Student Book

UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON ONE- INTRODUCTION TO STEERING SYSTEMS.......................................................2
HISTORY OF STEERING AND SUSPENSION........................................................................4
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY.....................................................................................................5
CASTER .............................................................................................................................7
CAMBER .......................................................................................................................... 10
TOE.................................................................................................................................. 14
Toe-Out On Turns ........................................................................................................... 16
GEOMETRIC CENTERLINE ................................................................................................ 18
THRUST ANGLE ................................................................................................................ 19
PARALLELISM AND CENTERLINE STEERING .................................................................... 21
TREAD CENTERLINE......................................................................................................... 22
RELATIONSHIP OF ALIGNMENT ANGLES.......................................................................... 23
LESSON TWO - POWER NON-RACK-AND-PINION SYSTEMS................................................ 24
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................. 26
PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEMS.......................................................................... 27
PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEM COMPONENTS .................................................... 29
Pitman Arm.................................................................................................................... 29
Idler Arm........................................................................................................................ 29
Centerlink (Relay Rod or Draglink).................................................................................... 30
Tie Rod.......................................................................................................................... 31
Recirculating-Ball Steering Gear....................................................................................... 32
LESSON THREE - POWER RACK-AND-PINION SYSTEMS ..................................................... 33
RACK-AND-PINION STEERING........................................................................................... 34
Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear ........................................................................................ 37
SPEED PROPORTIONAL VARIABLE ASSIST ..................................................................... 38
REAR STEERING .............................................................................................................. 40
Passive Rear Steering (Multi-Link).................................................................................... 40
Passive Rear Steering (Toe Link)...................................................................................... 41
Mechanical Rear Steering................................................................................................ 43
GLOSSARY.......................................................................................................................... 45

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 Student Book

UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
LESSON ONE
INTRODUCTION TO STEERING
SYSTEMS

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
ICS
Successful completion of this Unit’s enabling objectives
(technical competencies) will allow you to meet the 007
Chemical and Physical
Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right Properties
margin.
101
ENABLING OBJECTIVES Basic Physics

Upon completion of Lesson One, you should be able to: 102

• Identify terms and definitions associated with steering

Mechanics and Forces

systems. 155
Steering and
• Define the characteristics of liquids Suspension Systems
• Identify the fundamental laws of hydraulics and conclude
how they apply to the operation of a power steering
pump.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
KEY TERMS
You will see the following key terms used throughout this lesson.
You may also refer to the glossary at the back of this book for
definitions of these terms.
• Camber
• Caster
• Directional Stability
• Geometric Centerline
• Lead
• Parallelism
• Pull
• Steering Axis
• Thrust Angle
• Toe

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
HISTORY OF STEERING AND SUSPENSION
The first steering and suspension systems were developed
centuries ago. Horse drawn buggies used springs to help smooth
out the road surface, if a road even existed. The buggy was steered
by pulling the reins of the horse, causing the horse to pull the buggy
into a turn. The front axle pivoted on a pin that allowed the front
wheels to turn in the desired direction. A rod and lever were
attached to the middle of the axle to assist the driver in turning and
holding the front wheels straight. Early horseless carriages also
used this design but it was not very accurate and it caused the
wheels to wear rapidly.

In the early 1800’s Rudolf Ackerman designed a steering system

that incorporated angled steering arms and knuckles. This allowed
both front wheels to turn in their own path or arc. The inner wheel
turned at a sharper angle, which allowed both wheels to turn at the
same pivot point, minimizing tire wear. Over the years many
improvements have been made to the vehicle’s steering systems.

Today, there are many variations to the basic steering and

suspension systems, independent suspension systems have
evolved from simple means to cushion a jolt or shock, into highly
engineered systems for the best ride quality, directional control and
ease of handling. Additionally, most steering systems are power
assisted, and some are power assisted proportional to vehicle
speed. Even with all of the variations, the basic concepts still apply
to all systems.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
Directional stability is needed to keep vehicles going ion a straight
line or in line with the direction of the steering wheel. Steering and
suspension systems are closely related, and in most cases, are
dependent upon each other. The relationship between these
systems is important to the operation and performance of the
vehicle. Each system relies on the other to perform adequately.
Wheels and tires also impact the performance of the steering and
suspension systems. Any changes or modifications to these
systems will affect the ride and handling of the vehicle.

The steering system allows the driver to direct the movement of the
vehicle. It must provide a means for proper handling, good
directional control, and stability. The most common front steering
systems are the parallelogram and rack-and-pinion steering systems.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
The suspension system supports the weight of the vehicle and any
load that is placed into it. It also smoothes the ride for passengers,
holds the wheels in position, and keeps them in contact with the
ground. Without a suspension system, the vehicle would become
unstable as it goes over bumps and dips in the roads. At higher
speeds, road variations would cause the steering or braking systems
to lose their effectiveness and the variations would be transferred
through the car to the passengers.

Vehicles do not steer or brake well if the tires are not contacting the
ground properly. The suspension system keeps the tires on the
ground so the contact area is properly aligned. Variations are
absorbed so that the steering and brake systems can work as
designed.

Tires should follow the shape of the road and adapt to variations.
Ideally, the tire should rise when it encounters a bump or “jounce”.
When a tire encounters a dip or hole, it should go down into the dip
while still supporting the vehicle at close to its original height. This
action is referred to as rebound.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
CASTER
Caster is the forward or backward tilt of the steering axis when
compared with a true vertical line. The steering axis is the line the
wheel turns around, when the wheel is turned to the side.

Caster is positive if the axis is leaning rearward. Caster is negative if

the axis is leaning forward. It is zero when the steering axis is
straight up or down. Caster is measured in degrees. Most vehicles
have a small amount of positive caster.

1-001

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
Caster gives the front wheels the ability to return to the straight ahead
position after a turn. Caster also provides directional stability.
The directional stability resulting from caster can be compared to a
shopping cart. The front wheels have caster which makes them tend
to track straight ahead. If caster was set properly and you gave the
shopping cart a shove, it would go off in a straight direction. Try it!

When a wheel is turned out, the spindle lowers and raises the
vehicle. When a wheel is turned in, the spindle raises and lowers the
vehicle. When the wheels are released from a turn, the weight of the
vehicle helps move each spindle back toward the mid-point until the
load is equal on both front wheels.

1-002

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
A difference in caster between one side and the other of more than
half of a degree may cause a pull or lead toward the side with the
least positive caster

High caster settings have advantages and disadvantages. The

advantages are greater directional stability and increases the front
wheels ability to return. The disadvantages are steering requires
more effort, road isolation is reduced, and tire wear on turns is
increased.

High positive caster can also cause the wheels to return to center
very fast. A steering dampener is used in some high caster
applications to reduce the speed at which the wheels return to
center. Some vehicles use a steering dampener to reduce the
effects of having a large amount of positive caster.

1-003

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
CAMBER
Camber is the inward or outward tilt of the wheel when compared
with a true vertical line.

Camber is positive when the top of the wheel is tilted out. Camber is
negative when the top of the wheel is tilted in. It is at zero when the
wheel is vertical (straight up and down). Front wheels usually have
small positive camber.

1-004

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
Positive camber helps give the front wheels directional stability.
Positive camber projects a portion of the vehicle weight onto a point
near the inner wheel bearing. By contrast, negative camber projects
a portion of the vehicle weight onto a point near the outer bearing.

1-005

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
When a wheel hits a bump, the spindle pivots at the spot near the
inner wheel bearing where the weight is projected so the movement
transmitted to the suspension is small. More force (a larger bump) is
needed to move the wheel away from the straight-ahead position.

1-006

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
With negative camber, the spindle pivots at a spot near the outer
wheel bearing. As a result, the movement transmitted to the
suspension when the wheel hits a bump is larger. Less force is
needed to move the wheel away from the straight-ahead position.
This may reduce directional stability. It may also result in excessive
road shock, a reduction in ride quality, and increased wear on the
outer wheel bearing.

Positive camber improves road isolation, ride quality, and directional

stability, because more force is needed to move the wheel away
from the straight-ahead position.

Rear camber, on the other hand, usually has a negative specification.

This is done to improve cornering, directional stability, and tire tread
life.

1-007

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
TOE
Toe is the difference between the front and rear edges of a set of
tires. When the wheels are parallel to each other, toe is zero. When
the front edges of the tires are closer together, the tires are toed-in,
and toe is positive. When the rear edges are closer, the tires are
toed-out, and toe is negative. Toe is specified in degrees or inches.

Toe specifications are usually provided in the Service Manual. To

find the toe for an individual wheel, divide the specification by two.

During high-speed driving conditions, the wheels should have nearly

zero front toe, to minimize tire wear. Excessive positive toe (toe-in)
will scuff the outside of the tire and wear down the outside shoulder.
Excessive negative toe (toe-out) will scuff the inside of the tire and
wear down the inside shoulder.

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STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN

1-008

1-009

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
Toe-Out On Turns
Toe-out on turns is the angle that the outside front wheel follows
through a turn. When a vehicle turns left, the right tire turns through a
larger circle (longer radius). The outside tire does not turn as sharp
as the inside tire, and the inner wheel is always ahead of the outer
wheel through the turn.

1-010

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
The steering system is designed with the steering arms angled to
turn the wheels at the correct toe through the turns. Toe-out on turns
is usually designed so that if straight lines were drawn through the
steering arms, they would intersect at or near the middle of the rear
axle. This principle is called “Ackerman’s Geometry”. Toe-out on
turns is considered a non-adjustable alignment angle. However, it
should be checked during alignment. If out of specification, it may
indicate bent steering or suspension components.

1-011

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
GEOMETRIC CENTERLINE
The vehicle’s geometric centerline is formed between the center
of the front wheels and the center of the rear wheels. The geometric
centerline passes through the midpoints of the front and rear wheel
spans or track widths. The geometric centerline could also be drawn
through the midpoint of the front and rear axles. The geometric
centerline is used as a reference to align toe on all four wheels

1-012

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
THRUST ANGLE
The thrust line is the direction the rear wheels are pointing. If the
rear suspension is not damaged and the rear toe is properly
adjusted, the thrust line and the geometric centerline of the vehicle
are the same.

The thrust angle is the difference between the thrust line and the
geometric centerline. A thrust angle to the right is positive. A thrust
angle to the left is negative. Thrust angle is measured in degrees.

1-013

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
When the trust angle is too large, problems can result, including dog-
tracking and an off-center steering wheel. When the thrust angle is
excessive, the driver has to turn the steering wheel to one side to
keep the vehicle moving straight ahead. Now the vehicle goes
slightly sideways along the road. This sideways movement is known
as “dog-tracking”. Excessive thrust angle is one of the primary
causes of a steering wheel that is not centered.

Even on vehicles where rear toe is not adjusted, thrust angle

measurements provide important diagnostic information. For
example, if the left rear toe in and the right rear toe out, on a vehicle
with a fixed rear axle, it is possible that the axle has shifted or a
frame rail has been damaged.

A thrust angle also exists when the individual toes of the rear wheels
are not equal. For example, if the left rear wheel is pointing straight
ahead and the right rear wheel toes out two degrees, the thrust angle
is one degree to the right.

Note: Thrust Angle = (Left Toe – Right Toe) / 2

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
PARALLELISM AND CENTERLINE
STEERING
Parallelism refers to the wheels tread centerlines being parallel to
the geometric centerline. When rear toe is adjusted, the thrust line
should be parallel with the geometric centerline. The steering wheel
is set straight and the front toe is adjusted to the thrust line, which is
now the centerline. When the vehicle moves, the front tires assume
a parallel direction with the rear. If toe is correct on the rear, the front
tires will follow a parallel path with the rear, creating centerline
steering.

1-014

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
TREAD CENTERLINE
On a vehicle that has front and rear wheels equally wide apart, the
tread centerline is a line from the midpoint of the front tire tread to
the midpoint of the rear tire tread on the same side. It should be
parallel to the geometric centerline.

If the tread centerline is not parallel to the geometric centerline, a

cross-member may not be positioned right, or the cradle may be
shifted to the side.

1-015

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
RELATIONSHIP OF ALIGNMENT ANGLES
Caster, camber, and toe are the alignment angles which are usually
adjustable. Many vehicles today also have rear camber and toe
adjustments. It is important to note that alignment angles affect each
other. For example, a vehicle is being serviced because the camber
angle of the left front wheel is out of specification. The camber is
negative, meaning the top of the wheel is leaning in toward the center
of the vehicle. An adjustment is made to correct the condition. The
adjustment brings the bottom of the tire inward. This causes the
distance to change between the two front tires. As a result, the
distance becomes smaller and the toe setting changes.

Changes like this can also occur when making other adjustments. It
is possible, however, to intentionally adjust more than one angle at a
time by knowing how one angle can affect another. It is important
that you check and align all the adjustable angles so one correction
does not cause misalignment of another. The order in which
alignment angles are set is important. Always refer to the proper
Service Manual for the correct alignment procedure.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
LESSON TWO
POWER NON-RACK-AND-PINION
SYSTEMS

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
ICS
Successful completion of this Unit’s enabling objectives
007
(technical competencies) will allow you to meet the Chemical and Physical
Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right Properties
margin.
042
ENABLING OBJECTIVES Math Formulas

Upon completion of Lesson Four, you should be able to: 101

Basic Physics
• Identify the fundamental laws of hydraulics and conclude
how they apply to the operation of non-rack and rack and 102
Mechanics and Forces
pinion power steering gears.
• Explain the terms friction, force, inertia, lever, gear ratios,
momentum, reduction, overdrive, speed, work, torque,
and power and how these science terms apply to
automotive steering and suspension systems.
• Identify the components of the integral non-rack and
pinion power steering gear and explain system operation.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
KEY TERMS
You will see the following key terms used throughout this lesson.
You may also refer to the glossary at the back of this book for
definitions of these terms.
• Centerlink
• Idler Arm
• Parallelogram Steering System
• Pitman Arm
• Recirculating-Ball Steering Gear
• Tie Rod

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
Two main types of steering systems are used on today's vehicles -
parallelogram and rack-and-pinion. These systems are designed to
do three things:
• Hold the wheels exactly in the direction the driver requires
• Isolate road shock (kick-back or jerk) while still offering some
feedback to inform the driver of changing road conditions
• Multiply the driver's effort

Most vehicles are steered through the front wheels. As the driver
turns the steering wheel, the movement is transferred through the
steering system to the front wheels. The rear wheels follow the front
wheels through the turn.

The amount of force required by the driver to turn the front wheels
depends on many things, but primarily the weight of the vehicle and
the speed the vehicle is traveling. The steering on a bicycle is
relatively easy due to the light weight of the bicycle and driver. A
person can easily turn a bicycle wheel with the leverage created in
the handlebars; however, a car or truck is much heavier.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEMS
In a parallelogram steering system, all the steering linkage
connecting points on the right side of the vehicle are parallel to those
on the left side.

1-016

The graphic below shows how the linkage is parallel up and down.

1-017

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
This system offers many advantages by allowing the motion on one
side of the vehicle to be duplicated on the other. The pivot points
can also be aligned with pivot points in the suspension system. As a
result, the steering motions are transmitted to the front wheels
independent of suspension status (jounce or rebound). Additionally,
the turning angles are the same for both front wheels, allowing for
toe-out on turns, regardless of the wheel's vertical position. Both
recirculating ball and rack-and-pinion steering gears are designed to
operate in a parallelogram.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
Pitman Arm
The Pitman arm is attached at one end to the steering gear's sector
shaft. The other end is connected to the centerlink (sometimes
referred to as a relay rod or draglink). The Pitman arm is the lever
that converts the rotary motion of the sector shaft into side-to-side
(lateral) motion. The Pitman arm is securely attached to the sector
shaft by splines, so that any movement of the sector shaft is
transmitted to the Pitman arm and centerlink.
Idler Arm
The idler arm is attached to the opposite end of the centerlink from
the Pitman arm. It moves in the same plane as the Pitman arm,
which keeps the linkage parallel. It usually bolts to the vehicle's
frame. It supports and guides the outer end of the centerlink through
the same path (arc) as the Pitman arm.

1-018

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
Centerlink (Relay Rod or Draglink)
The centerlink moves to the left and right under the vehicle as the
steering wheel is turned. The centerlink is connected between the
Pitman arm and the idler arm. The connections between the Pitman
arm and idler arm are usually ball and socket type so the centerlink
can swivel and move through various angles. Tie rods are also
attached to the centerlink with similar ball and socket type joints. As
the centerlink moves, it causes the tie rods to move the wheel
assembly.

Draglinks are a variation of the centerlink and are used on many

modern day trucks and sport utility vehicles. This design places the
Pitman arm in proper alignment with the wheel assembly and often
eliminates the need for an idler arm.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
Tie Rod
The tie rod connect the centerlink or draglink to the wheel assembly.
This causes any centerlink movement to be transferred to the
wheels. Tie rods have ball studs (ball and sockets) on both ends to
allow a full range of motion, due to the wheel's vertical and turning
movements.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
Recirculating-Ball Steering Gear
The recirculating-ball steering gear was developed in 1923. This
design eliminated much of the friction associated with earlier gear
styles. It has since become one of the two most widely used
steering gears. The steering gear consists of a worm gear, which is
supported on each end by ball bearings in a housing. The worm
gear has a spiral groove cut into it. A ball nut fits over the worm gear
shaft but does not contact it. The nut also has a groove, which
corresponds to the groove on the worm shaft.

The groove between the gear and the nut is filled with steel balls,
which are recirculated back into the groove as the worm and nut
move. The ball nut converts the rotational motion of the gear into
linear motion. The ball nut transfers its motion to a sector gear and
shaft. As the ball nut moves along the worm shaft, the sector gear
on the cross shaft is rotated.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
LESSON THREE
POWER RACK-AND-PINION
SYSTEMS

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
ICS
Successful completion of this Unit’s enabling objectives
007
(technical competencies) will allow you to meet the Chemical and Physical
Integrated Curriculum Standards (ICS) listed in the right Properties
margin.
042
ENABLING OBJECTIVES Math Formulas

Upon completion of Lesson Four, you should be able to: 101

Basic Physics
• Explain the terms friction, force, inertia, lever, gear ratios,
momentum, reduction, overdrive, speed, work, torque, 102
Mechanics and Forces
and power and how these science terms apply to
automotive steering and suspension systems.
• Identify the components of the power rack and pinion
steering system and explain system operation.
• Identify the components of a typical electronically
controlled automotive steering system and explain
system operation.
KEY TERMS
You will see the following key terms used throughout this
lesson. You may also refer to the glossary at the back of this
book for definitions of these terms.
• Rack-and-Pinion Steering System

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
RACK-AND-PINION STEERING
Many vehicles use a rack-and-pinion steering system. Rack-and-
pinion systems offer several advantages over parallelogram
systems:
• Saves space
• Weighs, costs less
• Provides responsive steering

While rack-and-pinion systems have these advantages, rack-and-

pinion systems are only efficient on light weight vehicles (if power
steering is not included).

1-021

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
Many vehicles have power steering to assist the driver. Power
steering decreases the effort required by the driver through the use
of hydraulics.

1-022

A pump driven by the engine creates hydraulic pressure that is

applied through a control valve as the driver turns the steering wheel.
Hydraulic pressure is then applied to one of two pistons to assist in
moving the steering linkage left or right.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
Some vehicles are equipped with variable assisted power steering
systems. The principle of operation is similar to the traditional power
steering system, but the amount of hydraulic pressure applied is
electronically controlled. For example, most vehicles are equipped
with a Variable Assisted Speed Proportional Power Steering
System. This system incorporates an electronic steering control
module that varies the power assist according to vehicle speed. The
variable assist reduces steering effort at low speeds and increases
the effort at high speeds to provide better feedback to the driver.

1-023

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear
The rack-and-pinion gears are enclosed in a housing that is located
between the front wheels. The pinion gear is attached to the lower
end of the steering column and meshes with the rack gear.

This gear combination converts rotary motion directly into linear

motion. A tie rod is attached to each end of the rack by means of a
ball and socket. The other tie rod end is attached directly to the
wheel assembly with ball and socket joints, which are often referred
to as tie rod ends.

Rack-and-pinion assemblies are sealed at each end with a rubber or

plastic bellows (boot) to keep dirt out. Rack-and-pinion assemblies
come in different gear ratios and should only be replaced with the
same ratio as originally equipped. Most current rack-and-pinion
assemblies are non-serviceable. Refer to the Service Manual for
rack-and-pinion replacement procedures.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
SPEED PROPORTIONAL VARIABLE ASSIST
A variable assist speed proportional power steering system is
available on some front-wheel drive cars. The system increases low
vehicle speed power steering assist during parking and low speed
turns. During faster vehicle speeds the system pressure (assist) is
reduced based on vehicle speed sensor input. A Solenoid Control
Module (SCM) and solenoid control valve reduce the assist to
provide a firmer and more stable ride.

Pressure is regulated by a torsion bar much like a Saginaw

recirculating ball steering gear. The SCM provides less return
pressure against the reaction disk at low speeds causing the
reaction disk to move up; this reduces the torsion load (steering
effort). By modulating return pressure with the solenoid, the system
decreases assist as vehicle speed increases.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
The system provides full assist for "evasive maneuvers" at higher
speeds. To test the system, you can test drive the vehicle or use a
Scan Tool to enter false vehicle speed inputs to check if the system
is changing the amount of assist.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
REAR STEERING
Passive Rear Steering (Multi-Link)
In the passive rear steering system, the suspension uses the
vehicle's weight and the forces induced on the suspension
components to slightly change rear toe angles during turns. The
configuration of the toe control arm, the lower lateral arm, and the
trailing arm force the inside rear wheel into a toe-out condition during
a turn. The outside wheel toes-in. This provides passive rear
steering and, therefore, improved cornering without a large number
of additional components like mechanical or hydraulic rear steering
systems.

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
Passive Rear Steering (Toe Link)
Some vehicles use a toe link rear suspension. The suspension is
actually an SLA suspension using upper and lower arms, with the
knuckle mounted on ball joints. The knuckles remain stationary when
the vehicle is turned, but the toe links (tie rods) adjust rear toe as the
suspension goes through jounce and rebound.

As the spindle arc changes during jounce and rebound, the tie rod
pivot point moves. This causes toe to be altered, much like an SLA
suspension changes camber because of the different arm lengths.
The toe link sets toe similar to tie rods on other front suspension
systems. The system improves vehicle response and does not
require a large number of additional components like mechanical or
hydraulic systems.

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STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN

1-028

1-029

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
Mechanical Rear Steering
Some manufacturers use a mechanical linkage to help steer the rear
wheels on a vehicle. The mechanical rear steering system uses a
shaft turned by the front rack to control a gear box in the rear. The
system is designed to steer the rear wheels in the same direction as
the front wheels when the steering wheel is turned between center
and about one third of a turn off center in either direction. This allows
the rear wheels to help turn when maneuvering at driving speeds.

The rear steering gear turns the rear wheels in the opposite direction
as the front wheels when a vehicle is performing low speed
maneuvers, such as parking. The steering system alters the rear
wheel direction as the steering wheel is turned from about one third
of a turn and beyond.

During an alignment, this system requires the rear toe be set first,
like all other four-wheel alignments. The rear toe aligns the thrust
angle and centers the rear steering gear. If a steering wheel is off-
center after alignment, the rear steering is affected because the front
and rear steering gears are not synchronized (centered together).

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STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN

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UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
GLOSSARY
• Camber – Tilting of the top of the wheels from the vertical; when
tilt is outward, camber is positive.
• Caster – Tilting of the steering axis forward or backward to
provide directional steering ability.
• Centerlink – A link used to connect the idler arm to the Pitman
arm in a parallelogram steering system. The link transfers
steering motion to vehicle tie rods.
• Directional Stability – The tendency of a vehicle to follow a
straight course without excess effort on the part of the driver.
• Geometric Centerline – A line formed from the front to the rear
in the middle of a vehicle. Tread centerlines should be spaced
evenly from this point to maintain proper tracking.
• Idler Arm – A component used to transmit steering forces from
a centerlink to a tie rod in parallelogram steering system.
• Lead – Pull to a specific side of a vehicle. The vehicle turns in
one direction when not controlled by the driver.
• Parallelism – Rear wheels should be parallel to the vehicle
centerline. If not, the thrust angle (rear toe) is incorrect.
Parallelism causes the front tires to proceed in the same
direction as the rear tires to make a vehicle go straight. If rear
toe/thrustline is off, a vehicle will dog track.
• Parallelogram Steering System – A linking arrangement which
allows the wheels to maintain the correct steering positions in
jounce or rebound. Linkage components take the shape of a
parallelogram, with equal length Pitman/idler arms and steering
arms. All components are parallel to one another from one side
of the vehicle to the other.

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Table of Contents
 Student Book

UNIT ONE
STEERING SYSTEM DESIGN
• Pitman Arm – An arm used to transfer rotational movement of
the sector shaft to linear movement of the centerlink in a
parallelogram steering system.
• Pull – Turning to a specific side of a vehicle. The vehicle turns
in one direction when not controlled by the driver.
• Rack-and-Pinion Steering System – A steering system that
uses a pinion gear connected to the steering column shaft
through a coupling to turn a long rack gear. The rack has tie rods
on each end which move the steering arms, knuckles and
spindle in the direction desired.
• Recirculating-Ball Steering Gear – A steering gear which
uses a worm gear to drive a ball nut through recirculating balls.
The recirculated balls reduce friction between the worm and ball
nut. Commonly used with parallelogram steering systems.
• Steering Axis – The angle formed between the line or axis
through which the steering knuckle rotates and true vertical.
• Thrust Angle – Angle formed by the average of the rear wheel
toe settings. Thrust angle propels a vehicle body in the direction
of the thrust line. Improper thrust angle causes dog tracking.
• Toe – The amount, in inches or millimeters, that the front of the
front wheels point inward.

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Table of Contents