Axially Loaded Members

Chapter 2
Mechanics of Materials I
Batch 13
Semester Fall 2018

An oil drilling rig is comprised of axially loaded members that must be designed for a variety of loading
conditions, including selfweight, impact, and temperature effects.
(Joe Raedle/Reportage/ Getty Images)
 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
• The springs, bars, and cables that we discussed in the
preceding sections have one important feature in
common—their reactions and internal forces can be
determined solely from free-body diagrams and
equations of equilibrium.
• Structures of this type are classified as statically
determinate.
• We should note especially that the forces in a
statically determinate structure can be found without
knowing the properties of the materials.
• Consider, for instance, the bar AB shown in Fig. 2-14.
The calculations for the internal axial forces in both
parts of the bar, as well as for the reaction R at the
base, are independent of the material of which the
bar is made.
 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
• Most structures are more complex than the bar of Fig. 2-
14, and their reactions and internal forces cannot be
found by statics alone.
• This situation is illustrated in Fig. 2-15, which shows a bar
AB fixed at both ends.
• There are now two vertical reactions (RA and RB) but only
one useful equation of equilibrium—the equation for
summing forces in the vertical direction.
• Since this equation contains two unknowns, it is not
sufficient for finding the reactions.
• Structures of this kind are classified as statically
indeterminate.
• To analyze such structures we must supplement the
equilibrium equations with additional equations
pertaining to the displacements of the structure.
 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
• To see how a statically indeterminate structure is analyzed, consider the
example of Fig. 2-16a.
• The prismatic bar AB is attached to rigid supports at both ends and is axially
loaded by a force P at an intermediate point C.
• As already discussed, the reactions RA and RB cannot be found by statics
alone, because only one equation of equilibrium is available:

• An additional equation is needed in order to solve for the two unknown

reactions.
• The additional equation is based upon the observation that a bar with both
ends fixed does not change in length.
• If we separate the bar from its supports (Fig. 2-16b), we obtain a bar that is
free at both ends and loaded by the three forces, RA, RB, and P.
• These forces cause the bar to change in length by an amount δAB, which must
be equal to zero:
 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

• This equation, called an equation of compatibility, expresses the

fact that the change in length of the bar must be compatible with
the conditions at the supports.
• In order to solve Eqs. (2-9) and (2-10), we must now express the
compatibility equation in terms of the unknown forces RA and RB.
• The relationships between the forces acting on a bar and its
changes in length are known as force-displacement relations.
• These relations have various forms depending upon the properties
of the material.
• If the material is linearly elastic, the equation δ=PL/EA can be used
to obtain the force-displacement relations.
 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
• Let us assume that the bar of Fig. 2-16 has cross-sectional area A and is made
of a material with modulus E.
• Then the changes in lengths of the upper and lower segments of the bar are,
respectively,

• where the minus sign indicates a shortening of the bar. Equations (2-11a) and
(2-11b) are the force-displacement relations.
• We are now ready to solve simultaneously the three sets of equations (the
equation of equilibrium, the equation of compatibility, and the force
displacement relations).
• In this illustration, we begin by combining the force-displacement relations
with the equation of compatibility:

• Note that this equation contains the two reactions as unknowns.

 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
• The next step is to solve simultaneously the equation of equilibrium [Eq. (2-9)]
and the preceding equation [Eq. (2-12)].
• The results are

• With the reactions known, all other force and displacement quantities can be
determined.
• Suppose, for instance, that we wish to find the downward displacement δC of
point C.
• This displacement is equal to the elongation of segment AC:

• Also, we can find the stresses in the two segments of the bar directly from the
internal axial forces (e.g., σAC = RA/A = Pb/AL).
 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
(General Comments)
• From the preceding discussion we see that the analysis of a statically
indeterminate structure involves setting up and solving equations of
equilibrium, equations of compatibility, and force-displacement relations.
• The equilibrium equations relate the loads acting on the structure to the
unknown forces (which may be reactions or internal forces), and the
compatibility equations express conditions on the displacements of the
structure.
• The force-displacement relations are expressions that use the dimensions and
properties of the structural members to relate the forces and displacements of
those members.
• In the case of axially loaded bars that behave in a linearly elastic manner, the
relations are based upon the equation δ = PL/EA.
 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
(General Comments)

• Finally, all three sets of equations may be solved simultaneously for the
unknown forces and displacements.
• In the engineering literature, various terms are used for the conditions
expressed by the equilibrium, compatibility, and force-displacement
equations.
• The equilibrium equations are also known as static or kinetic equations; the
compatibility equations are sometimes called geometric equations, kinematic
equations, or equations of consistent deformations; and the force-
displacement relations are often referred to as constitutive relations (because
they deal with the constitution, or physical properties, of the materials).
 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
(General Comments)

• For the relatively simple structures discussed in this chapter, the method of
analysis is adequate.
• However, more formalized approaches are needed for complicated structures.
• Two commonly used methods, the flexibility method (also called the force
method) and the stiffness method (also called the displacement method), are
described in detail in textbooks on structural analysis.
• Even though these methods are normally used for large and complex
structures requiring the solution of hundreds and sometimes thousands of
simultaneous equations, they still are based upon the concepts described
previously, that is, equilibrium equations, compatibility equations, and force-
displacement relations.
Example 2-5
Example 2-5
Example 2-5
Example 2-5
Example 2-5
Example 2-5
Example 2-5
Example 2-5
Example 2-5
Example 2-6
Example 2-6
Example 2-6
Example 2-6
Example 2-6
Example 2-6
Example 2-6
Example 2-6
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
• In our previous discussions of tension and compression in axially
loaded members, the only stresses we considered were the normal
stresses acting on cross sections.
• These stresses are pictured in Fig. 2-30, where we consider a bar AB
subjected to axial loads P.
• When the bar is cut at an intermediate cross section by a plane mn
(perpendicular to the x axis), we obtain the free-body diagram shown
in Fig. 2-30b.
• The normal stresses acting over the cut section may be calculated
from the formula σx = P/A provided that the stress distribution is
uniform over the entire cross-sectional area A.
• As explained in Chapter 1, this condition exists if the bar is prismatic,
the material is homogeneous, the axial force P acts at the centroid of
the cross-sectional area, and the cross section is away from any
localized stress concentrations.
• Of course, there are no shear stresses acting on the cut section,
because it is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar.
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
• For convenience, we usually show the stresses in
a two-dimensional view of the bar (Fig. 2-30c)
rather than the more complex three dimensional
view (Fig. 2-30b).
• However, when working with two dimensional
figures we must not forget that the bar has a
thickness perpendicular to the plane of the
figure.
• This third dimension must be considered when
making derivations and calculations.
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
(Stress Elements)
• The most useful way of representing the stresses in the
bar of Fig. 2-30 is to isolate a small element of material,
such as the element labeled C in Fig. 2-30c, and then
show the stresses acting on all faces of this element.
• An element of this kind is called a stress element.
• The stress element at point C is a small rectangular block
(it doesn’t matter whether it is a cube or a rectangular
parallelepiped) with its right-hand face lying in cross
section mn.
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
(Stress Elements)
• The dimensions of a stress element are assumed to be
infinitesimally small, but for clarity we draw the element to a
large scale, as in Fig. 2-31a.
• In this case, the edges of the element are parallel to the x, y,
and z axes, and the only stresses are the normal stresses σx
acting on the x faces (recall that the x faces have their normals
parallel to the x axis).
• Because it is more convenient, we usually draw a two-
dimensional view of the element (Fig. 2-31b) instead of a
three-dimensional view.
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
• The stress element of Fig. 2-31 provides only a limited
view of the stresses in an axially loaded bar.
• To obtain a more complete picture, we need to investigate
the stresses acting on inclined sections, such as the
section cut by the inclined plane pq in Fig. 2-32a.
• Because the stresses are the same throughout the entire
bar, the stresses acting over the inclined section must be
uniformly distributed, as pictured in the free-body
diagrams of Fig. 2-32b (three-dimensional view) and Fig.
2-32c (two-dimensional view).
• From the equilibrium of the free body we know that the
resultant of the stresses must be a horizontal force P.
• (The resultant is drawn with a dashed line in Figs. 2-32b
and 2-32c.)
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
• Let us now return to the task of finding the stresses acting on
section pq (Fig. 2-33b).
• As already mentioned, the resultant of these stresses is a force
P acting in the x direction.
• This resultant may be resolved into two components, a normal
force N that is perpendicular to the inclined plane pq and a
shear force V that is tangential to it.
• These force components are
• Associated with the forces N and V are normal and shear
stresses that are uniformly distributed over the inclined section
(Figs. 2-33c and d).
• The normal stress is equal to the normal force N divided by the
area of the section, and the shear stress is equal to the shear
force V divided by the area of the section.
• Thus, the stresses are
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS

• in which A1 is the area of the inclined section, as follows:

• As usual, A represents the cross-sectional area of the bar.

• The stresses σ and τ act in the directions shown in Figs. 2-
33c and d, that is, in the same directions as the normal
force N and shear force V, respectively.
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS

• in which A1 is the area of the inclined section, as follows:

• As usual, A represents the cross-sectional area of the bar.

• The stresses σ and τ act in the directions shown in Figs. 2-
33c and d, that is, in the same directions as the normal
force N and shear force V, respectively.
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
• At this point we need to establish a standardized notation
and sign convention for stresses acting on inclined
sections.
• We will use a subscript θ to indicate that the stresses act
on a section inclined at an angle θ (Fig. 2-34), just as we
use a subscript x to indicate that the stresses act on a
section perpendicular to the x axis (see Fig. 2-30).
• Normal stresses σθ are positive in tension and shear
stresses τθ are positive when they tend to produce
counterclockwise rotation of the material, as shown in Fig.
2-34.
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
• For a bar in tension, the normal force N produces
positive normal stresses σθ (see Fig. 2-33c) and
the shear force V produces negative shear
stresses τθ (see Fig. 2-33d).
• These stresses are given by the following
equations [see Eqs. (2-28), (2-29), and (2-30)]:

• Introducing the notation σx =P/A, in which σx is

the normal stress on a cross section, and also
using the trigonometric relations
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
• we get the following expressions for the normal and shear
stresses:

• These equations give the stresses acting on an inclined

section oriented at an angle θ to the x axis (Fig. 2-34).
• It is important to recognize that Eqs. (2-31a) and (2-31b)
were derived only from statics, and therefore they are
independent of the material.
• Thus, these equations are valid for any material, whether
it behaves linearly or nonlinearly, elastically or
inelastically.
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
(Maximum Normal and Shear Stresses)
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
(Maximum Normal and Shear Stresses)
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
(Maximum Normal and Shear Stresses)
 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
(Uniaxial Stress)
• The state of stress described throughout this section is called uniaxial stress, for the obvious
reason that the bar is subjected to simple tension or compression in just one direction.
• The most important orientations of stress elements for uniaxial stress are θ = 0 and θ = 45o
(Fig. 2-36b and c); the former has the maximum normal stress and the latter has the
maximum shear stress.
• If sections are cut through the bar at other angles, the stresses acting on the faces of the
corresponding stress elements can be determined from Eqs. (2-31a and b).
Example 2-11
Example 2-11
Example 2-11
Example 2-11
Example 2-11