimeters square inches 0.1550 Square inches square centimeters 6.4 52
Square meters square feet 10.76 Square feet square meters 0.09290
Hectares acres 2.471 Acres hectares 0.4047
Square kilometers square miles 0.3861 Square miles square kilometers 2.590
Square meters square yards 1.196 Square yards square meters 0.8561

Volume Volume
Cubic centimeters cubic inches 0.06102 Cubic inches cubic centimeters 16.59
Cubic meters cubic feel 35.31 Cubic Feel cubic meters 0.0285.

Capacity Capacity
Liters pints (liquid) 1.760 Pints (liquid) liters 0.5683
Liters gallons (liquid) 0.2200 Gallons (liquid I
liters 1.546

PHYSICS SYMBOLS POWERS OF TEN RASE SI UNITS

Symb meaning
anil

a alpha particle 10
ls
quintillion exa- E Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
(3 beta particle 10 " quadrillion peta- P
gamma ray: photon 10 '-
trillion tera- T Time second s
7
e electromotive force 10" billion giga- G Electric current ampere \

r\ efficiency; viscosity 10 ,j
million mega- \l
Temperature kelvin K

wavelength thousand Luminous intensity candela cd

X L0 3 kilo- k
J Amount of substance mole mol
(ju micro-; permeability 10 hundred hecto- h
Plane angle radian rad
v frequency; neutrino I0
1

ten deca- da
Solid angle steradian sr
p density; resistivity 10 i

one tenth deci- d

-•
a conductivity 10 one hundredth centi- c
c speed of light 10
_1

one thousandth milli- m DERIVED SI UNITS

«
to one millionth micro- M
10
"8
one billionth nano- n Physical quantity SI unit S> mbol
10
-'-
one trillionth pico- P
10
-••
one quadrillionth femto- f
Frequency hertz 11/

10 IH
one quintillionth atto- a Energj joule J

Force new ton \

Power watt W
Pressure pascal (newtons

The above terms are those used in the US. In the 1 1\ per square meter) Pa (Nnr2)
one billion is known as one thousand million and one Electric charge coulomb C
trillion is known as one billion. \ oltage volt \

Electric resistance ohm Q

55
Glossary
\BSOLl TE ZERO: The lowest
possible temperature. The higher
the temperature of matter, the
more movement, or kinetic energy,
its particles possess. At absolute
zero the particles do not move at
all. Absolute zero is zero kelvin,
-273. 1 5° Celsius or -459.67°
Fahrenheit.
ACCELERATION: A change
speed of an object. A reduction
speed is a negative acceleration,
and is often called a deceleration.
Acceleration is usually measured
ms (meters per second per second,
-'
or meters per second squared).
ACHRO VIATIC DOUBLET: A
of two lenses that eliminates
chromatic aberration. The two
lenses are made of different types
of glass.
ADDITIVE PROCESS: Combining
light of different colors. When
of more than one color enters the
eve, the result is a color thai
different from each of the initial
colors. This is due to human eyes
having three types of cone
The brain combines the signals
from each type of cone, and
interprets the result.
VDHESIYE FORCES: The attractive
forces between two different types
of matter, such as water and glass.
The balance between adhesive
and cohesive forces determines
whether the meniscus of a liquid
will be upward or downward.
I VTOYIIC NUMBER: The number of
CIURLES'I.VW
ALPHA DECAY/PARTICLE: The
breakup of an unstable atomic
nucleus, resulting in the release of
two protons
a particle consisting of
and two neutrons an alpha — breakup of an unstable atomic
particle. During alpha decay, the
atomic number of the nucleus
reduces by two and the atomic
mass by four (see beta decay).
in the AMORPHOUS SOLID: Any
in particles not arranged in a regular,
repeating pattern and therefore not
composed of crystals. Because the
in particles are not regularly arranged,
over a period of time, an amorphous
solid can How, and is often called a
supercooled liquid.
system
AMPLITUDE: The intensity of a
wave motion. For sound wave, the
a microscope. The movement is
amplitude determines how loud the
sound will be. For a water wave, the
amplitude is the height of the wave,
half the distance from the peak to
light the trough.
is ANGl LAR MOMENTl M
The product of the speed
rotation and the moment
cell. of inerlia of a spinning
object. The moment
of inertia of
an object is a contains a
measure of how
hard it is to set
the object
spinning.
ANODE: The positive electrode of
anj electrical apparatus. Because
the anode is connected to the positive
electrical supply, electrons are
attracted to it. Anodes are used in
X-ray lubes and cathode ray tubes.
ANTIPARTICLE: \ particle that has
the same mass as another particle,
but has one or more of ils
properties equal and opposite.
ATOM: A tiny particle. The building
blocks of matter, atoms are the
smallest part of an element. Atoms
are typically 10 '"m (or one ten-
millionth of a millimeter) in
diameter, and consist of a positively
charged nucleus surrounded by
negatively charged electrons.
ATOMIC MASS: The total
protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom, expressed in
atomic mass units. Protons and
neutrons each have a mass of one
atomic mass unit. Fluorine- 19, with
nine protons and ten neutrons, has
an atomic mass of nineteen.
protons present in the nucleus of
an atom. All fluorine atoms have an
atomic number of nine, because
they have nine protons.
BETA DECAY/PARTICLE: The
nucleus, resulting in the release
of a fast-moving electron. This
electron is called a beta particle.
During beta decay, the atomic
number of the nucleus actually
solid with increases by one, because a
neutron changes into a proton,
releasing an electron. The
atomic mass is unchanged
(see alpha decay).
BBOWNIAN MOTION: The
random motion of small solid
objects, such as smoke particles,
which can be observed under
caused by atoms and molecules
of liquid or gas bombarding the
solid objects.
151 BULL Cll WIBER: \ device used
to detect particles in
collisions
ol Dial lake
place in
particle
accelerators.
The chamber
liquid, such
as liquid
hydrogen,
LUBRIC \TION held just
below its
boiling point. \nv particles that
have electric charge cause atoms
in the liquid to become ions. The
liquid boils around these ions,
forming tinv gas bubbles wherever
a charged particle passes. A strong
magnetic field in the chamber
causes the particles to travel in
curved tracks, and each of the
particle types can be identified by
their tracks.
CAPILLARY ACTION: The rising
or falling of a liquid in a narrow
tube, above or below the liquid
surface, due to surface tension. If
adhesive forces are stronger than
cohesive forces, as in the case of
water in glass tubes, the liquid
will climb up the tube. The
narrower the tube, the higher the
mass of liquid will rise or fall.
CATHODE: The negative
electrode of any electrical
apparatus. Because the cathode is
connected to the negative
electrical supply, electrons are
pushed away from it (see anode).
CATHODE RAY TUBE: A sealed
glass tube used in the display of
most televisions. Inside the tube.
GYROSCOPE
electrons leave a cathode, and
are attracted toward the high-
voltage anode. The electrons
form a beam, sometimes called
a cathode ray, which can be
observed as it touches a
a luminescent screen.
CELSIUS: A temperature scale
on which water freezes at 0° and
boils at 100°. Each degree Celsius
is equal to one kelvin, but the
kelvin scale begins at absolute
zero (-273.15°C). Once called the
Centigrade scale, the name was
changed in 1948.
CENTER OF GRAVITY: The point
of an object at which clockwise
and counterclockwise moments
are equal and the object
therefore balances.
CENTRIPETAL FORCE: The force
needed to keep an object moving
in a circle or an ellipse. In the case
of circular motion, the force is
always directed to the center of the
circle, and depends upon the mass
and speed of the object and the
radius of the circle.
CERN (CONSEIL EUROPEEN POUR
LA RECHERCHE NUCLEAIRE): The
European Laboratory for Nuclear
Physics, near Geneva on the Swiss-
French border and run by nineteen
European nations. It is the site of
the Large Hadron Collider.
CHAIN REACTION: A process, such
as nuclear fission, in which each
reaction is in turn the stimulus of a
further reaction.
CHARGE: See electric charge.
CHROMATIC ABERRATION: A
defect in a lens, caused by the fact
that different wavelengths of light
refract by different amounts as they
pass through glass. The result of
the defect is that different colors
of light focus at different points. An
image produced by the lens therefore
has colored fringes around it, often
appearing distorted. The problem
can be solved by using an
achromatic doublet.

FOCUSING AN [MAGE
CLOUD CHAMBER: A device used
to detect and track particles
resulting from radioactive decay.
It is a sealed unit containing a
vapor, usually alcohol, just at the
point of condensing to form a
liquid. Alpha and beta particles
possess electric charge, and for
thisreason provide sites around
which the vapor can condense.
The tracks of the particles appear
as paths of tiny droplets (see
bubble chamber).
COHESIVE FORCES
The attractive forces between
atoms or molecules in a liquid,
such as water. Cohesive forces are
responsible for surface tension
(see adhesive forces).
COMPONENT
The effect of a force in a particular
direction. A force can he thought
of as a combination of two or
more components.
COMPRESSION
The action of squashing a
substance, so that it takes up a
smaller space. When a gas is
compressed, its pressure
increases. When a solid is
compressed reaction forces are
produced. These forces arc
responsible for the strength of a
solid such as concrete, which is
said to be "strong in compression."
CONCAVE: Shaped like the inside
of a bowl. Concave mirrors make
parallel light converge. Concave
lenses make parallel light diverge.
CONDUCTIVE: Describes
material that allows electric
current to How through it easily. A
material with a high conductivity
allows electricity to Mow easily, and
is called a conductor. The term can
be used to describe beat How as
well as the How of electricity.
CONES: Cells on the surface at the
back of the human eye (the retina),
which are sensitive to light of
particular ranges of color. The
cones allow for color vision. There
are three types of cone cell: red-,
green-, and blue-sensitive.
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE: ismost noticeable in gases, creates magnetism that lines up
The combination of two waves because the movement of the the domains in the iron, turning
where the waves are "in step." Hence particles is much faster than it is in it into a temporary magnet.
the peaks of one wave correspond solids or liquids.
to the peaks of the other. The ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES: The
amplitude of the resulting DISPLACEMENT: A movement forces on electric charges moving
combined wave is the sum of the away or the distance of an object in a magnetic field. The size and
amplitudes of the individual waves, from its normal position. direction of the force depends
upon the speed, sign, and size of
CONVERGE: To come together, as DIVERGE: To move apart, as the charge, and on the strength
parallel light does, when it comes parallel light does when it passes and direction of the magnetic Field.
to a point of focus. through a concave lens.
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION:
CONVEX: Shaped like the outside DOMAINS: Tiny regions, between A form of energy that travels
of a bowl. Convex lenses make 0.1 and 1 mm in width, within through space and matter. It is
parallel light converge. Convex magnetic materials. Every atom of associated with electric fields and
minors make parallel light diverge. a magnetic substance, such as magnetic fields, and can be
iron, is itself a tiny magnet. All of thought of as a wave motion
CRITICAL ANGLE: The angle at or the atoms within a given domain involving these fields. It can also be
above which light striking the are lined up, so that each domain thought of as a stream of particles
boundary between two different is magnetized in a particular called photons. The many types
materials undergoes total internal direction. In an unmagnetized of radiation include light, radio
reflection. state, the domains cancel each waves, and X-rays.
other out. When a material is
CRYOGENIC UNIT: A cooling device magnetized, all of the domains are ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRl M:
used to reduce the temperature of made to line up with each other. The range of different types of
substances to verj low values, often electromagnetic radiation. Each
only a few degrees above absolute ELASTICITY: The ability of a type of radiation is identical except
zero (zero kelvin). Cryogenic units substance to regain its size and for its wavelength and
its energy.
are used in particle shape after being Radiation with short wavelengths
accelerators, such as stretched by forces of and high energy include X-rays
those at CERN, to tension. Forces of and gamma rays, while longer-
produce liquid attraction between wavelength, lower-energy
helium, which cools atoms within the radiation includes infrared and
electromagnets substance are made radio waves.
necessary for the stronger \\ hen the
operation of the atoms are pulled ELECTRON: \ particle found in all
apai't. These forces atoms. electrons have one unit
\>
accelerator. \11
are responsible for of negative electric charge.
CRYSTAL LATTICE: A elasticity.
regular, repealing ELECTROSCOPE: An instrument
arrangement of ELECTRIC CHARGE: for measuring the extent of
atoms or molecules LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE \ properly of certain unbalanced electric charge in an
in a solid (see unit particles or object. The most common example
cell). substances that results in consists of a glass box \\ itb two
electrostatic forces. There are pieces of gold foil thai are pushed
CIU STALS: Solids w hose atoms or two types or signs of charge: apart as they are charged by
molecules arc arranged in a crystal positive and negative. induction.
lattice. The numbers of positive and
negative charges in matter is ELECTROSTATIC FORCES: The
CI RRENT: Sec electric current. normally balanced, giv ing no forces between electric charges.
overall charge (see ion). Two charges of the same sign will
DENSITY: measure of the
\ push apart, or repel. Charges of
concentration of mass in a ELECTRIC CI RRENT: The different sign pull together, or attract
substance. The numerical value for movemenl of particles w iib
density is calculated by dividing the electric charge. Most electric ELEMENT: \ substance consisting
mass of a given amount of the currents are the result of moving of only one type of atom. Examples
substance by its volume. electrons. The movemenl of are hydrogen, oxygen, and fluorine.
electrons is caused by electrostatic
DESTRl CTIVE INTERFERENCE: or electromagnetic forces. ELLIPSE: \ shape thai looks like a
The combination of two waves flattened circle. The orbits of the
a where the waves arc "out of Step." ELECTRIC FIELD: \ region in planets are ellipses.
This means that the peaks of one which a particle with electric
wave correspond to the troughs of charge will experience an EQl ILIBRH M: \ balanced stale at
the other wave. The amplitude of electrostatic force. w Inch Ihe resultant of a number of
the combined wave is therefore forces on an object is zero.
reduced. ELECTRODE: Part of an electrical
device that is connected to the
DIFFRACTION: The bending of electrical supply. The positive
waves around the edge of an electrode is called the anode.
object. A small gap consists of two while the negative electrode is
edges, so the waves are bent into called the cathode.
concentric curves.
ELECTROM VGNET: \ de\ ice made
DIFFUSION: The mixing of by winding a continuous coil of
substances, caused by the random wire around an iron cure. Electric
SOVP1U RULE
motion of their particles. Diffusion current flowing through the wire

INDUCTION
ERROR BAR: A vertical or horizontal
drawn on a graph to
line that is
indicate the margin of accuracy
with which a particular
measurement was taken.
EVAPORATION: The loss of
or molecules from a liquid, as they
break free of the liquid to become
a vapor. Evaporation takes place
below the boiling temperature of
the liquid.
EXCITED: In possession of extra
energy. Electrons in atoms can be
excited by heat or light energy.
When they do so, they occupy a
new position in the atom,
according to their new energy.
FAHRENHEIT: Scale of temperature
on which water freezes at 32
degrees and boils at 212 degrees.
FILAMENT: The fine wire in
incandescent light bulb.
filament heats up when electric
current flows through it. At high
temperatures, the filament glows.
FISSION: The splitting of unstable
nuclei of atoms. The process
begins as a free neutron joins the
nucleus, making it more unstable.
The nucleus splits into two
smaller, more stable nuclei and
releases further free neutrons and
a large amount of energy in a
chain reaction. This release of
energy is used in atom bombs
FLUID: Any substance that flows.
Liquids and gases are both fluids.
FLUORESCENCE: A type of
luminescence in which a by particles known as gravitons
substance glows with visible light
immediately after being excited by
invisible ultraviolet radiation.
FOCAL LENGTH: The distance
from a lens or curved mirror at
which a parallel beam of light
comes to a focus.
FORCE: A push or a pull.
SQUENCY: The regularity with
something happens.
ten applied to a
The number of times
wave
cycle of a
ond is
wave, and
measui ;
(Hz).
FULCRUM: The point about
an object turns. For example, the
fulcrum of a lever is its pivot.
FUSION: A joining of small nuclei
of atoms to form larger nuclei. In
some cases, such as when hydrogen
atoms fuse to form atoms of the
element helium, there is a huge
release of energy during the process.
GAUGE BOSON: A particle
exchanged between two
interacting particles. At the sub-
microscopic level of the tiniest
particles, the exchange is
responsible for the four forces:
gravity, electromagnetic force,
atoms the weak interaction, and the
strong nuclear force.
GEIGER-MULLER TUBE: A
for detecting radioactivity.
electric current flows between the
wall of the tube and a metal wire
at its center when alpha or beta
particles enter.
GENERATOR: A machine that
produces an electrical
voltage whenever its rotor
is turned. The kinetic
energy of the rotor
becomes electrical energy
because of the
coils and magnets.
an
The GLUONS: Particles
responsible for
carrying the strong
nuclear force (see
gauge boson),
according to modern
theory.
GRAPH: A visual representation of
an experiment's results. A graph
will highlight any relationships
between the various types of data.
GRAVITY/GRAVITATION: A force of
attraction between all objects with
mass. The size of the force
depends upon the masses of the
two objects and the distance
between the objects. Modern
theory says that gravity is carried
(see gauge boson).
GYROSCOPE
Usually thought of as a spinning
metal disk supported in a metal
cage, the word can refer to any
spinning object. Gyroscopes have
stability as they spin.
HADRON
Any particle that is composed
quarks. Examples are the proton
It is and the pi meson.
or
HIGGS BOSON: Hypothetical
wave particle whose existence would
the link theelectromagnetic force
is and the weak interaction, and
explain why particles have mass.
which HOLE: A vacant electron position
within the crystal lattice of a
semiconductor that can be
thought of as a positive charge.
IMAGE: A picture formed by a lens
or a curved mirror. Images cast on
screens by convex lenses are
called real images, while those
seen using telescopes or
microscopes, which cannot be
directly projected, are called
virtual images.
INDUCTION: 1. The apparent
charging of one object by an
electrically charged object nearby.
The charging is apparent since it is
only a shift of electric charge
within the object. 2. The
magnetization of iron objects in
device the presence of a magnet. The
An domains inside the iron line
with the magnetic field of the
magnet.
INERTIA: The resistance of an
object to any change in
its motion.
INFRARED
RADIATION: A type
electromagnetic
radiation, with a
wavelength shorter
than visible light.
INTERFERENCE:
The combination
of two or more
waves.
MENISCUS ION An atom
: MOMENT: The
with an overall
electric charge. The numbers
positivelycharged protons and of
negatively charged electrons in an
atom are normally equal. But the
removal of one or more electrons
leaves the atom with a net positive
charge, while extra electrons give
a net negative charge.
KELVIN: The absolute scale of
temperature, the Kelvin scale
begins at absolute zero, and unlike
the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales,
does not rely on fixed points.
KINETIC ENERGY: The energy of a
moving object, dependent upon the
mass and speed of the object.
LATENT HEAT: Heat energy that
melts a solid or vaporizes a liquid.
Latent heat does not raise the
temperature of the substance.
of LENS: A curved piece of glass or
other transparent material that
refracts light, and can form images.
LIMITING FRICTION: The force
which must be overcome to start
an object moving when it is in
contact with a surface. It is
greatest between rough surfaces.
LUMINESCENCE: The emission of
light due decrease in the
to a
energy level of an excited electron
within an atom or molecule. The
two main types are fluorescence
and phosphorescence.
MAGNETIC FIELD: A field of force
around the poles of a magnet or a
wire carrying an electric current.
MASS: The measure of an object's
inertia.Mass is also defined by
gravitation. The gravitational
force between two objects depends
upon their masses.
MELTING POINT: The temperature
atwhich a solid substance
becomes a liquid. It is dependent
upon atmospheric pressure.
up MENISCUS: The curved surface of
a liquid where it meets the
container.It is caused by a
combination of adhesive and
cohesive forces.
MESONS: A hadron consisting of
two quarks. An example is the pi
meson, which carries the strong
of nuclear force between protons
and neutrons within the nucleus.
MICROMETER: A device used to
measure very small displacements.
MOLECULE: The smallest amount
of a compound. A water molecule
consists of two atoms of hydrogen
and one of oxygen.
turning effect
of a force.
of
NEUTRON: One of the particles in
the nucleus of an atom. It is a
hadron, and has no electric charge.
NEWTON METER: A device used to
measure force. A pointer moves
along a scale as a spring inside the
meter extends. The extension of
the spring depends upon the
applied force.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS: Changes
involving the nuclei of atoms,
such as fission and fusion.
NUCLEUS: The central part of an
atom. It has a positive electric
charge because it contains protons.
ORBITALS: Regions of an atom in
which electrons are found. The
name comes from the word
"orbit," since electrons were
I
MAGNETIC FIELD
originally thought to follow
definite paths around the nucleus.
OSCILLATOR: An electric circuit
that produces an alternating
electric current, which repeatedly
changes direction.
PERMANENT MAGNETS: Objects
with a fixed magnetism. The
domains in a permanent magnet
always align to produce a magnetic
field (see electromagnet).
PHOSPHORESCENCE (PHOSPHOR):
A type of luminescence in which
a substance glows with visible light
some time after being excited
(see fluorescence). A phosphor
isany substance exhibiting
phosphorescence.
PHOTON: A particle of
electromagnetic radiation. The
energy of a photon depends only
upon the wavelength of the
radiation.A photon can be thought
of as a packet of waves.
PLANE WAVE: A wave motion
which the waves are parallel to
one another and perpendicular
the direction of the wave's motion.
POSITRON: The antiparticle
electron. It is identical to the
electron in every way, except that
it has positive electric charge.
POTENTIAL ENERGY: Energy
that is "stored." An object held in
the air has potential energy by
virtue of its height and the
gravitational force pulling it
downward.
PRESSURE: A measure of the
concentration of a force. The
pressure exerted by a force is equal
to the size of the force divided by
the area over which it acts. Solids,
liquids and gases exert pressure.
PRIMARY COLORS: A set of three
when combined in
colors, which,
the correct proportion, can produce
any other color. The set of
ONE KG MASS
primaries for the additive process
is different from that for the
subtractive process.
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION:
The rules governing the
interference of waves.
PRINCIPLE OF THE
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:
Energy can be neither created nor
destroyed, it can only change, or
transfer, from one form to another.
PROTON: A hadron found
the nucleus of an atom. It
positive electric charge.
QUARKS: Particles that combine
together to form hadrons, such as
protons and neutrons. No quark
has ever been detected in isolation.
RAREFACTION: The lowering of
the density and pressure of a gas;
the opposite of compression.
REACTION: A force produced bj
an object that is equal and opposite
in to a force applied to the object.
to REFRACTION: The bending of light
or other electromagnetic
radiation as it passes from one
of the material to another.
RESISTANCE: A measure
of the opposition to the
flow of electric
current. It is the
ratio of voltage to
current.
VN INCLIN ED
RESULTANT: The
combined effect of two or more
forces.
SVNKEY DIAGRAM: An illustration
of the energy changes in a process.
The diagram consists of a large
arrow, which represents the input
of energy to the process, and
which splits according to the
energj changes thai occur.
SEMICONDUCTOR: A material in
which the electrons arc held onh
atoms. The electrons
loosly to their
can become and the material
free,
therefore becomes conductive,
with only a small input of energy.
SHELL: An energy occupied
level
by electrons within an atom. It is
generally true that the lower the
energy of electrons in the shell, the
closer it is to the nucleus.
SI UNITS (SYSTEME
INTERNATIONAL D'UMTES): A increased kinetic energy of the
system of units accepted by the
worldwide scientific communityas
the standard. Its seven base units
include the kilogram and second.
SOLENOID: A long coil of wire,
which produces a magnetic field
similar to that of a bar magnet. With
-
an iron bar inside the coil, a solenoid
becomes an electromagnet.
SOLUTION: A liquid mixture of
substances in w hieh the particles
of
the substances are uniformly mixed.
SPEED: The rate at which an object
moves, equal to the distance moved
divided by the time taken.
STATE: The form of a substance,
either solid, liquid, or gas.
within
has a STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE: The
force between hadrons. It is canned
by gluons, or by combinations of
quarks (see gauge boson). The MEASURING RESISTANCE
strong nuclear force is responsible
for holding the nucleus together. TURRINE: A machine in which a
liquid or a gas causes rotation.
SURTRACTIYE PROCESS: The When attached to a generator, the
process by which pigments absorb turbine helps to generate electricity.
parts of the visible spectrum of
light, but reflect others, making UNIT CEUU: The group of atoms
objects appear to have color. or molecules in a crystal: when
repeated, it forms the crystal lattice.
SUPERCOOLED LIQUID: See
amorphous solid. UPTHRUST: An upward force on
an object immersed in a liquid or a
St RFVCE TENSION: gas. I pthrust is the resultant of
The resultant force the liquid or gas pressure acting on
at the surface of a the object.
liquid, due to the
cohesive forces VELOCITY: The speed and direction
between the particles of an object's motion.
of the liquid.
VERNIER SCALL: \ scale attached
TEMPERATURE: How toinstruments such as callipers.
hot or cold a substance which allows verj accurate
is. Temperature measurements to be taken.
PLANE relates directly to the
kinetic energy of a VOLTAGE: \ measure of the force
substance's particles. The particles on particles with electric charge.
in hotter objects have more kinetic The \oltage in an electric circuit
energy. pushes electrons around the circuit.
TENSION: A reaction force in NOLI ME: The amount of space an
;isolid that is stretched, which object takes up.
pulls the atoms of the solid
together. It is the opposite \\ V\ ELENGTH: The distance from
of compression. one wave peak to another. The
w a\ elength of electromagnetic
TERMINAL VELOCITY The : radiation determines the t\pe of
maximum speed attained by an radiation. For example. X-rays have
object falling through a liquid or gas. a shorter w a\ elength than light.
V parachute through air has
falling
a relatively low terminal velocity, THE W EAK INTERACTION: A force
while that of a ball bearing will be between some types of particle,
much greater. including electrons. Also involved
in the decay of hadrons. such as
THERMAL EXPANSION: The the beta decay of neutrons in the
expansion of a solid as its nucleus. The force is carried by \\
temperature increases. It is due to and Z particles (see gauge boson).
the increased vibration of the
atoms and molecules of the solid, W EIGHT: The force of gravity on
this increased vibration occurs at an object, dependent on the mass
higher temperatures due to the of the object.
atoms an molecules. WORK: The amount of energj
involved in a particular task. For
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION: example, work said to be done
is
The reflection of light from the when a pulle\ lifts a load. The
border between two materials. amount of work done is equal to
as the light passes from the denser the force acting multiplied In the
to the less dense material. distance moved.
59
 7 1

electric circuit 53 conversion table 55 Condensation 22 Depth 27

Index electric current 52

Bearings
ball bearings 15
gyroscopes 19
Center of gravity 56
point of suspension
Centigrade scale 56
see also Celsius scale
1 1
Conduction 22
Conductivity 55
Conductors
electric circuits 32
Depth of

57
Diffraction 57
field 45
Destructive interference 46,

Angular momentum 19, 56 Beta decay 56 Centimeters, conversion semiconductors 59 electromagnetic

Absolute zero 22. 56 Anode 56 nuclear physics 50 table 55 Cones (eyes) radiation 38

cryogenic unit 57 cathode ray tubes 49, 56 weak interaction 59 Centripetal force 18-19, 56 additive process 56 waves 46
keh in scale 58 electrodes 57 Beta particle 56 formula 54 color vision 40, 57 Diffusion 57
Absorption Antenna 58 cloud chamber 57 particle accelerators 53 Conservation of energy 7 gases 28
color 40 Antiparticle 56 Geiger-Miiller tube 58 CERN (Conseil Europeen Principle of 59 Digital thermometer 9

light 42 particle accelerators 52 symbol 55 pour la Recherche Constant acceleration 54 Dim filament lamp 40
Acceleration 56 positrons 59 Bicycles 1 Nucleaire) 56 Constructive interference 46, Disk brakes 15
formula 54 Aperture 44 Billion 55 Large Hadron Collider 57 Displacement 57
measurement 12. 1 5 Area 55 Binoculars 52,55 "Conventional current" 52 oscillation 20

Newton's Lav\s 12, 15 Atmospheric pressure 27 lenses 42 Chain reaction 56 Converge 57 Dissolving 6
terminal velocity 14 melting point 58 total internal reflection 42 nuclear fission 51 Converging light rays 42 Distance
Accuracy, error bars 58 sound waves 21 Block and tackle 16 Chainwheel 17 Conversion tables 55 measurement 8
Achromatic doublet 56 Atomic mass 56 Blue light Charged atoms 50 Convex lenses speed 15, 59
chromatic aberration 44-5 Atomic number 56 additive process 41 Charles' Law 28, 56 eyes 42 Diverge 57
Acres 55 alpha decay 56 color vision 40 experiment 29 images 58 Diverging light rays 42
Additive process 56 beta decay 56 lenses 45 formula 54 Convex mirrors 45 Domains 57
color 40. 41 nuclear physics 50 photons 38 Chemical energy 7 Cooling 57 induction 58
primary colors 59 Atoms 56 subtractive process 41 Chromatic aberration 56 Cooling towers 51 magnetism 50, 51

Adhesive forces 56 Brownian motion 6, 56 white light spectrum 59 lenses 44, 45 Corkscrew 16 permanent magnets 59
capillary action 26, 56 cohesive forces 57 Boiling point 22 Circles Corners 19 Double pulle\ 7 I

liquids 26 crystal lattice 57 Celsius scale 56 centripetal force 56 Cosmic rays 50 "Dow n" quarks 52
meniscus 58 crystal systems 24 Fahrenheit scale 58 ellipses 57 Coulomb, symbol 55 Downward meniscus 26
Air domains 57 Bone 59 Circuit breaker 56 Counterclockwise moment Drawing pin 5, 1 1

diffusion 28 elasticity 57 Bosons Circular motion 18-19 I I

liquification 22 electric charges 50 gauge 58 Circular waves 46 Critical angle 57

soap bubbles 26 eleclric circuits 52 lliggs 58 Clockwise moment 1 1 total internal reflection 42
E
sound waves 20, 21 electric current 52 particle physics 52 Cloud chamber 50, 57 Cross-sectional area 25 Earth
total internal reflection 42 electromagnetic Bourdon gauge 2, 29 CMS detector 55 Crown w heel 7 centripetal force 18
upthrusi 21 radiation 59 Boyle's Law 2,28 Coal 56 Cryogenic unit 57 cosmic rays 50
Air molecules electrons 48-9, 57 formula 54 Cohesive forces 57 Crystal lattice 57 geothermal power 57
Brownian motion 6 elements 50, 57 Brain 56 capillar) action 56 holes 58 gravity 8, 12, 13

evaporation 6 equalization of Brakes liquids 26 unit cells 24, 59 magnetic field 31

sound waves 20, 21 temperature 25 cars 7 meniscus 56, 58 Crystallization 6 temperature 22

Air pressure evaporation 6, 58 friction I 5 surface tension 59 slates of matter 22 Efficiency 55

increasing pressure with excited electrons 58 Bright filament lamps to Coils Crystals 57 Effort 16

depth 27 fission 58 Bromine 28 electric motors 5 5 cubic system 24 levers 17

melting point 58 friction II Brownian motion 6, 56 electromagnets 54, 55 external features 24 Elasticity 57

sound waves 21 fusion 58 Bubble chamber 56 generators 56 hexagonal system 25 formula 54

Air resistance 14 gases 28 cosmic rays 50 solenoids 55 monoclinic svstem 25 solids 24
formula 54 heat energj 22 particle accelerators 52 televisions 49 orthorhombic system 21 solids under tension 25
Alcohol 57 ions 50, 58 Bubbles Cold 22, 59 particles 6 Electric charge 30, 57
Alligator clip 9 luminescence 58 colors 46. 47 Collisions 52 solids 2 I bubble chambers 56
Alpha decay 50, 56 matter 6 soap 5 Color (0- tetragonal system 24 electromagnetic
Alpha particles 56 neutrons 58 surface tension 26 additive process 40, 41, Iriclinic system 25 radiation 58
cloud chamber 57 nuclear physics 50-1 Buildings II 56 trigonal system 25 electrons 57
Geiger-Miiller tube 58 nuclear reactions 58 Bunsen burner 2 chromatic aberration 56 unit cells 24, 59 electroscopes 57
symbol 55 nucleus 58 Burning 22 destructive interference Cubic centimeters 55 induction 58
Ammeter orbilals 59 47 Cubic feet 55 nuclear physics 50
electric circuit 55 particle physics 52 fluorescence 48 Cubic inches 55 nucleus 58
measuring electric protons 59 primary colors 40. 59 Cubic meters 55 positrons 59
current 54 semiconductors 59 Caliper units 1 5 secondary colors 41 Cubic system 24 protons 59
measuring resistance 5, 52 shell 59 Calipers 59 soap hubbies 46, 47 Cyan 41 SI units 55
Amorphous solid 56 solar cells 57 Cameras 44 subtractive process 41, voltage 59
atoms 24
Amount of substance 55
solids 24
solids under tension 25
Candela 55
Capacity 55
59
vision 57
D Eleclric circuits 32-3
formulas 54
Ampere 55 solutions 6 Capillary action 26, 56 Commutator 35 Data oscillators 58-9

Amplitude 56 Ihermal expansion 24, 59 Carbon dioxide 50 Compass graphs 8, 58 resistance 32

constructive unit cell 59 Cars electromagnetism interpreting 9 voltage 59
interference 57 Axes 16 brakes 7 affecting needle I, 54 Daughter nucleus 51 Eleclric current 57
destructive Axis 19 energy transfer 7 magnetism 51 Decay cathode ray tubes 49
interference 57 Axles engines 12 Component 57 alpha decay 50, 56 circuits 52-5

waves 20 ball bearings 15 Cathode 56 weight 10 beta decay 50, 56 conductivity 57

Amps 52 \\ heels 17 electrodes 57 Compound microscope 44 Deceleration 56 electromagnetism 54
Ingles Cathode ray oscillograph 21 Compounds 58 Deflection 49 magnetic field 58
critical 57 Cathode ray lube 5. 56 Compression 57 Degree Celsius 22 Ohm's Law 52
crystal systems 24-5
B anodes 56 solids 24 Degree Fahrenheit 22 oscillators 58-9
light reflection 12 Ball bearings I 5 electrons 48, 49 sound waves 21 Density 57 resistance 59
light refraction 42 Balloons, hot air 29 television 48, 49 springs 20 rarefaction 59 SI units 55
n!s 55 Barrages, tidal power 57 Cells, unit 24, 59 Concave lens 45 solids 24 solar cells 57
total inti i nal reflection Batteries Celsius scale 22, 56 Concave mirror 45 symbol 55 Eleclric field 57
12 cars 7 absolute zero 56 telescopes 45 total internal reflection 59 cathode ray lubes 48, 49

60
 electrostatic forces 50 nuclear physics 50 cone cells 56, 57 "Force lines" 54 Graphs 8, 58 Hydrogen 57
radio waves 58 orbitals 48, 59 laser surgery 47 Formulas 54 error bars 58 bubble chambers 56
Electric motor particle physics 52 lenses 44 Inundations I I freefall experimenl 9 cosmic raj 5 30
electromagnetism 54, 35 positrons 59 seeing by reflected light Fractures 59 Gravitons 58 nuclear fusion 51, is

energj transfer 7 semiconductors 59 42 Francis turbine 56 Gravity and grav ilalion 58 water molecules Is
kinetic energj 7 shell 59 Freefall experiment 9 center of grav itv 56
Electric resistance 5 sodium lamps tO Freezing point centripetal force 18
SI units 55 solar cells 57 mercury 22 force 10
Electricitj 50-1 sialic electricity 50 Fahrenheit scale 22, 58 stales of matter 22 formula 54 Ideal gas equation 54

car batteries 7 \ an de Graaff generator absolute zero 56 water 22. 56, 58 freefall experimenl 9 Image 5s
energy 6 51 conversion table 55 Frequency 58 gauge bosons 58 Image formation
loudspeakers 2 I voltage 59 Falling 9 SI units 55 gyroscopes 19 convex lenses 45
nuclear physics 50 weak interaction 59 Feet 55 sound wax es 2 I mass 58 focusing 57
Ohm's Law 2 \ rays 59 Feynman diagram 52 sy mbol 55 oscillation 20 formula 54
oscilloscope 2 Electron gun 49 Field of \ ision 45 Friction 14-15 particle physics 52 human v ision 44

photovoltaic cell 7 Electronic charge 55 Filament 58 between surfaces 2 planets 19 lenses 58

resistance 5 Electroscope 50, 57 cathode raj lubes 49 centripetal force 19 potential energy 59 Immersed objects 27
static 50 Electrostatic forces 57 light bulbs 55 formula 54 solar svslem 12. 15 Imperial units 55
Van de Graaff generator 5, electric charges 50 Filament lamp 40 limiting 14, 58 tidal power 57 Inches 55
51 electric circuits 52 Film Newton meter 5 turning force I 1 Inclined plane 16
Electricity generation 56-7, Element 57 cameras 14 Fulc rum 58 weight 8, 59 Induction 57-8
58 atoms 48, 56 thin film interference 47 levers 17 Green light charged atoms 50
geothermal power 56, 57 protons 50 Fillers 41 scales 8 additiv e process 1 electrical charge 58
nuclear power stations 51 Ellipse 57 Fission 58 Fusion 58 color vision 40 electroscopes 57
renewable sources 56-7 centripetal force 56 chain reaction 56 nuclear physics 50, 5 destructive interference magnetization I s

solar energy 57 planetary orbits 19 nuclear physics 50, 5 I 47 Inertia 12. 58

turbines 59 Energy 6-7 Floating 26.27 LED (light-emitting angular momentum 56

water power 56 cathode ray lubes 49 Fluid 58 diode) 40 mass Is

wind power 57 conduction 22 lubrication 14. I 5 Gallons 55 subtractive process n Infrared radiation Is
Electrode 57 electricitj generation 56-7 Fluorescence t8, 58 Gamma raj s vv lute light spectrum 59 electromagnetic spectrum
anodes 56 electromagnetic radiation Fluorescent lamp 40 electromagnetic sped nun Gyroscope 5, 58 58
batteries 52 58 Fluorine 57 58, 59 angular momentum 19 hoi objects 59
cathodes 5(i electrons 48 atomic mass 56 radioacliv ity 50 centripetal force is transfer of beat 25
Electromagnetic force 57 fusion 58 atomic number 50, 56 sv ii i hoi 55 Interference 58
gauge bosons 58 generators 58 atoms 28-9
Iliggs bosons 58 heal 22-5 Focal length 58
Is (,.isrs

Boyle's Law 28
H constructive 46. 57
destructive 46. 17
particle physics 52 kinetic 6, 58 concave mirrors t5 Charles' Law 29 I ladi mi 58 electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation latent Ileal 25, 58 convex lenses 15 compression 57 mesons Is 58
58-9, 57 nuclear fission 51 formula 5 diffusion 28, 57 neutron- 5s Principle of Superposition
infrared 58 nuclear fusion 51 microscopes It evaporation 6 particle accelerators 55 1!)

light 42 nuclear physics 50 telescopes II fluids 58 particle physics 52 wave bebav ior 46-7

photons 59 nuclear power stations i i Focal point 45 formulas 5 protons 59 Interpreting data 9
refraction 59 particle physics 52 Focusing an image 57 natural gas 22 quarks 59 Inverted images 45
Sun 7 phosphorescence 49 human eye 44 particles 22 slrong nuclear force 59 Ion 50. 58

wavelength 59 photons 59 image formation 15 pressure 28-9 weak interaction 59 bubble chambers 16
Electromagnetic spectrum potential 59 microscopes 44 Pressure Law 29 Hammer Ihrowei Is Van de GraafT generator 51

58-9, 57 Principle of the Force 10-15, 58 rarefaction 59 I leadlamps 7 Iron

visible lighl K) Conservation of Energy 7, adhesive 2(i temperature 22. 28 9 Ileal Faith's magnetic field 51
Electromagnetism 54-5 59 centripetal 18-19. 56 turbines 59 cars 7 electromagnetism 54. 55

compass needle 1 , 54 Sankej diagram 59 cohesive 26, 57 uplhrusl 59 conducliv ilv 22. 17 magnetism 50, 51

electric motors 55 semiconductors 59 component 57 Gasoline 7 electromagnetic radiation melting point 22

force 10 SI units 55 compression 2 I Gauge boson 58 59
freefall experiment 9 Sun 7 electric fields 50 particle physics 52 energy (i. 22-5
particle physics 52 transfers 7 electromagnetism 10, 57 Dears equalization of
solenoids 55 waves 20 electrostatic 50, 57 electric motors 7 temperature 25 Joule 6
Electromagnets 55, 57 work 16, 59 equilibrium io vv imiI turbines 17 healing 25 sv mbol 11

electricity generation 56 Equalization of temperature formula 5 Geiger- Vtilller lulu- 50, 58 latent 2. 22. IS

loudspeakers 2 23 friction 11-15 Generator 58 nuclear povt er stations

particle accelerators 55
I

Equations gravity 10, 15 electricitj generation 56-7 radiation 22

5 I

K
Electromotix e force 55 ideal gas equation 5 limiting friction 58 hydroelectricirj 56 temperature 59 Kelv in sv mbol 15

Electron 48-9, 57 temperature conversion magnetism 3 nuclear power stations 5 I led, ire 55 Kelv in scale 22. Is
anodes 56 55 moment 58 turbines 59 I lelium absolute zero 56
batteries 52 Equilibrium 10, 57-8 New ton meters 58 \ an de Graaff 5. 5 I cryogenic unit 57 conv ersion table 11
beta particles 56 oscillation 20 New Ion's I ,aw s 12-15 w ind po» er 57 nuclear fusion 5 1 . 58 Kilogram 8

cathode ray tube 5, 49. 56 Error bar 58 oscillation 20 Geothermal power 56. 57 particle accelerators 55 conversion table 55
cathodes 56 Evaporation 58 particle physics 52-3 Class Hertz 21 sv mbol ii

electric circuits 52 slates ol matter (i. 22 pressure I 1 , 59 capillar} action 2^ mbol 55

sy Kilogram metres
electric current 52, 57 Excited electrons IS. 58 reaction 10. 59 iiow 22 Hexagonal svsicni 2") per second 15
electromagnetic radiation Expansion resullanl 10, 59 lenses 58 I hggs boson 58 kilometers 51
58, 59 solids 25 SI units 55 refraction 42 particle physics 52 Kinetic energj 6. 58
excited 48, 58 thermal 2t, 59 simple machines 16 total internal reflection 12 High pressure 21 brakes I 1

fluorescence t8 Expansion joints 2 I strong nuclear force 59 t II ass prism 59 High-voltage anodes 56 energy transfer 7

ions 58 Experimenl 8-9 tension 24, 25 Gluons 58 Hole 58 generators 56, 58

lasers 47 freefall experimenl 9 turning 1 particle physics 52 I lot-air balloons 29 heal 22

light bulbs 55 graphs 58 uplhrusl 27 strong nuclear force 59 Hot o 1
1
1 c i i
s J9 heal transfer 21
luminescence 58 Eyes weak interaction 59 Cold leaf electroscope 50 I lundred 55 sohds 24
negative electric charge 50 color \ ision tO work 16 Crams 55 Hydroelectric power 36 temperature 19

til
 1 1

digital thermometer 9 kinetic energy 58 Meters 8 Neon lamp 40 Orthorhombic system 24

Lightning lifting with pulleys 17 conversion table 55 Neutrino 55 Oscillation 20-1
Lamps K) lightning conductor 57 measurement 8 symbol 55 Neutron 58 electromagnetic radiation
Large Electron Positron temperature 22 momentum 15 Meters per second 12, 15 atomic mass 56 58
(LEP) collider 53 Limiting friction 14, 58 Newton's Laws 12 Meters per second per beta decay 56 wave behavior 46
Large Hadron Collider Liquid pressure 54 oscillation 20 second 12, 15 chain reaction 56 Oscillator 58-9
(LUC) 52, 53 Liquids 26-7 particle physics 52 Micro- 55 mesons 58 Oscilloscopes 21
Lasers 10. 47 capillary action 26, 56 SI units 55 Micrometer 58 nuclear fission 51, 58 Ounces 55
Latent heat 2. 58 cohesive forces 57 weight 59 measuring thermal nuclear physics 50 Oxygen 57
melting a substance 22, crystallization 6 Matter 6-7 expansion 24 particle physics 52 water molecules 58
25 dissolving 6 adhesive forces 56 Microphone 21 quarks 59
Lead 22 drops and bubbles 26 atoms 48-9 Microscope Newton, Sir Isaac 12

Length evaporation 6, 58 Brownian motion 6 compound 44 Newton meter 58

conversion table 55 fluids 58 crystallization 6 images 58 measuring force 10 Paper
measurement 8 latent heat 58 dissolving 6 traveling 8 measuring limiting burning 22
SI units 55 melting point 58 evaporation 6 Microwaves 58 friction 5, 14 induction in 50
Lens 42-5, 58 meniscus 26, 58 heat energy 22 Miles 55 measuring resultant Particle accelerators 52-3
achromatic doublets 44, particles 22 mass 8 Million 55 force 4 bubble chambers 56
45. 50 pressure 26, 27 particle physics 52-5 Mirrors 42. 45 measuring turning force cryogenic unit 57
binoculars 42 solutions 59 states of 22 cameras 44 I I Particle physics 52-3
cameras 44 supercooled 22, 56 temperature 22 concave 57 measuring weight 8 Particles
chromatic aberration 44, temperature 22 Measurement 8-9 convex 57 New ton meters 1 absolute zero 56
45. 50 turbines 59 acceleration 12, 13 focal length 58 Newtons 8 amorphous solids 56
concave 57 upthrust 27, 59 distance 8 images 58 measuring force 10 atoms 48-9, 56
convex 57 Liquification 22 electric charge 57 microscopes 44 symbol 55 Brownian motion 6, 56
eyes 42, 44 Liters 55 electric current 52 telescopes 45 Newton's Laws 12-15 bubble chambers 56
focal length 58 Load 16 error bars 58 Mole 55 formula 54 cloud chamber 57
formula 54 levers 17 force 10 Molecule 58 Newtons per square meter crystallization 6
images 58 Long-wave radio 58 frequency 21 Brownian motion 6, 56 I I diffusion 57
microscopes 44 Longitudinal waves 20 gas pressure 29 capillary action 26 Nichrome wire 2 dissolving 6
telescopes 44, 45 Loudspeakers 21 heat 8 cohesive forces 57 North seeking pole 51 electric current 57
Levers Low pressure 21 imperial-metric crystal lattice 57 Nuclear force 59 electric field 57
fulcrum 58 Lubrication 14, 15 conversions 55 evaporation 6, 58 Nuclear physics 50-1 electromagnetic radiation
three classes 17 Luminescence 58 latent heat 2 gases 28 Nuclear power stations 51 58, 57
Light electrons 48 length 8 heal energj 22 Nuclear reactions 58 evaporation 6
additive process 41 fluorescence 48, 58 limiting friction 14 induction 50 Sun 7 gases 22, 28
cameras 44 phosphorescence 49, 59 liquid pressure 27 luminescence 58 Nucleus 58 gauge bosons 58
chromatic aberration 56 Luminescent screens 56 mass 8 matter 6 atomic mass 56 gluons 58
color 40 Luminous intensity 55 metric-imperial thermal expansion 59 atoms 48 gravitons 58
color vision 57 conversions 55 unit cell 59 beta decay 56 hadrons 58
constructive interference
47
M micrometer 58
momentum I 5
Moment 58
center of gravity 56
chain reaction 56
fission 58
kinetic energy 23
light 47
converging 57 Machines 16-17 Newton meters 58 of inertia 56 fusion 58 liquids 22, 26
destructive interference Magenta pressure 1 turning force 1 1 neutrons 58 matter 6
46,47 additive process 41 radioactivitj 50 Momentum 15 particle physics 52 melting 23
divergence 57 subtractive process 41 resistance 5, 59 angular 19, 56 protons 59 nuclear physics 50
electromagnetic radiation Magnetic field 58 SI units 59 formula 54 strong nuclear force 59 quarks 59
58 bubble chambers 56 speed 12. 15 oscillation 20 weak interaction 59 solids 22
electromagnetic spectrum cathode ray tubes 48, 49 temperature 22, 55 Monoclinic system 25 solutions 59
Moon supercooled liquid 22
59
electrons 48
"force lines" 34
particle accelerators 52
thermal expansion 24
time 8 gravity 12, 15
o temperature 22
energy 6 permanent magnets 59 turning force 1 I telescopic images 45 Objective lenses weak interaction 59
fluorescence 48, 58 radio waves 38 Vernier scale 59 tidal power 57 binoculars 42 Pascal 55
focal length 58 solenoids 35, 59 weight 8 Motion microscopes 44 Pedals 17
lasers 46, 47 Magnetism 30-1 width 8 Brownian 6, 56 telescopes 45 Pendulum 20
lenses 45, 58 domains 57 Mechanical advantage 16 circular 18-19 Oceans 57 Penstock 36
luminescence 58 electromagnetic radiation Mechanical energy 7 displacement 57 Ohms 52 Pentaprism 44
mirrors 43 58-9 Medical photography 39 energy of 7 symbol 55 Permanent magnets 59
optical instruments 44 electromagnetism 54-5 Medium-wave radio 38 formula 54 Ohm's Law 2, 32 loudspeakers 21
phosphorescence 59 induction 58 Melting friction 14 formula 54 Permeability symbol 55
radiation from hot objects Magnets melting point 25, 58 gas particles 28 Oil Phosphor 59
59 compasses 31, 34 states of matter 22 inertia 58 electricity generation 56 fluorescent lamps 40
reflection 42-3 electricity generation 36 Meniscus 2. 26, 58 Newton's Laws 12-15 lubrication 15 television screens 49
refraction 42, 59 electromagnets 35, 57 adhesive and cohesive oscillation 20 Optical brighteners 48 Phosphorescence 59
speed of 42 loudspeakers 21 forces 56 precession 19 Optical instruments 44-5 luminescence 58
subtractive process 41, 59 permanent 59 dow nward 20 speed 59 binoculars 42 Phosphorescent screens
telescopes 45 Magnification 44-5 upward 26 Motorcycles cameras 44 cathode ray tubes 49
total internal reflection 59 Magnifying glasses 43 Mercury brakes 15 microscopes 44 television 49
velocity symbol 55 Manganese 48 meniscus 2, 26 centripetal force 18, 19 telescopes 45 Photography
wavelength 59 Mass 58 thermometers 9 Orange light cameras 44
Mesons 58 neon lamps 40 X-rays 39
Light bulbs 55
color 40
antiparticles 56
atomic 56 particle physics 52
N sodium lamps 40 Photon 59
electric circuit 55 centripetal force 18, 56 Metals Naphthalene 2,25 while light spectrum 59 electromagnetic radiation
filaments 58 conversion table 55 electric circuits 32 Natural gas 22 Orbilals 48, 59 58,57
Light-emitting diode (LED) density 57 electromagnetic radiation Navigation 31 Orbits light 46, 47
57 gravity 58 59 Negative electric charge 30 centripetal force 18 particle accelerators 52

color 40 lliggs bosons 58 welding 22 electric current 50, 32 planetary 19 particle physics 52
 symbol 55 ions 58 generators 56, 58 waves 20, 21 Switch gear 36 geothermal power 57
Photovoltaic eel] 7 mesons 58 Rubber 25 South-seeking pole 51 Switches 55 hydroelectricity 36
Pi mesons 52 nuclear physics 50 Ruby lasers 47 Space 59 Symbols 55 nuclear power stations 51
hadrons 58 nucleus 58 Spectrum tidal power 57
mesons 58 particle accelerators 52. colors 40 wind power 57
Pigments 55 electromagnetic 58-9, 57
T Turning force 1

color 40 particle physics 52 Sandpaper 2. 14 white light 59 Tailrace 36 formula 54

subtractive process 41, 59 positive electric charge Sankey diagram 7, 59 Speed 13, 59 Telescopes 44. 45 moment 58
Pints 55 50 Scales 8 acceleration 12, 15. 56 images 58 rollers 14. I 5

Pistons 15 quarks 59 Scrapyard electromagnets air resistance 14 lenses 45 screw 1

Pivot 58 weak interaction 59 35 centripetal force 18. 56 reflecting 45

turning forces
Plane 16
1 Pinion synchroton (PS) ring
53
Screens
cathode ray tubes 49
formula 54
kinetic energy 58
refracting 45
Television 48, 49
u
Plane angle 55 Pull 10 projecting images onto 43 or light 42 Temperature 22-5. 59 Ultraviolet radiation
Plane wave 59 Pulleys 5, 16, 17 television 49 measurement 12, 15 absolute zero 56 electromagnetic
wave behavior 46 Pumps 51 Screw 1 terminal velocity 59 Boyle's Law 28 spectrum 59
Planets Push Hi Seas 37 velocity 12, 59 Celsius scale 56 Fluorescence 48. 58
centripetal force 18 Pylons 51 Second 8 Spinning object Charles' Law 29 Lnit cell 24. 59
gravity 19 symbol 55 angular momentum 56 conversion table 55 L nits of temperature 22
orbits 19 Secondary colours 41 gyroscopes 18, 19, 58 cryogenic unit 57 "L p" quarks 52
Plexiglass 14 Semiconductor 59 Springs 20 electromagnetic radiation I pthrust 59
Point of suspension I I Quadrillion 55 boles 58 Square centimeters 55 59 hot-air balloons 29
Poles 31 Quadruple pulley 17 LED (light-emitting Square feet 55 equalization of 23 immersed objects 26. 27
Pollution 56 Quarks 59 diode) 40 Square inches 55 Fahrenheit scale 58 I pward meniscus 26
Polyethylene rod 50 hadrons 58 solar cells 36, 37 Square kilometers 55 filament lamps 40 t ranium 5
Positive electric charge 30 mesons 58 Shell 59 Square meters 55 gases 28-9
electric current 30, 32 particle physics 52 electrons 48 Square miles 55 Kelvin scale 58
Positive ions 31 strong nuclear force 59 Ships 27 Square yards 5 5 latent heat 58
Positron 59 Quartz 18 Short-wave radio 38 Stability 19. 58 measurement 22 \ acuum 49
particle accelerators 52 Quintillion 55 Shutters 44 Slates oi matter 59 melting point 58 Van de Graaff generator 5.

Potassium permanganate si units (Systeme gases 22 Pressure Law 29 50-1

crystallization 6 International d'l nites) 8, liquids 22 SI units 53 apor 58
dissolving 6
R 59 solids 22 solids 24
\

\ ariable resistors 54
Potential energy 6. 7, 59 Radian 55 conversion table 55 supercooled liquid 22 thermal expansion 59 Velocity 12. 59
cars 7 Radiation Silicon 37 and temperature 22 Tension 59 light 55

bydroelectricity 36 electromagnetic 7, 38-9, Simple machines 16-17 Malic electricirj 30 centripetal force 18 momentum 15

Pounds 55 57 Simple pulley 17 Stator 36 elasticity 57 terminal 14. 59

Power electromagnetic Single lens reflex (SLR) Steam use illation 20 \ eniis 19

formula 54 spectrum 58-9 cameras 44 electricirj generation 56 solids 24. 25 Vernier calipers 8
SI units 55 heat transfer 22 Slopes 10 geothermal power 57 surface 26. 59 Vernier scale 59
Power stations infrared 23, 58 Smoke particles 6 nuclear power stations 5 Tension force 16 trav cling microscope 8
generators 36 Radio waves 38 Soap bubbles 5 Steel 59 I erminal velocity 14. 59 \ erj high frequencj <\ HF)
bydroelectricity 36 Radioacth it y 50 colors 46, 47 Steel rails 24 Tetragonal system 24 radio 38
nuclear power 50, 51 analyzing 50 surface tension 26 Steradian 55 Theories 8 \ i lir.it ion

Precession 19 cloud chamber 57 Soap powder 48 Stimulated emission 46. 47 Thermal expansion 24. 59 electromagnetic
Pressure 1 1, 59 Geiger-Muller tube 58 Sociable 48 "sli'iuig nuclear force 59 Thermometer radiation 59
Boyle's Law 28 geothermal power 5 7 Sodium lamp 40 gauge linsoiis 58 digital 9 frequencj 21, 58
Charles' Law 29 Rails 24 Solar cell 7 gluons 58 measuring heal B oscillation 20
compression 57 Rarefaction 59 electricity generation 56. mesons 58 measuring latent beat 2 sound 20, 21
formula 54 sound waves 21 57 nuclear physics 50 mercury 9 thermal expansion 24. 59
gases 28-9 springs 20 Solar energy 5(i. 57 particle physics 52 Thin film interference 17 \ irw Under
liquids 26, 27 Reaction 10, 59 Solar System 19 Structure (i Thousand 35 camera 44
melting point 58 Newton's Laws 12 Solenoid 55. 59 Sublimation 22 Tidal power 57 telescope 4 3

rarefaction 59 tension 59 Solid angle 55 Substances Time Violel light 39

SI units 55 Reactors 51 Solids 24-5 SI uuiis 55 freefall experiment 9 \ irtual images 58
uplhrust 59 Real Ullages 58 amorphous 2 1 . 56 state ol matter 22 measurement 8 \ iscosit] 55

Pressure Law 28, 29 Red light compression 57 Subtracts e process 59 SI units 55 \ ision

formula 54 additive process 41 crystal lattice 57 color Kt speed 59 color 40. 57

Primary colors 59 color vision 40 crystallization 6 filters 41 Tonnes 55 seem;; b\ reflected light

additive process 41 constructive interference crystals 24-5 primary colors 59 Ions 55 12

vision 40 47 dissoh ing ti Sun Total internal reflection 42. Voice cod 21
Principle of the lenses 45 electromagnetic radiation energy; 7 59 Voltage 59
Consen ation of Energy 6, photons 58 59 gravity 12. 15 binoculars 42 electric circuits 32

59 subtractive process 41 latent beat 58 nude. ir physics 50 critical angle 57 formulas 34

Principle of Superposition \\ bite light spectrum 39 melting 22, 58 orbit of planets 19 Transfer of energy 7 generators 36, 58
46,59 Reflecting telescope 45 particles 22 solar power 36. 37 Transformer Ohm's Law 52
Prisms Reflection solutions 59 temperature 22 hydroelectricity 56 resistance 59
binoculars 42 color 40 temperature 22 Super proton synchroton nuclear power stations 51 SI units 55

telescopes 15 light 42-5 tension 24, 25, 59 (SPS) ring 53 Transmission 42 \ an de Graaff generator 5

white light spectrum 59 total internal reflection thermal expansion 24, 59 Supercooled liquids 56 Transverse waves 20 wind power 57
Proton 59 Rocks 57 Solution 6, 59 particles 22 ["raveling microscope 8 \ oltmeters 2
'
atomic mass 56 Rollers Sound energ) Surface tension 59 Triclinic system 2 5 electric circuit 35

atomic number 56 hall hearings 15 Sound waxes bubbles 26 Trigonal system 25 Volts 52
cosmic rays 50 reducing friction 2, 14. 15 amplitude 56 cohesfr e forces 26. 57 Trillion 55 symbol 55
electromagnetic radiation Rotation, turbines 59 frequency 21 Surfaces 14 Tubes 26 \ olume 59
59 Rotor \ ibrations 20, 21 Surgerx 4 7 Tuning fork 21 Charles' Law 29
hadrons 58 electric motor 55 wavelength 21 Suspension I I Turbine 59 conversion table 55
 1

densit) 57 tidal power 57 constructive interference air resistance 14 Willemite 48 wavelength 59

gases 28 9 uplhrusl 11 57 component 10 W iiitl farms 57
vt a\ e beliax ior Hi destructive interference 57 formulas 54 W ind power 56-7

w waves
\\ iiiis 55
")(i difraction 57
electromagnetic radial ion
lifting

measurement
vt iili pulleys
8
I 7 W ire

electricitj generation 56 Yards 55

\\ particles 52 Wavelength 20, 59 58 resultant force 10 electromagnetism 54-5, 57 1 ellovt lighl

weak interaction "i!) chromatic aberration ">(i frequency 58 uplhrusl 27 solenoids 59 additive process 4 I

Water colors 40 interference 46, 58 Welding metals 11 Wood 11 sodalite 48

boiling point 22. 56, 58 electromagnetic light 47 Wheels Work 59 subtracts e process 41
capillar) action 26. 56 radiation 58-9 plane 46, 59 axles 17 formula 54 while lighl spectrum 59
electricitj generation 56 electromagnetic Principle of Superposition ball bearings 15 simple machines 16

evaporation 6 spectrum 57 46. 59 White light \\ orm gear 7

freezing point 22. 56, 58 infrared radiation 58 sound 20 additive process 41

geothermal power 57 springs 20 40
meniscus 26
photons 59
sound waves 21
in

W eak interaction 59
color \ ision

destructive interference
X / particles 52
weak interaction 59
molecules 58 symbol 55 gauge bosons 58 46-7 X-rays 59 Zinc 48
nuclear power stations 5 \\ hilt' light spectrum 59 Iliggs bosons 58 radiation from hot objects electromagnetic radiation
pressure 11 Waxes 20-1 particle physics 52 59 58
solutions 6 amplitude 56 Wedges 16 spectrum 59 electromagnetic spectrum
surface tension 16 behavior 46-7 Weight 59 Width 8 59

Acknowledgments Additional photography:

Tim Ridley
Dorling Kinderslej would like to thank:
Griffin and George, Loughborough, for the loan of scientific equipment; Model making:
I niversitj College London, lor the loan of glassware; Maplin electronics. Simon Munell
Hammersmith
Picture research:
Special thanks to Lew Instone at Griffin and George, Peter Lei^hton at L'CL \nna Lord
and Patrick Rolleston at Kensington Park School
Picture credits:
Additional design assistance: CERN 50bl, 52br; Simon Eraser 37tr; Robert Harding/C. Delli 57cr; Image Rank/
Carla De Abreu, \nlhea Forle Mel Digiacomo 47crb; Bruce Iverson 44c; Newage International Ltd 56tc;
Omikron 52cr; David Parker 59tc; Des Reid/Marian Tnlly 24tr; John Sanford 45tr;
Additional editorial assistance: Science Photo Library/Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory 52tr; Stammers/Thompson
Louise Candlish, Phillippa Colvin, Caroline Hunt, Jane Mason, Jane Sarin is. 59bc; Zefa 29bc, 55cl, 37c
Roger Tritton (t=top, b=bottom, c=center, l=left, r=right)

64
 BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY

3 9999 03687 198 4

Brighton Branch Library

40 Academy HHi Road
Brighton. MA 02135-3316
 EYEWITNESS VISUAL DICTIONARIES
A SERIES TO COLLECT

"""'
niCTIO««M „. ' i
"
EVER YD A1 T HUM AN | 3 SH IPS v? 4 !

THING.S «W bodyJ) Sailing 1*:

THE MS. U ^"X

PLANTS VV

~«mi ST-57« I

Till IIM ,| "^^

on t»Mii .< c^RJo
,.,
DICTIONA«V./,., OICTIOMIO.. ^^B i _
I M\ ERSEl I_J

a
Phi; historic SKELETON

w {

;?
 EYEWITNESS VISUAL DICTIONARIES

THE VISUAL
DICTIONARY of
Physics
Come and explore PHYSICS from the inside out! This visual dictionary
looks at the theories and experiments involved in all areas of physics,
including energy, machines, waves, electricity, magnetism,
nuclear reactions, and much more. Open these pages and find:

Over 200 outstanding color photographs

and graphic illustrations.
•

A fascinating new kind of dictionary

that can be used by the entire family.

Concise text and carefully researched

definitions that are user-friendly for people of all ages.
•

Instant access to a 3,000-word specialized vocabulary.

EYEWITNESS VISUAL DICTIONARIES

are the ultimate finder's guides to the naming of the parts. See, learn,
discover, and identify all the parts of all the things in the world around you. From the tiniest

cogs of m achin es to the smallest cells of living creatures, the most intricate workings of
everything are revealed and labeled in full-color clarity.

OTHER TITLES IN THIS SERIES:

Everyday Things Human Body Ships and Sailing
• •
• •
Animals • Cars • Military Uniforms • Buildings
Plants •

Flight • Dinosaurs • Special Military Forces • Earth

Universe • Horse • Ancient Civilizations
Prehistoric Life • Skeleton
ISBN 0-7894-0239-4
90000 >

S18.95

« DK PUBLISHING, INC 9 "780789"402394