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Course of Study:
(MGF5760) International institutions and organisations
Title of work:
The globalization of world politics; an introduction to international
relations, Seventh edition. (2017)
Section:
Chapter 21: The United Nations pp. 331--346
Author/editor of work:
Baylis, John; Smith, Steve; Owens, Patricia
Author of section:
P. Taylor, D. Curtis
Name of Publisher:
Oxford University Press
THEGLOBALIZATION
OF WORLD POLITICS
An Introduction to International Relations
SEVENTH EDITION
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Framing Questions
• Does the United Nations succeed in reconciling traditions of great power politics and
traditions of universalism?
• Why has the United Nations become more involved in matters within states and what
are the limits to this involvement?
• What are the United Nations' biggest successes and challenges in its efforts to prevent
and resolve conflict and to promote sustainable development?
Introduction
The United Nations (UN) is made up of a group of economic and social work, and an increased tendency
international institutions, which include the central to accord the UN a moral status. Threats to global
system located in New York, the specialized agencies, security addressed by the UN now include inter-state
such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and conflict and threats by non - state actors, as well as
the International Labour Organization (ILO), and the political, economic, and social conditions within
Programmes and Funds, such as the United Nations states. Despite the growth in UN activities, however,
Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the United Nations there are questions about the relevance and effective-
Development Programme (UNDP). When created ness of the UN. The failure by the USA and the UK to
more than seventy years ago in the aftermath of the get clear UN Security Council authorization for the
Second World War, the United Nations reflected the war in Iraq in 2003 led to well-publicized criticism
hope for a just and peaceful global community. It is of the UN and a crisis in international relations. The
the only global institution with the legitimacy that controversies surrounding the intervention in Libya
derives from universal membership, and a mandate in 2011 mandated by the UN Security Council and
that encompasses security, economic and social devel- the difficulties faced by the UN Security Council in
opment, the protection of human rights, and the pro- reaching agreement on how to respond to the Syrian
tection of the environment. Yet the UN was created conflict since 2011 have given rise to further criticism
by states for states, and the relationship between state and debate.
sovereignty and the protection of the needs and inter- After briefly outlining the history and the main
ests of people has not been fully resolved. Questions organs of the UN, this chapter will look at its changing
about the meaning of sovereignty and the limits of UN role in addressing matters of peace and security, and
action have remained key issues. then issues of economic and social development. It will
Since the founding of the UN, there has been an focus on how the UN's role has evolved in response to
expansion of UN activities to address conditions changes in the global political context, and on some of
within states, an improvement in UN capacity in its the problems that it still faces.
military or economic actions against miscreant states, The structure of the United Nations (see Box 21.2)
which further contributed to its weakness. Also key was intended to avoid some of the problems faced by
states, such as the United States, were not members of the League of Nations. The UN Security Council was
the League. By the Second World War, the League had given the main responsibility for maintaining interna-
already failed to address a number of acts of aggression. tional peace and security. In contrast to the League of
[
UN Principal
The United Nations System l 0
m
<
0
z
!""
'!>
Programmes and Funds n
Organs UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
1
UNITAR United Nations Institute for Training and Research C
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
• ITC International Trade Centre (UNCTAD,wTO)
UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency
for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for Social
Development
"'
::I
V,
UNDP United Nations Development Programme UN -Women United Nations Entity for Gender Equality UNSSC United Nations System Staff College
General Subsidiary Bodies
UNCDF United Nations Capital Development Fund
and the Empowerment of Women UNU United Nations University .,,
WFP World Food Programme )>
Assembly Main and other sessional • UNV United Nations Volunteers Other Entities C
I
committees
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
Disarmament Commission UNA IDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS -i
I
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund Research and Training Institutes )>
Human Rights Council UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for -<
UN -HABITAT United Na.tions Human Settlements. Programme UNICRI United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Disaster Reduction r
lnternatlonal Law Commission
l
Standing committees UNHCR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner Research Institute UNO PS United Nations Office for Project Services 0
l 1
"'
Security I and ad hoe bodies
~
for Refugees
CEF United~ s Children's Fund
UNIDIR United Nations lnrtitute for OiQ.rmament Research
J
Council ------ Related Organizations
CTBTO PrepCom Preparatory Commission for the
Advisory Subsidiary Body Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization
Subsidiary Bodies 2
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
Counter-terrorism committees Military Staff Committee United Nations Peacebuilding Commfssion
OPCW Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical
International Criminal Ttibunal for Peacekeeping operations and political missions Weapons
Rwanda (ICTR) Sanctions committees (ad hoe) 3
WT0 World Trade Organization
Economic and International Criminal Tribunal
Standing committees and ad hoe bodies • Specialized Agencies4
for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
Social Council ILO International labour Organization ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , "!
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations IMF International Monetary Fund }
f
• Functional Commissions Regional Commissions Other Bodies
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization i
and Cultural Organization IMO International Maritime Organization c
Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice ECA Economic Commission for Africa Committee for Development Policy WHO World Health Organization ITU International Telecommunication Union l
Secretariat
Narcotic Drugs
Population and Development
ECE Economic Commission for Europe Committee of Experts on Public
Administration
EC LAC E~nomic Com'!1ission for Latin Committee on Non-Governmental
World Bank Group
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction
UPU Universal Postal Union
WMO World Meteorological Organization
f
f
Science and Technology for and Development
Amenca and the Canbbean Organizations WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization
Development IDA International Development Association
Social Development ESCAP Economic and Social Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues IFAD International Fund for Agricultural
IFC International Finance Corporation
Statistics Commission for Asia and the Pacific United Nations Group of Experts Development 2,
ESCW A Economic and Social on Geographical Names MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee -;,
Status of Women Agency UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development O'
Commission for Western Asia ;s·
Sustainable Development Other sessional and standing committees Organization ·
ICSID International Centre for Settlement
United Nations Forum on Forests
and expert, ad hoe and related bodies
of Investment Disputes UNWTO World Tourism Organization "
International NOTES:
J
Court ofJustice Departments and offices 1 UNRWA and UNtDIR report only to the General Assembly. 0
The Trusteeship Council was established to provide interna- The International Court of Justice is the main judicial organ
tional supervision for eleven Trust Territories administered by of the UN. Consisting of fifteen judges elected jointly by the
seven member states, and to ensure that adequate steps were General Assembly and the Security Council, the Court decides
taken to prepare the territories for self-government or inde- disputes between countries. Participation by states in a proceed-
pendence. By 1994, all the Trust Territories had attained self- ing is voluntary, but if a state agrees to participate, it is obligated
government or independence, either as separate states or by to comply with the Court's decision. The Court also provides
joining neighbouring independent countries. The last to do so advisory opinions to other UN organs and Specialized Agencies
was the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Palau, which had on request.
previously been administered by the United States.
Nations, the United Nations recognized great power are self-contained constitutionally, financially, and
prerogatives in the Security Council. It includes five politically, and they are not subject to the management
permanent members, namely the USA, the UK, France, of the central system.
Russia (previously the Soviet Union), and China, as The Programmes and Funds are much closer to
well as ten non-permanent members. Unlike the deci- the central system in the sense that their management
sions of the League, those of the Security Council are arrangements are subject to direct General Assembly
binding, and must be passed by a majority of nine out supervision, can be modified by Assembly resolution,
of the fifteen members, including each of the five per- and are largely funded on a voluntary basis. Since the
manent members. These five permanent members were establishment of the United Nations in 1945, a num-
seen as the major powers at the time of the founding ber of new issues have come onto the international
of the United Nations. Tension between the recogni- agenda, such as the rights and interests of women,
tion of power politics through the Security Council climate change, resource depletion, population growth,
veto, and the universal ideals underlying the United terrorism, and the spread of HIV/AIDS. Frequently,
Nations, is a defining feature of the organization. The those issues have led to a new organization being cre-
recognition of power politics through veto power in the ated in the Programmes and Funds. Examples include
Security Council can be contrasted with the universal- the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
ist principles underlying the other principal organs of and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).
the United Nations. In the early years of the United Nations, there were
The UN Charter placed more emphasis than the serious disagreements about many aspects of its work,
League Covenant on the promotion of social and eco- including the question of membership. There were no
nomic advancement as a central goal, in part because new members between 1950 and 1955, because the US
many believed that the global economic depression and USSR could not agree. In 1955 there was a deal in
of the 1930s was one of the causes of the nationalism which members of the Soviet bloc such as Bulgaria and
and aggression that led to the outbreak of the Second Hungary were admitted alongside Western countries
World War. Whereas the League of Nations attrib - such as Italy and Spain. The biggest jump in UN mem-
uted responsibility for economic and social questions bership occurred with decolonization. By 1975 there
to the League Assembly, the Charter of the United were 144 members, up from the original group of 51
Nations established ECOSOC to oversee economic and members in 1945. The controversy over the People's
social institutions. Along with the Secretariat and the Republic of China's (PRC's) request to join severely
General Assembly, ECOSOC is responsible for oversee- hurt the UN's credibility in the 1950s and 1960s. The
ing the activities of a large number of other institutions PRC claimed that it was the rightful representative of
known as the United Nations system. This includes all Chinese people, but it was the Republic of China
the Specialized Agencies and the Programmes and (Taiwan) that represented China in the UN and on
Funds (see Fig. 21.1). The Specialized Agencies, such the Security Council, with American support. This
as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the changed in 1971, as relations improved between the
International Labour Organization (ILO), have their US and the PRC. General Assembly Resolution 2758
own constitutions, regularly assessed budgets, execu- (October 1971) recognized the PRC as the legitimate
tive heads, and assemblies of state representatives. They representative of China to the UN.
336 DEVON E. A. CURTIS · PAUL TAYLOR
Since the Security Council is the main executive body in the The Security Council does not reflect today's distribution of
United Nations with primary responsibility for maintaining inter- military or economic power, and it does not reflect a geographic
national peace and security, it is not surprising that many discus- balance. Germany and Japan have made strong cases for perma-
sions of UN reform have focused on the Security Council. nent membership. Developing countries have demanded more
The founders of the UN deliberately established a universal representation on the Security Council, with countries such as
General Assembly and a restricted Security Council that required South Africa, India, Egypt, Brazil, and Nigeria making particu-
unanimity among the great powers. Granting permanent seats lar claims. However, it has proved to be impossible to reach
and the right to a veto to the great powers of the time-the USA. agreement on new permanent members. Should the European
the Soviet Union (now Russia), France, the United Kingdom, and Union be represented instead of individual EU member states?
China-was an essential feature of the deal. How would Pakistan view India's candidacy? How would South
The composition and decision-making procedures of the Africa react to a Nigerian seat? What about representation by an
Security Council were increasingly challenged as membership Islamic country? These issues are not easy to resolve. Likewise,
of the United Nations grew, particularly after decolonization. it is very unlikely that the P-5 countries will want to relinquish
Yet the only significant reform of the Security Council occurred their veto.
in 1965, when the Council was enlarged from eleven to fifteen Nonetheless, while large-scale reform has proved impossible,
members and the required majority from seven to nine votes. there have been changes in Security Council working proce-
Nonetheless, the veto power of the permanent five (P-5) mem - dures that have made it more transparent and accountable.
bers was left intact.
There are still some debates over membership. For (1964) and Palestine (2012). There have been wide-
instance, Taiwan applied for membership in 2007 but spread and frequent calls for reform and changes in
this application was denied. There are two permanent the membership of the UN Security Council, but this is
non-member observer states at the UN: the Holy See very difficult (see Box 21.3).
Key Points
• The United Nations was established to preserve peace among Council veto) and universalism. They also reflect demands to
states after the Second World War. address the needs and interests of people, as well as the
• In a number of ways, the institutions of the United Nations needs and interests of states. The tensions between these
reflected lessons learned from its predecessor, the League of various demands are a key feature of UN development.
Nations. • There have been a number of disagreements over UN
• The institutions and mechanisms of the United Nations membership, and over the composition of the UN Security
reflect both the demands of great power politics (i.e. Security Council.
Charter (see Box 21.1). In 1992, Secretary-General and the intervention in the former Yugoslavia in the
Boutros Boutros-Ghali set out a new, ambitious UN mid-1990s. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo
agenda for peace and security in a report called An (DRC) in 2009, UN peacekeepers assisted the Congolese
Agenda for Peace, where he outlined interconnected national army in a military offensive against rebels,
roles for the UN, including peace enforcement (see prompting violent reprisals (see Case Study 21.1). The
Box 21.4). A key problem has been that UN peacekeep- UN continues to play a prominent role in peacekeeping.
ers have found it difficult to maintain a neutral posi- In late 2015, the total number of uniformed peacekeep-
tion and have been targeted by belligerents. Examples ing personnel (military and police) in the UN's sixteen
include the intervention in Somalia in the early 1990s ongoing peace operations was just over 106,000.
Chapter 21 The United Nations 339
Box 21.4 An agenda for peace intervene in the member states of the socialist com-
monwealth to protect the principles of socialism.
In the early 1990s, after the end of the cold war, the UN agenda Much earlier, the British had insisted on the abo -
for peace and security expanded quickly. The UN secretary- lition of slavery in their relations with other states.
general at the time, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, outlined a more
They stopped ships on the high seas and imposed
ambitious role for the UN in his seminal report An Agenda for
the abolition of slavery as a condition in treaties
Peace (1992). The report described interconnected roles for
the UN to maintain peace and security. These included: (Bethell 1970). There were also occasions when states
• Preventive diplomacy: involving confidence-building tried to bind other states to respect certain princi-
measures, fact-finding, and preventive deployment of UN ples in their internal affairs. A number of states in
authorized forces. Eastern Europe, such as Hungary and Bulgaria, were
• Peacemaking: designed to bring hostile parties to bound to respect the rights of minorities within their
agreement, essentially through peaceful means. frontiers, based on agreements made at the Berlin
• Peace enforcement: authorized under Chapter VI I of the Conference of 1878 by the great powers. In practice,
Charter, and permitted to occur without the consent of the
then, intervention was a common feature of interna-
parties.
tional politics.
• Peacekeeping: the deployment of a UN presence in the
By the 1990s, some people pointed out that the UN
field with the consent of all parties (this refers to classical
peacekeeping). Charter did not assert merely the rights of states, but
• Post-conflict peacebuilding: to develop the social, political ,
also the rights of peoples: statehood could be inter-
and economic infrastructure to prevent further violence preted as conditional on respect for such rights. Others,
and to consolidate peace. however, were concerned that any change in the prin-
ciple of non-intervention would be used as a tool by
richer and more powerful states to impose their inter-
ests and views on poorer and weaker ones.
As issues of peace and security were increasingly The major pronouncements of the UN General
understood to include human security and jus- Assembly referred to the primary responsibility of
tice, there were concerns that these new activities states for dealing with complex crises within their
could go against the doctrine of non -intervention. borders. A 1991 General Assembly resolution implied
Intervention was traditionally defined as a deliberate some relaxation of this principle when it held that 'The
incursion into a state without its consent by some out- sovereignty, territorial integrity and national unity of
side agency, in order to change the functioning, poli- States must be fully respected in accordance with the
cies, and goals of its government and achieve effects Charter of the United Nations. In this context, human-
that favour the interests of the intervenor (Vincent itarian assistance should be provided with the consent
1974) (see Ch. 32). of the affected country and in principle on the basis of
At the founding of the UN, sovereignty was regarded an appeal by the affected country' (A/RES/46/182). The
as central to the system of states. States were equal use of the phrase 'in principle', and the term 'should ',
members of international society and were equal with implied that there could be occasions where interven-
regard to international law. Sovereignty also implied tion was necessary even when consent from the target
that states recognized no higher authority than them- state was not possible. In the Outcome Document of
selves, and that there was no superior jurisdiction. The the 2005 World Summit, the General Assembly said
governments of states had exclusive jurisdiction within that if national authorities are 'manifestly failing to
their own borders, a principle enshrined in Article 2(7) protect their populations from genocide, war crimes,
of the United Nations Charter (see Box 21.1). ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity', and
In earlier periods, however, states had intervened in if peaceful means are inadequate, the international
each other's affairs. The United States refused to accept community could take collective action through the
any curtailment of its right to intervene in the inter- UN Security Council according to Chapter VII of the
nal affairs of other states in its hemisphere until 1933, Charter (A/RES/60/1, paras 138 and 139). This docu-
when it conceded the point at the 7th International ment echoes recommendations from The Responsibility
Conference of American States. The US position was to Protect, the 2001 final report of the International
very similar to the Brezhnev doctri ne of the 1970s, Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty
which held that the Soviet Union had the right to (see Ch. 32).
340 DEVON E. A. CURTIS· PAUL TAYLOR
Yet the number of occasions in which a UN resolu- The Iraq War in 2003 was questionably another case
tion has justified intervention due to gross infringe- ofintervention to protect the rights of individuals with-
ments of the rights of individuals has remained out host country consent, although the legality of inter-
limited. Kosovo was arguably the first occasion in vention under existing Security Council resolutions
which international forces were used in defiance of a is contested and the motives for intervention are also
sovereign state in order to protect humanitarian stan- disputed (see Case Study 21.2). The US intervention in
dards. NATO launched the air campaign in March Afghanistan in 2001 is an exceptional case in which the
1999 in Kosovo against the Republic of Yugoslavia UN Security Council acknowledged the right of a state
without a mandate from the Security Council, since which had been attacked-referring to the events of
Russia had declared that it would veto such action. 11 September 2001 in the USA-to respond in its own
Nonetheless, NATO states noted that by intervening defence.
to stop ethnic cleansing and crimes against human- Arguably, earlier instances of intervention did
ity in Kosovo they were acting in accordance with riot explicitly breach sovereignty. The 1991 Security
the principles of the UN Charter. The intervention in Council resolution sanctioning intervention in Iraq
Libya in 2011 was another case. A Security Council (S/Res/688) did not breach Iraqi sovereignty in so far as
resolution approved a no -fly zone over Libya and its implementation depended on Saddam Hussein's con-
called for 'all necessary measures' to protect civilians sent. The 1992 Security Council resolution (S/Res/733)
(S/Res/1973). A multi-state coalition intervened to that first sanctioned UN involvement in Somalia
implement the resolution. NATO later assumed com- was based on a request by Somalia. A later resolution
mand of the Libya mission. (S/Res/794) authorizing the United States to intervene did
The UN Peacebuilding Commission was established in December Peacebuilding Commission is indicative of a growing trend at the
2005 as an intergovernmental advisory subsidiary body of the UN to coordinate security and development programming.
General Assembly and the Security Council. It was first pro- The organizational corn m ittee of the Peacebuilding Commission
posed by the Secretary-General's High- Level Panel on Threats, is made up of thirty-one member states. There are also country-
Challenges, and Change in December 2004, and again in the specific meetings to look at the post-conflict strategies, priorities,
Secretary-General's Report In Larger Freedom in March 2005 (UN and programming for particular countries. So far, all of the coun -
2005). Existing mechanisms at the UN were thought to be insuf- tries on the agenda of the Peacebuilding Commission have been
ficient in responding to the particular needs of countries emerg- in Africa: Burundi, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia,
ing from conflict. Many countries, such as Liberia, Haiti, and and the Central African Republic. The Peacebuilding Support
Somalia in the 1990s, had signed peace agreements and hosted Fund, with a target of $250 million, is designed to provide sup-
UN peacekeeping missions, but later reverted to violent conflict. port during the early stages of recovery for countries on the
The Peacebuilding Commission proposes integrated strategies Peacebuilding Commission's agenda as well as countries in similar
and priorities for post-conflict recovery. The establishment of the circumstances designated by the secretary-general.
not mention the consent of Somali authorities, but by final report emphasized the interconnected nature of
that time a central Somali government did not exist. security threats, and presented development, security,
The difficulty in relaxing the principle of non- and human rights as mutually reinforcing. Many of
intervention should not be underestimated. For the report's recommendations were not implemented,
instance, the UN was reluctant to send peacekeepers but some were, notably the establishment of a new UN
to Darfur without the consent of the Sudanese govern- Peacebuilding Commission (see Box 21.5).
ment. After intensive international diplomacy and nego - In 2015, the Presidents of the General Assembly and
tiations about the nature of the force, Sudan consented of the Security Council proposed a review of the United
and the force was established in July 2007 (S/Res/1769). Nations peacebuilding architecture. Two other peace
In 2012, Russia and China vetoed a Security Council and security reviews were launched at roughly the
resolution proposing further sanctions on Syria (under same time: the High-Level Independent Panel on UN
Chapter VII of the UN Charter), arguing that this could peace operations established by Secretary-General Ban
open a path to external military involvement in Syrian Ki-moon in October 2014, and the High-Level Advisory
internal affairs, and in 2014 they again vetoed a Security Group for the Global Study on the Implementation of
Council resolution to refer Syria to the International Security Council Resolution 1325 (a landmark resolu-
Criminal Court. Some fear a slippery slope whereby a tion on Women Peace and Security adopted in 2000),
relaxation of the non-intervention principle by the UN established by a Security Council resolution. All three
will lead to military action by individual states without reviews expressed concern that changes in the driv-
UN approval (see Case Study 21.2). ers of violence in some parts of the world may be out-
An increasing readiness by the UN to intervene pacing the ability of UN peace operations to respond
within states to promote justice for individuals would effectively. The reports contain broad agreement on the
indicate a movement towards global governance and need for improved intergovernmental coherence, more
away from unconditional sovereignty. There have been predictable financing, and gender inclusivity. They
some signs of movement in this direction, but princi- are generally cautious about the use of force, and appear
ples of state sovereignty and non-intervention remain to be steering towards lighter, more flexible peace oper-
important. ations that would deploy under sequenced mandates.
Significant reform, however, is unlikely to occur before
the next secretary-general takes office in 2017.
From peacekeeping to peacebuilding The UN's record on the maintenance of interna-
Partly due to the terrorist attacks in the United States tional peace and security has been mixed. On the one
in 2001 as well as the impasse reached in the UN hand, there has been a stronger assertion of interna-
Security Council over Iraq in 2003, Secretary-General tional responsibility for gross offences against popula-
Kofi Annan named a high-level panel to examine the tions. Nonetheless, intimations of a new world order
major threats and challenges to global peace. The 2004 in the aftermath of the Gulf War in 1991 quickly gave
342 l DEVON E. A. CURTIS · PAUL TAYLOR
way to despondency with what were seen as failures are most effective in conducting peace operations have
in Somalia, Rwanda, and the former Yugoslavia, and been reinvigorated, and a variety of non-UN actors,
increasing disagreement about the proper role of the including regional organizations and ad hoe coali-
UN. Compared to the enthusiasm about the potential tions, have been involved in recent military operations.
for the UN in the early 1990s, the disagreements over Likewise, there is no consensus on how best to confront
the war in Iraq in 2003 and over Syria since 2011 are non-state-based threats, such as terrorism and the pro-
striking. Debates about which institutions and actors liferation of small arms.
Key Points
• The cold war and the decolonization process discouraged operations are sometimes conducted by regional
more active involvement by the United Nations within states. organizations, ad hoe coalitions, or hybrid arrangements
• By the mid - l 990s the UN had become involved in involving UN and non - UN actors, such as the African Union.
maintaining international peace and security by resisting • The UN has paid increasing attention to peacebuilding and
aggression between states, attempting to resolve disputes the gendered dimensions of peace and security, with a
within states (civil wars), and focusing on economic, social, number of important reports and initiatives in these areas.
and political conditions within states. Critics, however, point to severe shortcomings such as
• The United Nations does not have a monopoly on allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse committed by
peace operations. While the UN often provides legitimation, some UN peacekeeping personnel.
Box 21.6 Assessed contributions to the UN Box 21.7 The United Nations climate
Regular Budget change conferences
Contributions to the UN Regular Budget are set by the General The United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris in
Assembly. The assessed contributions are based upon the size of 2015 (COP21) was the most recent UN Global Conference
a member state's national economy as a proportion of the global focusing on environmental issues. The first UN Conference
economy. to a ceiling of 22 per cent. For 2016- 17, the General on the Human Environment, which took place in Stockholm
Assembly approved a budget of $5.4 billion, down from $5.8 bil - in 1972, stimulated the creation of national environment mini -
lion for 2014-15 (GNl 1747). Many countries, including the US, stries around the world and established the United Nations
are in arrears. The member states with the six highest assessed Environment Programme (UNEP).
contributions for the 2016 Regular Budget are as follows: Twenty years later, the UN Conference on Environment and
Development, the Earth Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro.
1. United States 22.00 per cent
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
2.Japan 9.68 per cent (UNFCCC) was one of three conventions signed by many gov-
ernments at the 1992 Earth Summit. The Kyoto Protocol of
3. China 7.92 per cent
1997 was an addition to the UNFCCC, which set binding tar-
4. Germany 6.39 per cent gets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The UNFCCC has
guided future climate diplomacy and established the principle
5. France 4.86 per cent
of common but differentiated responsibility, meaning that all
6. United Kingdom 4.46 per cent countries have a role to play in protecting the environment but
that highly developed countries have the most responsibility.
The Programmes and Funds, such as UNDP and UNICEF, are
There have been annual intergovernmental meetings to
not included in the regular budget and are financed through
discuss progress on the limitation of greenhouse gases and
voluntary contributions by member states. In recent years the
to agree a successor agreement to the Kyoto Protocol. It has
proportion of voluntary funding in overall budgets has signifi -
been difficult for representatives to agree on a legally binding
cantly increased.
set of targets for the reduction of gas emissions, due to their
different interests. For instance, small island states pushed for
zero global emissions. whereas oil producers such as Saudi
Arabia and Venezuela were more sceptical of decarbonization
carry forward the programme. Such conferences repre- language. There were also disagreements about which coun -
sented a growing sense of interdependence and the glo- tries should pay. Developed countries that had been the larg-
balization of human concerns. They also translated broad est polluters in the past often disagreed with large emerging
socio-economic concerns into more specific manageable economies such as India, China, Brazil, and South Africa over
compensation, legal liability, and verification procedures.
programmes (see Box 21.7). Follow-up conferences were
The Paris conference of 2015 was referred to as COP21
held to take stock of progress. since it was the twenty-first meeting of the Committee of the
Alongside growing UN involvement in development Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. The Paris Agreement was his-
issues in the 1990s, the UN economic and social arrange- toric because countries adopted the first ever legally-binding
ments underwent reform at the country (field) level and global climate deal. The 195 countries at the meeting agreed
to the goal of keeping the increase in the global average tem -
at headquarters level. A key feature of the reforms at the
perature to 'well below 2°C above pre- industrial levels' (Art 2,
country level was the adoption of Country Strategy Notes, section 1). while directing the UN Intergovernmental Panel on
written on the basis of discussions between the Specialized Climate Change to draw up a report by 2018 on how to reach
Agencies, Programmes and Funds, donors, and the host l .5°C. They also agreed to a goal of zero net emissions by the
country. These described the plans of the various institu- second half of the century. Countries can choose their own
targets, thereby overcoming an obstacle that had plagued
tions and donors in a particular country, clearly setting
earlier conferences, but these will be reviewed regularly and
out targets, roles, and priorities. Another reform at the
transparently. By the end of the Paris conference, there were
country level was the strengthening of the Resident pledges by 187 countries to make 'intended nationally deter-
Coordinator, usually an employee of the UNDP. He or mined contributions', but critics point out that these pledges
she became the responsible officer at the country level. At do not go far enough to reach the 1.5- 2°C goals. Also, many
headquarters level, the 1990s reform focused on the details were moved out of the legally binding agreement and
into more flexible decisions.
reorganization and rationalization ofECOSOC, allowing
Despite their limitations. the climate conferences make
it to become more assertive and to take a leading role in clear that environmental issues remain prominent on the
the coordination of the UN system (A/50/227, para. 37). UN agenda, and demonstrate the importance of the United
By the end of the 1990s it was clear that develop- Nations as a framework for moving towards global agreement.
ment was still very unequal around the world. In 2000
344 DEVON E. A. CURTIS · PAUL TAYLOR
the UN convened a Millennium Summit, where heads praised by some but criticized by others for not being
of state committed themselves to a series of mea- achievable and for making it difficult to prioritize.
surable goals and targets known as the Millennium Since the founding of the UN there has been growing
Development Goals (MDGs). These goals in eight activity in areas of social and economic development.
areas were to be achieved by 2015. They included Various reforms have meant that the two poles of the
reducing by half the number of people living on less system were better coordinated: the pole where inten-
than a dollar a day, achieving universal primary edu- tions are defined through global conferences and agen-
cation, and reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS and das, and the pole where programmes are implemented.
malaria (A/55/L.2). Since 2000, the UN _has integrated The reform ofECOSOC sharpened its capacity to shape
the MDGs into all aspects of its work at the country broad agreements into cross-sectoral programmes with
level, helping country staff achieve a more coherent well-defined objectives. The adoption of the MDGs and
approach to development. At the time of the MDG SDGs has provided a focus to the UN's work in these
deadline in 2015, there had been significant accom- areas, although progress remains uneven.
plishments, but progress had been uneven across
regions and countries.
In September 2015, the UN Summit agreed upon Key Points
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which
• The cold war and the North-South divide led to
provide a vision for the world by 2030. There are differences in opinions over how best to address economic
17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 targets, and social development.
ranging from eradicating extreme poverty, to corn- • The number of institutions in the UN system that address
batting inequalities within and between countries, to economic and social issues has increased significantly.
empowering women, to improving energy efficiency. Several Programmes and Funds have been created in
goals focused mainly on developing countries, the • Reform of the economic and social arrangements of t he
UN in the late 1990s aimed at improving coordination and
SDGs are universally applicable to all countries.
clarifying spheres of responsibility.
The process leading to the SDGs was much more inclu-
• The MDGs consisted of measurable socio-economic
sive than the one for the MDGs, involving a large targets and further integrated the work of the UN at the
consultation programme and an open working group country level. They have been replaced by the SDGs, which
with representatives from 70 countries. The ambitious are universally applicable to all countries.
breadth and inclusive nature of the agenda have been
Conclusion
Over the past 70 years, the rules governing the inter- initiatives, providing personnel, and policing norms are
national system have become increasingly numerous seen to have value because they add to the self-esteem
and specific, covering a large range of the activities as well as to the power of the state. The UN has become
of relations among states. With its extensive accom- the essential club for states. The capacity of the UN in
plishments and continued challenges, the UN is an its economic and social work and its management of
indispensable part of the global system. Disagreements peacekeeping and peacebuilding have expanded since
remain over the conditions in which and extent to the 1990s. Nonetheless, the predominance of US mili-
which the UN should concern itself with the internal tary power, the possibility that the USA will act again
affairs of states, and there are tensions between power without clear UN authorization, the heightened con-
and equality, but the mere fact that the UN continues cern over terrorism and weapons of mass destruction,
to exist shows that it serves important functions in the the inability to respond effectively to many crises, for
world. instance in the eastern Democratic Republic of the
Participation in the United Nations gives govern- Congo, Somalia, Yemen, and Syria, and the pervasive-
ments status in the international system. Membership ness of inequality and injustice across the world, signal
and success in the UN has come to be regarded as legit- that further changes in the UN system will be necessary
imizing state autonomy. Hence, holding office, taking (see Opposing Opinions 21.1).
Chapter 21 The United Nations 345
For Against
There has not been a Third World War since the creation The UN no longer reflects the global balance of power. The
of the UN. Despite the fact that many countries have disagree- current composition of the Security Council does not represent
ments and possess large weapons arsenals, these conflicts have today's balance of power, showing that it is an outdated institu-
not escalated into another world war. tion in need of reform.
There is no other organization with the legitimacy of uni- The UN is unable to act effectively in areas of interest to the
versal membership. Only the UN has the legitimacy that comes permanent members of the Security Council. Due to the use
with universal membership. Even when military action is car- of the veto, it is not possible for the UN to respond effectively to
ried out by regional organizations, there is an attempt to get UN certain conflicts, such as the conflicts in Syria, Ukraine, and Israel/
Security Council authorization. Palestine.
The UN has succeeded in ending many conflicts and mitigat- The UN is ill-equipped to deal with new international secu-
ing tensions, and in improving development in many parts rity threats. The UN was designed to respond to interstate con -
of the world. The work of the UN has been critical in resolving flict and has difficulty dealing with new threats from non-state
conflicts and preventing their recurrence. The UN has been flex- actors. It is ill -equipped to take on counter-insurgency roles.
ible enough to respond to new kinds of threats (e.g. civil wars).
Development programmes have improved the lives of millions
around the world, making it less likely that they will resort to vio-
lence to resolve disputes.
1. If the UN did not exist, do you think that we would have seen more conflict with greater severity?
2. Are there other institutions that are better equipped to deal with threats to peace and security?
3. What do you think could be done to ensure that the UN is more successful in meeting the goals expressed in the Charter?
Questions
Further Reading
Adebajo, A. (ed.) (2009), From Global Apartheid to Global Village: Africa and the United Nations
(Scottsville: University of Kwazulu - Natal Press). A collection of views from African scholars and
practitioners on the UN in Africa.
346 DEVON E. A. CURTIS · PAUL TAYLOR
Claude, I. L.,Jr (1971, 1984). Swords into Plowshares: The Progress and Problems of International
Organization (New York: Random House). A classic text on the history of international institutions,
particularly concerned with their role in war and peace.
Diehl, P., and Balas, A. (2014), Peace Operations (Cambridge: Polity). An analysis of the development
and effectiveness of peace operations by the UN and regional organizations.
Jolly, R., Emmerij, L., and Weiss, T. (2009), UN Ideas that Changed the World (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press). Presenting the findings of the UN Intellectual History Project, this book discusses
the implementation of UN ideas regarding economic development and human security.
Karns, M., and Mingst, K. (2004), International Organizations: The Politics and Processes of Global
Governance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner). A comprehensive overview of the main actors and
processes of global governance.
Mazower, M. (2009), No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United
Nations (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Traces the origins and early development of the
United Nations.
Taylor, P. (2013), 'Troubles with the UN', in M. Tel6 (ed .), Globalisation, Multilateralism, Europe:
Towards a Better Global Governance (Farnham : Ashgate). Discusses the main difficulties the UN has
faced since the 1990s.
Taylor, P., and Groom, A.J. R. (eds.) (2000), The United Nations at the Millennium (London:
Continuum). A detailed account of the institutions of the central UN system.
Online Resources