Entrepreurship

PRODUCTION OF HOME MADE LAUNDRY SOAP FROM 2011 E.
C
WOOD ASH
ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

PRODUCTION OF HOME MADE LAOUNDRY SOAP FROM WOOD ASH
PREPARED BY: ID. NO.

1. ALEM GIDEY……………………………2693/07
2. MISRAK KASSAYE………………………..3843/07
3. MIZAN KIDANEMARIAM…………………3849/07
4. SHEWIT TEKLAY……………………………..4136/07
5. TESFAYERGS GEBRETSADIK……………….4282/07
6. WAHID GEBRELIBANOS………………………4396/07
SUMITTED TO: INSTRUCTOR MEBRHIT G.(Msc)

SUBMISSION DATE: 22/09/2011E.C
ADU CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 1

PRODUCTION OF HOME MADE LAUNDRY SOAP FROM 2011 E.C
WOOD ASH
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all we would like to thank the almighty GOD who helped us by beat off our tiredness
during the project work. We regret it is simply is not possible to make an acknowledgement of
every assistance we have received during preparation of this project paper. We are therefore,
obliged to mention only those who have made greater contributions to the successful completion
of our project paper.
Moreover, our heartfelt gratitude goes to our advisor instructor Degefaw Asmare (MSC. In
chemical engineering) for his unlimited assistance and advises which helps us to keep hold on all
the challenges that we faced.
Last but not least, we owe whole hearted gratitude to Debre Berhan University (especially the
engineering) and department of chemical engineering for patting trust and confidence our work
and for the feedback and encouragement since we start preparing our project paper.

WOOD ASH
TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENT PAGE
Acknowledgement ………………………………………………………………………....i
Table of content ……………………………………………………………………………ii
List of tables and figures …………………………………………………………………..v
Abbreviations ……………………………………………………………………………...vi
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………vii
1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………..1
1.1 background ………………………………………………………………………...1
1.2 objectives …………………………………………………………………………..3
1.2.1 General objectives ……………………………………………………………….3
1.2.2 Specific objectives ……………………………………………………………….3
1.3 Statement of the problem…………………………………………………………..3
1.4 Scope and limitation of the project………………………………………………...4
1.4.1 Scope……………………………………………………………………………..4
1.4.2 Limitation ……………………………………………………………………….4
1.5 Demand study……………………………………………………………………..4
1.5.1 Market needs…………………………………………………………………….4
1.5.2 Past supply and present demand………………………………………………...5
1.5.3 Projected demand ……………………………………………………………….7

WOOD ASH
1.6 Significance of the study…………………………………………………………..8
2. Literature Review……………………………………………………………………...9
2.1 Soap uses………………………………………………………………………..11
2.2 Chemical formula and reaction………………………………………………….12
2.3 Physical and chemical properties of soap……………………………………….13
2.4 Soap manufacturing process……………………………………………………..13
2.5 Extraction of potash from wood ash…………………………………………….17
2.6 Process description………………………………………………………………22
3. Material and Energy balance…………………………………………………………...26
3.1 Material balance…………………………………………………………………..26
3.1.1 Plant attainment………………………………………………………………...26
3.2 Energy balance……………………………………………………………………32
4. Equipment sizing, design and selection………………………………………………...38
4.1 Equipment sizing………………………………………………………………....38
4.2 Equipment design………………………………………………………………...41
4.3 Equipment specification…………………………………………………………..52
5. Economic analysis………………………………………………………………………56
5.1 Total capital investment………………………………………………………….57
5.2 Fixed capital investment…………………………………………………………57
5.2.1 Estimation of direct fixed capital investment………………………………….57
5.2.2 Estimation of indirect fixed capital investment………………………………..62
5.3 Estimation of total product cost………………………………………………….64

WOOD ASH
6. Plant sitting and location……………………………………………………………….. .69
6.1 Plant sitting and layout………………………………………………………….69
6.1.1 Plant location………………………………………………………………….69
6.1.2 Choice of location…………………………………………………………….69
7. Plant safety and pollution control………………………………………………………..71
7.1 Plant safety……………………………………………………………………..71
7.2 Pollution control………………………………………………………………..72
8. Conclusion and recommendation………………………………………………………..73
8.1 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..73
8.2 Recommendation……………………………………………………………....73
Reference…………………………………………………………………………………..74

WOOD ASH
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES PAGE
Table 1.1: supply of laundry soap (tons)……………………………………………….........6
Table 1.2: projected demand for laundry soap …..................................................................7
Table 5.1: cost of equipment in 2014…………………………………………………........58
Table 5.2: cost of equipment in 2016…………………………………………………........60
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: general flow sheet for soap production………………………………………..25
Figure 5.1: cash flow diagram……………………………………………………………...68

WOOD ASH
ABBREVIATIONS
A-Area
BEP- Breakeven point
D- Diameter
FCI- Fixed capital investment
f- Design stress
h - Height
NP- Net profit
m- Mass
NPW- Net present worth
P - Pressure
Pa – Atmospheric pressure
Pi – Internal pressure
Q- Heat
ROI – rate on investment
t- Thickness
TCI – Total capital investment
TPC – Total product cost
V - Volume
ρ - Density

WOOD ASH
WCI – Working capital investment
ABSTRACT
The treatment of fat with alkali has been practiced in the Middle East for at least 5000 years.
Soap may be defined as a chemical compounds resulting from the interaction of fatty glycerides
with a metal radical (or organic base). It is planned to design a plant to manufacture 35.5kg/h.
homemade laundry soap from wood ash. In order to achieve the main objective, we need to go
through the processes; select a suitable process for the manufacture of laundry soap from wood
ash, draw a process flow chart, calculate for material and energy balances for all the equipments
in the plant. Select a suitable site for the plant and perform the economic analysis of the plant.
The scarcity of the supply of soap in different sub city of Ethiopia due to cost, transportation
access, and raw material availability is the one from the most core hazardous problems. The
Romans first produced soap nearly 5000 years ago from wood ashes and animal fat. Large scale
commercial production did not start however, until the early eighteenth century. There are two
types of soap making processes namely cold process and hot process. Saponification, lye
separation, soap washing, centrifugation, neutralization and drying are the main processes to
produce soap from wood ash. The plant produces 35.5kg/hr soap. Equipment design for this
preliminary process evaluation involves determining the size of the equipment in terms of the
volume, flow per unit time or surface area and designing of thickness as well as the pressure that
the equipment could with stand. The total capital investment, fixed capital investment and
working capital investment of the plant is 78038807.77birr, 66562486.6birr and 11746321.16birr
respectively. Every organization has moral and legal obligation to protect the health and welfare
of its employees as well as that of the general public. Generally, it is concluded that, with a high
rate of return over the plant life, this project is very viable and rewarding to investors and the
nation. Finally, we recommend that, in the near future, the industry should partner with tallow
and ash suppliers to overcome the shortage of raw material.

WOOD ASH
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
The treatment of fat with alkali has been practiced in the Middle East for at least 5000 years. The
art was brought to Europe by the Phoenicians about 600 BC. Its purpose, right through to the
second century AD, and was solely medicinal for example for the treatment of scrofulous sores.
Soap making disappeared from Europe with the decline of the Roman Empire; it reappeared in
the eighth century, but only reached Britain in the eleventh century, probably as a result of
invasion. It remained a relatively primitive art till the 16 th century, when techniques that provided
a pure soap. The conversion of potash (literally made from wood ash) to caustic alkali by means
of quicklime and the salting out of soap were developed.
In the 17th century, the French industrial chemist Nicholas Leblane produced caustic alkali from
common salt, and there by eliminated the major stumbling block to expansion (today it is made
by an electrolysis process). In 19th century, chevreul described the constitution of fat and put soap
making on a sound basis. At the turn of the century, Sabatier and Normann applied their ideas to
the hardening of fats. In the first half of the 12 th century, the crystalline states of hydrated soap
which effect product performance were elucidated, the bleaching of fats perfected, and
deodorization of fats was introduced for the highest class products.
The present century, as a result of technological growth, has seen soap developed from luxury
into universal necessity. Its cleansing power, its durability it water-softening quality, its
consistency, it delicacy, its feel, its scent, all these are now deliberately introduced or taken into
consideration in the production of soap through the use of almost automatic control machines.

WOOD ASH
Soap may be defined as a chemical compound or mixture of chemical compounds resulting from
the interaction of fatty acids or fatty glycerides with a metal radical (or organic base). Soap may
also be described as any water-soluble salt of those fatty acids which contain eight or more
carbon atoms. The metals commonly used in soap making are sodium and potassium, which
produce water-soluble soaps that are used for laundry and cleaning purposes. [9]
The qualities of soap are determined by the amount and composition of the component fatty
acids in the starting oil. Blends of oils can be used in both the hot and cold soap production
methods. Vegetable oil blends could be obtained by mixing different vegetable oils such as the
mixture of coconut oil, palm kernel oil, groundnut oil and shea butter in different proportions.
produced soaps of desirable quality by blending various fatty acids of palm oil (PO) and palm
kernel oil (PKO) and the quality of the soap produced is comparable to the quality of
commercially available soaps[10].
Soaps are ionic surface active substance used in conjunction with water for washing and
cleaning. Soaps for cleansing are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a
strongly alkaline solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty
acids are attached to a single molecule of glycerol. It consist of sodium or potassium salts of fatty
acids and is obtained by reacting common oils or fats with a strong alkaline solution in a process
known as saponification.
Saponification is the chemical process of making soap that involves an exothermic reaction
between sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide and a fat (oils). Soap belongs to the family of
detergents which is a substance which improves the cleaning properties of water. These fats and
oils contain various properties of the fatty acid usually having 6-22 carbon atoms in the paraffin
chain. These include caprylic acid (C8H16O3), lauric acid (C14H32O2), stearic acid (C18H36O2), and
linoleic acid (C18H32O2) among others.
Saponification is another word of Latin origin. It refers to Sapo Hill, which according to legend
is a place above the Tiber where animal sacrifices were made though some think Mount Sappo
was a place in Greece. Women washing their clothes in the river below this place found that less
effort was needed to clean them where there was run-off from the temple on the hill. What had
happened was that fat had boiled over into the fires and remained in the ashes. When the residues
ADU CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENTPage 10

WOOD ASH
of the burnt offerings were exposed to rain water, the mixture of fat and ashes formed a natural
soap that traveled into the river below where the sacrifices had been performed. [13]
This difference put a question in their mind and tries to find concepts relating to the above
observation. They wash two clothes in which the one is by using pure water and the other using
water combined with the ash and fat from animal sacrifices and compares the result. After
observing it they try to manufacture soap and finally they manufacture soap from fat and ash.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
1.2.1 General objective

 To design a plant to manufacture homemade laundry soap from wood ash.
1.2.2SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The specific objectives are the processes we need to go through in order to achieve the
main objective and these are as follows:
 To select a suitable process for the manufacture of Laundry soap from wood ash
 To draw a process flow chart
 To calculate for material and energy balances for all the equipment in the plant
 To select a suitable site for the plant
 To perform the economic analysis of the plant
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The scarcity of the supply of soap in different sub city of Ethiopia due to cost, transportation
access, and raw material availability is the one from the most core hazardous problems. On the
average, domestic production accounted for 44 per cent of the country's requirement for soap,
indicating much of the demand for the product (56%) is still met through imports. so, to solve
these problems we are projected responsibly designing and operating a soap industry to
depreciate it by 0.5 percent in order to make import 55.5 percent.
The production of quality soaps at cheaper rate has been a hitch to many soap producers in
Ethiopia. This has led to the production of soaps with poor qualities and high cost of production.
So Blending various wood ashes of different qualities and prices for soap production could go a

WOOD ASH
long way in the production of quality soaps for laundry, bathing and general cleaning purposes,
still at optimized cost of production.
The supply of soap in Ethiopia is met by both domestic production and imported finished soaps.
The domestic production accounts for 44% of the country’s requirement while the rest 56% is
supplied by imports [6]. Even though, the raw materials for soap manufacturing are available in
Ethiopia, local manufacturers import majority of their input materials. This is due to lack of
knowledge and technology regarding detergent technology.
In Ethiopia the main source of fuel for cooking activities is wood, particularly eucalyptus.
Therefore, there is a significant amount of eucalyptus ash (source of alkali) generated. The other
raw material (animal fat or vegetable oil) found in abundant.
Thus designing a plant for manufacturing homemade laundry soap from wood ash is a partial
solution to reduce foreign currency charged for importing soap, development of soap technology
and increasing hygiene’s of citizens in the country. So that the homemade laundry soap plant is
designed to cover 0.5% of import soap.
1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT
1.4.1 SCOPE
This project is intended to give information about production of soap from wood ash and tallow
and this paper gives information about the feasible site selection for the plant.
Accordingly, the plant will be erected in Amhara region north shoa zone specifically Debre
Berhan area.
1.4.2 LIMITATION
During the project work, problems were faced. From the problems that were faced during the
project work, lack of data was the main problem.
1.5 DEMAND STUDY
1.5.1 MARKET NEEDS
According to a study published in the medical journal, Infectious Diseases in Children,

researchers in hand washing recovered fecal coliforms from the hands of one out of every five
staff members, citing that more than 33% of day care facilities "had poor hand washing
techniques and no policy for hand washing before eating or after playing outside. In spite of all

WOOD ASH
the studies about the benefits of hand washing, improper or infrequent hand washing continues to
be a major factor in the spread of disease in day-cares. [6]
Hand washing in child care facilities is an ideal initial target market for several additional
reasons:
 Child care facilities have rampant illness and germ problems that can be directly reduced
through frequent child and worker hand washing.
 Child care facilities have strict, government mandated rules that require frequent hand
washing.
 Parents are particularly interested in reducing child illness, making them one of our
strongest advocates for the use of CHILD assures in environments they cannot directly
monitor.
In a study cited by Family Practice News in 1996, "Scientists had kids wash their hands when
they arrived at school, before lunch then again after lunch time, recess and one more time before
heading home every single day." As a result of these ‘scheduled' wash times, researchers found
that "a month later, these kids had 24 percent fewer days off from colds, sniffles and flus and a
whopping 51 percent fewer sick days because of gastrointestinal complaints like stomach cramps
or diarrhea. [1]
1.5.2 PAST SUPPLY AND PRESENT DEMAND
Laundry soap, which is used for cleaning clothes as well as household utensils, is a necessity
especially in urban households. The demand for the product is, therefore, mainly associated with
urbanization.
The country’s requirement for laundry soap has been met through domestic production and
import. Table 3.1 shows the supply of the product from domestic production and imports during
1989-2002. During the period under reference, total supply averaged at 27,293 tones, of which
12,301 tones constituted domestic production and the remaining 14,992 tones is met from
imports. Thus, on the average, domestic production accounted for 44 per cent of the country's

WOOD ASH
requirement for laundry soap, indicating much of the demand for the product (56%) is still met
through imports. [6]
Table1.1: SUPPLY OF LAUNDRY SOAP (TONNES) [6]

Year Domestic Import Total supply Market share
production
Domestic import
productio s
n
1989 9529 15661 25190 37.8 62.2
1990 7743 14706 22449 34.5 65.5
1991 3729 12537 16266 22.9 77.1
1992 4947 19592 24539 20.2 79.8
1993 15546 8856 24402 63.7 36.3
1994 13495 14149 64644 48.8 51.2
1995 13641 7838 21479 63.5 36.5
1996 16547 15229 31776 52.1 47.9
1997 12908 13766 26674 48.4 51.6
1998 9787 12910 22697 43.1 56.9
1999 13135 17504 30639 42.9 57.1
2000 17194 14200 31394 54.8 45.2
2001 14766 19792 34558 42.7 57.3
2002 19249 23147 42396 45.4 54.6
Average 12301 14992 27293 44 56

WOOD ASH
Assuming supply was driven by demand, the average annual supply of laundry soap for the
period under reference, which constitutes domestic production and imports, is considered as the
effective demand for the product for the year 2002. Since the consumption of laundry soap is
associated with the growth of urban population, the demand for the product is assumed to grow
by 4% that corresponds to the annual growth rate of the urban population. The demand for
laundry soap for the year 2004 is, thus, estimated at 29,520 tones.
1.5.3 PROJECTED DEMAND
The demand for laundry soap is projected based on the 4% annual growth rate of the urban
population which is the major user of the product. The existing soap factories in the country, on
the average, cover 44 per cent of the supply of the product. Assuming the factories will maintain
their market share of the projected demand, the market share of the envisaged plant is shown
below
Table 1.2: PROJECTED DEMAND FOR LAUNDRY SOAP (TONNES)
Year Projected demand Market share
Existing factories Unsatisfied demand
2005 30701.0 13508.4 17192.6

WOOD ASH
2006 31929.0 14048.8 17880.3

2007 33206.2 14610.7 18595.5
2008 34534.4 15195.2 19339.3
2009 35915.8 15803.0 20112.9
2010 37352.5 16435.1 20917.4
2011 38846.6 17092.5 21754.1
2012 40400.4 17776.2 22624.2
2013 42016.4 18487.2 23529.2
2014 43697.1 19226.7 24470.4
2015 45445.0 19995.8 25449.2
2016 47262.8 20795.6 26467.2
2017 49153.3 21664.4 64525.8
2018 51119.4 22492.5 28626.9
2019 53164.2 23392.2 29771.9
2020 55290.8 24364.9 30962.8
2021 57502.4 25301.0 32201.3
2022 59802.5 26313.1 33489.4
2023 62194.6 64365.6 34829.0
2024 64682.4 28460.2 36222.1
2025 67269.7 29598.6 37671.0
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

 The implementation of this project has roles of poverty reduction in the country
 This project will proved information on how to utilize local materials for more valuable
products
 This study might give some insight for soap manufacturers to see all alternative raw
materials
 This project will give them information to increase their profitability
 Environment load would be minimized by reducing land fill waste of ash.
 This project could provide new job opportunities

WOOD ASH
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Ash derived alkalis offer cheap alternatives to imported ones. According to Irvine (1965),
agricultural waste materials contain a good percentage of potash; these materials include banana
leaves, maize cob, wood, sugar beet waste and many more. When these materials are burnt in air,
the resulting ashes contain oxides of potassium and sodium which when dissolved in water yield
the corresponding hydroxides according to the equation:
Na2O+H2O→2NaOH………… (1)
Or
K2O+H2O→2KOH………....... (2)
The Romans first produced soap nearly 5000 years ago from wood ashes and animal fat . Large
scale commercial production did not start however, until the early eighteenth century. Then, soap
was produced by the kettle process, which involved boiling fats and oils with caustic soda. By
1938, several commercially feasible continuous processes had been developed. These have
largely replaced the kettle process. Soap comprises sodium or potassium salts of various fatty
acids, but chiefly of oleic, stearic, plamitic, lauric and myristic acids; i.e. the alkali metal salts of
long chain monocarboxylic acids.
Wood ash is the residue generated due to combustion of wood and wood products (chips, saw,
dust, bark, etc.). It is the inorganic and organic residue remaining after the combustion of wood
or unbleached wood fiber. The physical and chemical properties of wood ash vary significantly
depending on many factors. The physical and chemical properties of wood ash, which determines
its beneficial uses, are dependent up on the species of the wood and the combustion methods that
include combustion temperature, efficiency of the boiler, and supplementary fuels used. Ash
content yield decreases with increasing combustion temperature.
Soap making is an art as well as a science. These scenarios are not meant to be explorations in
the art of soap making. However, soap making ingredients like fatty acids and fats and oils are
described by chemical properties and tests. Using an appropriate chemical property or test to

WOOD ASH
evaluate the soap making materials (fatty acids or lard, tallow and cottonseed oil) is essential to
success with these problems.
Soap is integral to our society today, and we find it hard to imagine a time when people were
kept sweet-smelling by the action of perfume rather than soap. However, the current widespread
use of soap is only a very recent occurrence, despite the fact that it has been made for more than
2800 years.
It has been said that the use of soap is a gauge of the civilization of a nation, but though this may
perhaps be in a great measure correct at the present day, the use of soap has not always been co-
existent with civilization, for according to Pliny. Soap was first introduced into Rome from
Germany, having been discovered by the Gaul’s, who used the product obtained by mixing goats'
tallow and beech ash for giving a bright hue to the hair. In West Central Africa, moreover, the
natives, especially the Faint race, have been accustomed to wash themselves with soap prepared
by mixing crude palm oil and water with the ashes of banana and plantain skins. The
manufacture of soap seems to have flourished during the eighth century initially and Spain, and
was introduced into France some five hundred years later soap does, when factories were
established at Marseilles for the manufacture of olive-oil soap.
Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat is used to consume
the alkali (super fatting), and in that the glycerin is not removed. Super fatted soap, soap which
contains excess fat, is more skin-friendly than industrial soap; though, if not properly formulated,
it can leave users with a "greasy" feel to their skin. Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or Shea
butter are added 'at trace' (the point at which the saponification process is sufficiently advanced
that the soap has begun to thicken), after most of the oils have saponified, so that they remain
unreacted in the finished soap.
Natural soap crafters today have many different ingredients to select from to produce wonderful
and varied soap bars. These ingredients consist of:

WOOD ASH
o base oils available in today's market such as coconut oil, jojoba oil, avocado oil, castor
oil, cottonseed oil, olive oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil, peanut oil and soybean oil
o various butters like Shea butter, mango butter, and cocoa butter for extra moisturizing
capabilities
o other nutrients such as sweet almond oil, avocado oil, aloe Vera, calendula oil, carrot root
oil, various clays, and seaweed
o essential oils including peppermint, eucalyptus, spearmint, chamomile, geranium,

rosemary, lavender, etc. for scenting and therapeutic effects
o and various herbs and spices for color
Soap makers today can produce artistic therapeutic soap bars high in moisturizers for the
discerning soap shopper.
2.1 SOAP USES:
 Bug repellents: Place a bar of soap in your garden to keep pests away
 Rid your house of fleas: place some liquid soap in a bowl mixed with water under a light
and it will attract fleas and they will drowned
 Household bug repellent: mix soap and water and place in a spray bottle and spray
around your home to rid your house of spiders and bugs
 Drawers: use soap to loosen and quiet dresser drawers or other household drawers by
running the soap along the metal rails
 Freshen clothes/luggage: place a bar of soap in a mesh holder to keep stored clothes or
luggage smelling fresh

WOOD ASH
 Car freshener: place slivers of left-over soap in a mesh bag and tie around your rear-
view mirror to keep a fresh smell in your car
 Removing Wallpaper: mix soap and water and sponge on old wallpaper and it will help
in removing the glue
 Remove a light-bulb: remove a broken light-bulb by placing a soap bar on top and then
turning it
 Zippers: Loosen stuck or rusty zippers by sliding some bar soap up & down the zipper
 Detect gas leaks: mix a solution of water and soap and rub along pipes, if it bubbles, you
found your leak.
 Lubricate screws/nails: Dip a screw or nail into a bar of soap before drilling or
hammering and it will move through wood more easily/also for saw blades too.
 Fabric Marker: use those little left-over to make fabric for hemming and it washes right
away when complete
2.2 CHEMICAL FORMULA AND REACTION
The reactions with stearin and palmate (of which tallow chiefly consists) and with olein (found
largely in olive and cotton-seed oils) are as follows:
3C18H35O2H + C3H5(OH)3 C3H5(C18H35O2)3

stearic acid glycerol Tri stearin
Since glycerol is a tri hydric alcohol, i.e., contains three hydroxyl (OH) groups, the hydrogen
atoms of which are displaceable by acid radicals, the above reaction may be supposed to take
place in three stages. Thus, we may have:
(1) C18H35O2H + C3H5(OH)3 = C3H5(OH)2C18H35O2 + H2O

Monostearin

WOOD ASH
(2) C18H35O2H + C3H5(OH)2C18H35O2 = C3H5(OH)(C18H35O2)2 + H2O

Distearin
(3) C18H35O2H + C3H5(OH)(C18H35O2)2 = C3H5(C18H35O2)3 + H2O
Tristearin
Practically all the oils and fats used in soap-making consist of mixtures of these compounds of
glycerol with fatty acids, which invariably occur in nature in the form of tri glycosides. It was
formerly considered that the three acid radicals in any naturally occurring glyceride were
identical, corresponding to the formula:
CH2OR
|
CHOR→CH2OR
Where, R is the acid radical. Recent work, however, has shown the existence of several so-called
mixed glycerides, in which the hydroxyls of the same molecule of glycerol are displaced by two
or sometimes three different acid radicals.
2.3 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOAP
Generally soap is a solid, appearing pale yellow and white color, dissolving in water and alcohol.
When cat ion part of the sodium, potassium and other metals and its acid salts will be known as
the corresponding free acid in sodium, potassium soap. Sodium soap is an ionic surfactant with
the wetting solution, infiltration foaming disperse and decontamination features. Usually by the
oil and sodium hydroxide solution the remove reaction by the saponification made after glycerol
and fatty acids, sodium hydroxide and water.
2.4 SOAP MANUFACTURING PROCESS
There are two types of soap making process. The most popular soap making process is the cold
process method, where fats such as olive oil react with lye, while some soapers use the historical

WOOD ASH
hot process. Homemade soap differs from industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat is used
to consume the alkali (super fatting), and in that the glycerin is not removed, leaving a naturally
moisturized soap and not pure soap. Additional process of this glycerin contains soap products
glycerin soap, super fatted soap, which contains excess fat, is more skin-friendly than soap,
though if too much fat is added, it can leave users with a “greasy” feel to their skin. Sometimes
an emollient such as jojoba oil or Shea butter is added “at trace” (the point at which the
saponification process is sufficiently advanced that the soap has begun to thicken) in the belief
that it will escape the saponification remain intact, or in the case of hot process soap-after most
of the oils have saponified so that they remain unreacted in the finished soap, supper fatting can
also be accomplished through a process called a lye discount, where, instead of putting in extra
fats, the soap maker puts in less lye.
In cold-process and hot-process soap making, it may be required for saponification. Cold process
soap making takes place at a sufficient temperature to insure the liquefaction of the fat being
used. The lye and fat may be kept warm after mixing to insure the soap is completely saponified.
Unlike cold –processed soap, hot-processed soap can be used right away because lye and fat
saponify more quickly at higher temperature used in hot process soap making. Hot-process soap
making was used when the purity of unreliable, and this process can use natural lye solutions,
such as potash. The main benefit of hot processing is that the exact concentration of the lye
solution does not need to be known to perform the process with adequate success. Cold-process
soap making requires exact measurement of lye and fat amounts and computing their ratio, using
saponification charts to insure that the finished product is milled and skin-friendly.
Saponification charts can also be used in hot process soap making, but are not as necessary in
cold processing soap making.
HOT PROCESS
In the hot process method, lye and fat are boiled together at 80-100 oC until saponification
occurs, which before modern thermometers, the soap maker determine by test (the bright
distinctive test of lye disappears once all the lye is saponified) or by eye; the experienced eye can
tell gel stage and full saponification have occurred.

WOOD ASH
COLD-PROCESS
A cold-process soap maker first looks up the saponification of the fat being used on
saponification chart, which is then used to calculate the appropriate amount of lye. Excess
unreacted lye in the soap will result in a very high PH and can burn skin. Not enough lye, and the
soap is greasy. Most soap makers formulate their recipes with a 4-10% deficit of lye so that all of
the lye is reacted and the excess fat is left for skin conditioning benefit. The lye is dissolved in
water. Then oils are heated or meltedif they are solid at room temperature. Once all substances
cooled to approximately 100-110 0F (37-43 0C), and are no more than 10 0F (≈5.5 0C) apart, they
may be combined. This lye-fat mixture is stirred until “trace” (modern-dry amateur soap makers
often use a stick blender to speed this process). There are varying levels of trace. Depending on
how additives will affect trace, medium trace or heavy trace. After much stirring, the mixture
turns to the consistency of a thin pudding. “Trace” corresponds roughly to viscosity. Essential
oils, botanicals, herbs, oatmeal or other additives are added at light trace, just as the mixture
starts to thicken.
The batch is then poured into molds, kept warm with towels, or blankets, and left to continue
saponification for 18 to 48 hours. Milk soaps are the exception. They do not require insulation.
Insulation may cause the milk to burn. During this time, it is normal for the soap to go through a
“gel phase” where the opaque soap will turn somewhat transparent for several hours, before once
again turning opaque. The soap will continue to give off heat for many hours after trace.
After the insulation period the soap is firm enough to be removed from the mold and cut into
bars. At this time, it is safe to use the soap since saponification is complete. However, cold-
process soaps are typically cured and hardened on a drying rack for 2-6 weeks (depending on
initial water content) before use. If using caustic soda it is recommended that the soapis left to
cure for at least four weeks.
MOLDS
Many commercially available soap molds are made of silicone or various type of plastic,
although many soap making hobbyists may use cardboard boxes that are lined with plastic wrap.

WOOD ASH
Soaps can be made in long loaves that are cut into individual bars, block molds that are cut into
loaves and then bars, or individual molds.
PURIFICATION AND FINISHING
The common process of purifying soap involves removal of sodium hydroxide, glycerol and
some impurities. These components are removed by boiling the crude soap curds in water and re-
precipitating the soap with salt.
Most of the water is then removed from soap. This was traditionally done on a chill roll which
produced the soap flakes commonly used in the 1940s and 1950s. This process was superseded
by spray dryers and then by vacuum dryers.
The dry soap (approximately 6-12% moisture) is then compacted into small pellets. These pellets
are now ready for soap finishing, the process of converting raw soap pellets into a saleable
product, usually bars.
The batch is then poured into molds, kept warm with towels, or blankets, and left to continue
saponification for 18 to 48 hours. Milk soaps are the exception. They do not require insulation.
Insulation may cause the milk to burn. During this time, it is normal for the soap to go through a
“gel phase” where the opaque soap will turn somewhat transparent for several hours, before once
again turning opaque. The soap will continue to give off heat for many hours after trace.
Soap pellets are combined with fragrance and other materials and blended to homogeneity in an
amalgamator (mixer). The mass is then discharged from the mixer into a refiner which, by means
of an auger, forces the soap through a fine wire screen. From the refiner the soap passes over a
roller mill (French mill or hard milling) in a manner similar to calendaring paper or plastic or to
making chocolate liquor. The soap is then passed through one or more additional refiners to
further plasticize the soap mass. Immediately before extruded into a long log or blank, cut to
convenient lengths, passed through a metal detector and then stamped into shape in refrigerated
tools. The pressed bars packaged in many ways.

WOOD ASH
Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. The scouring agents serve to remove
dead skin cells from the surface being cleaned. This process is called exfoliation. Many newer
materials are used for exfoliating soaps which are effective but do not have the sharp edges and
poor particle size distribution of pumice.
Nanoscopic metals are commonly added to certain soaps specifically for both coloration and
anti-bacterial properties. Titanium powder is commonly used in extreme “white” soaps for these
purpose; nickel, aluminum and silverare less commonly used. These metals provide electron-
robbing behavior when in contact with bacteria, stripping electrons from the organism’s surface
and thereby disrupting their functioning (typically killing the bacteria when it has lost too many
electrons). Because some of the metal is left behind on the skin and in the pores, the benefit can
also extend beyond the actual time of washing, helping reduce bacterial contamination a
reducing potential odors from bacteria on the skin surface.
2.5 EXTRACTION OF POTASH FROM WOOD ASH
Hard woods usually produce more ash than softwoods and the bark and leaves generally produce
more ash than the inner woody parts of the tree. On the average, the burning of wood results in
about 6-10% ashes. When ash is produced in industrial combustion systems, the temperature of
combustion, cleanliness of the fuel wood, the collection location, and the process can also have
profound effects on the nature of the ash material. Therefore, wood ash composition can be
highly variable depending on geographical location and industrial processes. This makes testing
the ash extremely important.
Typically, wood ash from eucalyptus tree contains carbon in the range of 5-30% . The major
elements of wood ash include calcium (7-33%), potassium (3-4%), magnesium (1-2%),
manganese (0.0-1.3%), phosphorus (0.3-1.4%), and sodium (0.2-0.5%). Density of wood ash
decreases depend up on the type of wood, combustion temperature, etc. [3]
Plants synthesize the sugar β–glucose using carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight with the aid of
enzymatic catalysts. The glucose can then be polymerized into long chains called cellulose:
C6H12O6 → (C6H10O5) n + 6n H2O

WOOD ASH
Glucose cellulose
The number of glucose units (n) bonded together varies from several hundred up to 15,000.
Cellulose is the major structural component of the cell wall. It provides rigidity and support
needed to withstand the osmotic pressure differences between the inside and outside of the cell.
In woody plants the cellulose is distributed in a plastic-like phenol polymer matrix called lignin.
This composite material provides strength by evenly distributing the stresses throughout the cells
in manner similar to concrete reinforced with steel rods.
Wood consists of approximately 99.5% combustible material, which can be burned (oxidized) to
give yield the original starting materials, water and carbon dioxide:
(C6H10O5) n + 6n O2 → 5n H2O + 6n CO2
The remaining 0.5% consists of minerals that do not burn and are instead converted to a grey,
powdery ash. Most of the ash (80%) is not soluble in water. The remaining water–soluble
components of ash, potash (K2CO3), soda ash (Na2CO3), and arcanite K2SO4, are of interest to us
in this experiment.
The major component of ash is potash. When potassium carbonate dissolves in water it splits into
two potassium ions (K+) and one carbonate ion (CO32 -). The carbonate anion in solution can react
in two different ways. First, it could reaction with the water to form bicarbonate and hydroxide:
CO3 2 ￣ + H2O → HCO3￣ + HO￣
Clearly, this will raise the pH by increasing the number of hydroxide ions. Additionally,
carbonate can react with any hydrogen ions in solution:
CO32 ￣ + H+ → HCO3￣
This decreases the amount of H in solution, which also raises the pH. Therefore the carbonate
makes the water more basic. In fact, potash and soda ash were the only bases know in the ancient
civilizations. They used these chemicals for making glass, making soap, and embalming
mummies.
To extract potash from the wood ash we have to follow the following procedure.
Overview of the procedure
 Weigh ashes
 Extraction water-soluble salts
 Filter solution

WOOD ASH
 Evaporate water
 Re-crystallize product to purify
A.EXTRACTING WATER SOLUBLE SALTS
MATERIALS NEEDED
 Ashes
 Filer paper
 Erlenmeyer flask
 Buchner funnel
 Filtration flask
PROCEDURE
1. The ashes and the potash to be isolated are mild caustic agents. We must wear disposable
gloves for this experiment.
2. Weigh needed amount of ashes, but be sure to note the exact amount.
3. Describe the ashes: color, particle size, homogeneity, etc.
4. Transfer the ashes to the Erlenmeyer flask.
5. Add some amount of de-ionized (D.I.) water.
6. Stopper the Erlenmeyer flask with a rubber stopper.
7. Shake or swirl the flask for several minutes.
8. While the contents of the flask are settling, set up a filtration apparatus: clamp a filtration flask
to stand, add the porcelain Buchner funnel, and then add a piece of filter paper.
9. Slowly, carefully decant the aqueous layer into the Buchner funnel and collect the liquid in the
filtration flask.
B. ISOLATION OF CRUDE WATER-SOLUBLE ASH

WOOD ASH
MATERIALS NEEDED
 Beaker
 Boiling chip
 Hot plate
PROCEDURE
1. Transfer the aqueous solution from part A to beaker.
2. Test the PH of the aqueous layer using PH paper.
3. Add a boiling chip to the solution.
4. Place the beaker on a hot plate and turn the hot plate on to about ½ of its maximum setting.
5. Let the water evaporate slowly. This will take at least an hour.
C. PURIFICATION OF POTASH
MATERIALS NEEDE
 Erlenmeyer flask
 Boiling chip
 Hot plate
 Pipet and bulb
PROCEDURE
1. After all the water has evaporated; scrape together the solid material in the beaker using a
spatula.
WOOD ASH
2. Transfer the solid into Erlenmeyer.
3. In the second Erlenmeyer add needed amount of de-ionized water, a boiling chip, and bring
water to a boil on the hot plate.
4. Slowly add some amount of hot water to the flask with the crude potash.
5. Continue to add the minimum amount of hot water until the crude material is all dissolved
6. Take the flask off the hot plate and let it cool slowly. As the solution cools to room
temperature, crystals should form.
7. After the solution has cooled to room temperature, then place the flask in an ice bath.
D. ISOLATION OF POTASH
MATERIALS NEEDE
 Filter flask
 Buchner funnel
 Filter paper
PROCEDURE
1. Set-up a vacuum filtration apparatus: clamp a filter flask to a stand, attach thick-walled rubber
tubing from the vacuum port to the filter flask, insert Buchner funnel with adaptor, and add paper
to the funnel.
2. Turn on the vacuum.

WOOD ASH
3. Pour the contents of the small Erlenmeyer into the Buchner funnel. The water should pass
through and the solid (potash) should collect on the filter paper.
4. Let the vacuum continue to run for a few minutes while the crystals air dry.
5. When the crystals are dry weigh then and record the results.
From the literature, it is known that eucalyptus wood ash contains 4% potassium. Based on the
literature and the above procedure, we can extract potash from the given amount of wood ash.
For instance, from 1kg of eucalyptus wood ash 4% is potassium. Therefore,
4∗1 kg
Amount of potassium extracted = = 0.04kg
100
From material balance, to produce 35.5 kg/hr soap, we are required to have 6.496kg of potassium
hydroxide. Hence, the amount of wood ash required is
1kg of eucalyptus wood ash = 0.04 kg of KOH
? = 6.496kg of KOH
1 kg of wood ash∗6.496 kg KOH

Amount of wood ash required to extract 6.496kg of KOH =
0.04 kg of KOH
Amount of eucalyptus wood ash required to extract 6.496kg of KOH = 162.4 kg
Technology / process selection
The process/technology selected is hot process. Because,
Hot-process soap making was used when the purity of unreliable, and this process can use
natural lye solutions, such as potash. The main benefit of hot processing is that the exact

WOOD ASH
concentration of the lye solution does not need to be known to perform the process with adequate
success. Cold-process soap making requires exact measurement of lye and fat amounts and
computing their ratio, using saponification charts to insure that the finished product is milled and
skin-friendly. Saponification charts can also be used in hot process soap making, but are not as
necessary in cold processing soap making.
2.6 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
STEP 1- SAPONIFICATION
The raw materials are continually fed into a reactor in fixed proportions.
Tallow: 12.528kg/hr
Lye: 51kg/hr
These ingredients alone would give a low water, high glycerin soap. Soap needs to be about 30%
water to be easily pumpable, and even then needs to be held at around 70 0C, so excess lye is
added to hydrate the soap and dissolve out some of the glycerin. The lye added is known as “half
spent lye” and is the lye discharged from the washing column. This lye already contains some
glycerin, but it is further enriched by that formed in the saponification reaction.
STEP 2- LYE SEPARATION
The wet soap is pumped to a “static separator”-a settling vessel which does not use any
mechanical action. The soap/lye mix is pumped into the tank where it separates out on the basis
weight. The spent lye settles to the bottom from where it is piped off to the glycerin recovery
unit, while the soap rises to the top and is piped away for further processing.
STEP 3- SOAP WASHING
The soap still contains most of its glycerin at this stage, and this is removed with fresh lye in a
washing column. The column has rings fixed on its inside surface. The soap solution is added

WOOD ASH
near the bottom of the column and the lye near the top. As the lye flows down the column
through the center, a series of rotating disks keeps the soap/lye mixture agitated between the
rings. This creates enough turbulence to ensure good mixing between the two solutions. The rate
of glycerin production is calculated and the rate at which fresh lye is added to the washing
column then set such that the spent lye is 25-35% glycerin. Glycerin is almost infinitely soluble
in brine, but at greater than 35% glycerin the lye no longer efficiently removes glycerin from the
soap. The soap is allowed to overflow from the top of the column and lye (“half spent lye”) is
pumped away from the bottom at a controlled rate and added to the reactor.
STEP 4- LYE SEPARARION
The lye is added at the top of the washing column, and the removed from the column as
overflow. As the lye is added near the overflow pipe the washed soap is about 20% fresh lye,
giving the soap unacceptably high water and caustic levels. Separating off the lye lowers the
electrolyte levels to acceptable limits. The soap and lye are separated in a centrifuge, leaving a
soap which is 0.5%kcl and 0.3% KOH, and about 31% water. The lye removed is used as fresh
lye.
STEP 5- NEUTRALIZATION
Although the caustic levels are quite low, they are still unacceptably high for toilet and laundry
soap. The KOH is removed by reaction with a week acid such as coconut oil fatty acids, citric
acid or phosphoric acid, with the choice of acid being made largely on economic grounds. Some
preservative is also added at this stage.
STEP 6- DRYING
Finally, the water levels must be reduced down to about 12%. This is done by heating the soap to
about 125 0C under pressure (to prevent the water from boiling off while the soap is still in the
pipes) and then spraying it into an evacuated chamber at 40mm Hg (5.3kpa). The latent heat of
evaporation lost as the water boils off reduces the soap temperature down to 45 0C, at which
temperature it solidifies onto the chamber walls. The soap chips are scraped off the walls and

WOOD ASH
“plodder” (i.e. squeezed together) by screws known as “plodder worms” to form soap noodles.
The soap is now known as base or neat soap chip, and can be converted into a variety of different
soaps in the finishing stages. The moisture evaporated off the wet soap is transported to a
barometric condenser, which recondenses the vapor without the system losing vacuum. The
moisture can contain soap dust (Fines) which is removed by cyclones and returned by augers to
the spray chamber, while the water is recycled.

WOOD ASH
Figure 2.1: general flow sheet for soap production

WOOD ASH
3. MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
3.1 MATERIAL BALANCES
The first step is to look at the three basic categories: materials in, materials out and materials
stored. Then the materials in each category have to be considered whether they are to be treated
as a whole, a gross mass balance, or whether various constituents should be treated separately
and if so what constituents. To take a simple example, it might be to take dry solids as opposed to
total material; this really means separating the two groups of constituents, non-water and water.
More complete dissection can separate out chemical types such as minerals, or chemical
elements such as carbon. The choice and the detail depend on the reasons for making the balance
and on the information that is required. A major factor in industry is, of course, the value of the
materials and so expensive raw materials are more likely to be considered than cheaper ones, and
products than waste materials.
ASSUMPTIONS
1. The process is an open system
2. The process occurs at a steady-state condition.
The project will be done based on the demand in 2018.the plant shares 0.5% of the demand in
2018.therefore,
Plant capacity in 2018 = 0.5/100*51119.4ton/year
=256ton/yr
3.1.1 PLANT ATTAINMENT
This is defined as the percentage of available hours in a year that the plant operates usually
between 90-95%. The process plant will operate three shifts of 8 hours per day.
The total down time (maintenance, shutdowns and holidays) will take 65 days per year.
Working hours per year = 300days/yr*24hours/day
= 7200hours/yr
Basis chosen is in kg/hr

WOOD ASH
Productivity of the plant = 256ton/yr*1year/300days*1day/24hours*1000kg/1ton
Productivity of the plant = 35.5kg/hr
MASS BALANCES ON SAPONIFICATION VESSEL
KOH
Fat Saponification vessel wet soap
Lye
Reaction: (C17 H35 COO) C3H5 + 3KOH 3[C17H35COOK] + C3H5 (OH)3
Mass of soap to be produced = 35.5 kg/hr
Molecular weight of soap = 306g/mol
Number of mole of soap = given mass/molar mass = 35.5kg/hr/306g/mol
= 116mol/hr
Hence, from the above reaction using mass- mass relation,
1mole of tallow/x = 3mole of soap/116mol/hr of soap
Mole of tallow = 116mol/hr 3 = 38.66 mol/hr
But, m =n*M
m = 38.66mol/hr*324g/mol*1kg/1000g
m = 12.528kg/hr
From the reaction it is seen that
N (KOH) = N (soap)
N (KOH) = 116mol/hr

WOOD ASH
Mass of KOH = 116mol/hr*56g/mol*1kg/1000g
= 6.496kg/hr
Amount of lye to be used at saponification vessel is 2.67958 times mass of sum of fat and KOH.
Therefore, amount of lye = 51kg/hr
MASS BALANCE ON STATIC SEPARATOR
Wet soap Static separator Lye
Crude soap
Wet soap = crude soap + lye
62.8537% of inlet lye in to saponification is removed from static separator.
70.024kg/hr = crude soap + (0.628537*51kg/hr)
Crude soap =37.968613
MASS BALANCE ON WASHING COLUMN
Crude soap
Washing column
Fresh lye glycerin
Washed soap
Crude soap + fresh lye = washed soap + glycerin
Amount of fresh lye to be used at washing column is 68.07537% of crude soap. And also the
amount of glycerin removed from the washing column is 54.4385% of inputs to the washing
column.
Fresh lye = 25.84727378kg/hr
Glycerin = 34.7404 kg/hr

WOOD ASH
Inputs to washing column = 25.84727378kg/hr + 37.9686113kg/hr
= 63.81588kg/hr
Crude soap + fresh lye = washed soap + glycerin
37.968kg/hr + 25.847kg/hr = washed soap + 34.7404kg/hr
Washed soap = 29.075kg/hr
MASS BALANCE ON CENTRIFUGE
Washed soap Centrifuge wet soap
Lye
Washed soap = lye + wet soap
But, lye = 0.2*washed soap = 0.2*29.075kg/hr
Lye = 5.81509kg/hr
Wet soap = washed soap – lye
= 29.075kg/hr – 5.81509kg/hr
Wet soap = 23.2599kg/hr
From wet soap, 0.3% is KOH
0.5% KCL
68.2% is solid

WOOD ASH
MASS BALANCE ON NEUTRALIZER
H3PO4 (weak acid)
Wet soap Neutralizing vessel soap 31% H2O
Additives 68% solid
1% impurities
Salt
Neutralization reaction
KOH + H3PO4 KH2PO4 + H2O
SOAP (SOLID) COMPONENT BALANCE
Wet soap*0.682 = solid soap
Solid soap = 0.682* 23.2599kg/hr
= 15.86325kg/hr
KOH BALANCE
KOH = 0.003*wet soap
= 0.06977kg/hr
N = m/M =0.06977kg/hr/56g/mol
N = 1.24589mol/hr
From the reaction, it is seen that the reaction is one to one. Therefore, by using mass-mass
relation we can determine amount of H3PO4 added.
Mass of KOH/M KOH = mass of H3PO4/M H3PO4
0.06977/56 = x/98
Mass of H3PO4 = 0.1220975kg/hr

WOOD ASH
From stoichiometric ratio

Mole of KOH = mole ofKH2PO4
Mole of KH2PO4 = 1.24589mol/hr
M (KH2PO4) = 137g/mol
Mass of KH2PO4 = 1.24589mol/hr*137g/mol*1kg/1000g
= 0.170687kg/hr
Then,
Total material balance
Wet soap + H3PO4 + additives = soap + KH2PO4
To know the amount of soap, we have to perform solid component balance on vacuum dryer.
Soap*0.68 = 35.5kg/hr*0.88
0.68s = 31.24kg/hr
S = 45.94117647 kg/hr
Hence,
Wet soap + H3PO4 + Additives = soap + KH2PO4
23.2599kg/hr + 0.1220975kg/hr + additives = 45.94117647kg/hr + 0.170687kg/hr
Additives = 22.7298kg/hr
MASS BALANCE ON VACUUM DRYER
Vacuum dryer
Soap Laundry soap (35.5kg/hr)
31% H2O 88% solid
68% solid 12% water
1% impurity
Water
TOTAL MATERIAL BALANCE

WOOD ASH
Soap = water + 35.5kg/hr

Solid component balance
S (0.68) = 35.5kg/hr*0.88
0.68s = 31.24kg/hr
S = 45.94117647kg/hr
Water component balance
45.94117647*0.31 = 35.5 (0.12) + w
14.24176471 = 4.26 + w
W = 9.98176471kg/hr
For impurities
0.01 *(45.94117647) = 0.4594kg/hr
3.2 ENERGY BALANCE
Energy takes many forms, such as heat, kinetic energy, chemical energy, potential energy but
because of inter conversions it is not always easy to isolate separate constituents of energy
balances. However, under some circumstances certain aspects predominate. In many heat
balances in which other forms of energy are insignificant; in some chemical situations
mechanical energy is insignificant and in some mechanical energy situations, as in the flow of
fluids in pipes, the frictional losses appear as heat but the details of the heating need not be
considered. We are seldom concerned with internal energies.
Therefore practical applications of energy balances tend to focus on particular dominant aspects
and so a heat balance, for example, can be a useful description of important cost and quality
aspects of process situation. When unfamiliar with the relative magnitudes of the various forms
of energy entering into a particular processing situation, it is wise to put them all down. Then
after some preliminary calculations, the important ones emerge and other minor ones can be
lumped together or even ignored without introducing substantial errors. With experience, the
obviously minor ones can perhaps be left out completely though this always raises the
possibility of error. [8]
Energy balances can be calculated on the basis of external energy used per kilogram of product,
or raw material processed, or on dry solids or some key component. The energy consumed in
WOOD ASH
food production includes direct energy which is fuel and electricity used on the farm, and in
transport and in factories, and in storage, selling, etc.; and indirect energy which is used to
actually build the machines, to make the packaging, to produce the electricity and the oil and so
on. Food itself is a major energy source, and energy balances can be determined for animal or
human feeding; food energy input can be balanced against outputs in heat and mechanical
energy and chemical synthesis.
In the SI system there is only one energy unit, the joule. However, kilocalories are still used by
some nutritionists and British thermal units (Btu) in some heat-balance work.
The two applications used in this chapter are heat balances, which are the basis for heat transfer,
and the energy balances used in analyzing fluid flow.
ASSUMPTIONS:
1. No accumulation of material and energy;
2. Open systems only;
3. The type of process taking place is continuous; and
4. No change in density of material along the process line.
Energy balance on saponification vessel
ΔH=Q –Ws
Q= ΔH+Ws
Where =12.5kw for turbine agitator
But for
ΔH= H2-H1
ΔH=m [ ∫ cp ∆ Tdt - ∫ cp ∆ Tdt ]
At reference state of 25oc

WOOD ASH
cp ∆Tdt
70
ΔH=m ∫¿
25
¿
Where
Cp (wet soap) = 1.22kj/kg.k
m (mass flow rate) =70.024kg/hr
T@250c = 298.15k
T@700k= 343.15k
Then ∆H= 70.024kg/hr [298∫3431.22kj/kg.k ∆T]
=70.024kg/hr*1.22kj/kg.k (343.15-298.15) *1/3600s
=1.067866kj/s
Where Q= ∆H+Ws
= (1.067866 +12.5) kw
Q=13.567866kw
Energy balance on washing column
ΔH=Q –Ws
Q= ΔH+Ws
But
ΔH= H out – H in
H in = H crude soap +H lye T= 343k
cp ∆Tdt
353
H lye = m ∫¿
343
¿

WOOD ASH
H lye = 25.84727378[3.1kj/kg(353.15-343.15)k]1hr/3600s
H lye = 0.22257kw
cp ∆Tdt
353
H crud soap = m ∫¿
343
¿
= 37.968613kg/hr[1.22kj/kg.k (353.15-343.15)
=37.968613*12.2kg/kg.k*1/3600s
H crud soap =0.12867kw
H out = H glycerin +H washed soap @800C =353k
cp ∆Tdt
353
H glycerin = m ∫¿
343
¿
=34.7404[1.22(353-343)*1/3600
H glycerin = 0.2344977 kw
cp ∆Tdt
353
H washed soap =m ∫¿
343
¿
=29.075[1.22*10]*1/3600s
H washed soap =0.098531944 kw
Hence
∆H= H out –H in
= [(glycerin + wash soap) – (lye + crude soap)]

WOOD ASH
= [(0.2344977+0.098531944) – (0.22257 +0.12867)]
∆H= -0.0182103kw
Then
Q= ∆H + Ws
= -0.0182103 + 12.5
Q= 12.4817897kw
Energy balance on centrifuge

The energy consumption of a tubular bowl centrifuge handling dilute slurries is 1.49kwTubular
centrifuge bowl diameter =4.25inMaximum centrifuge force × gravity =13200 [12]
Where Q = Ws
Q = 1.49kw
Separation factor (Ks)
Ks = 39.48 n2r/g = 39.48 (1250)2*2.125/9.81
Ks = 13362480.89
ENERGY BALANCE ON NEUTRALIZATION
KOH + H3PO4 KHPO4 + H2O
Q = ΔH
Where Δ H is by definition Δ H reaction for the chemical reaction equation
Compound ∆Hf (kj/moll)

KOH -482.37
H3PO4 -1288
H2O -285.83
KHPO4 -1748.1
Hence,
product reactant
Δ H reaction = [ ∑ vi ∆ Hf − ∑ vi ∆ H f ]
i i

WOOD ASH
Δ H reaction = [(V KHPO4 Δ H f KHPO4 + V H2O ΔH f H2O) – (V KOH ΔH f KOH +

V H3PO4 ΔH f H3PO4)]
= [(1*(-1748.1)) + (1*(-285.85))] – [(1*(482.37)) + (1*(-1288))]
= (-2033.95) – (1770.37)
Δ H reaction = -263.58 kj/mol
Hence, Q = -263.58 kj/mol
The negative value means heat is removed from the reaction.
ENERGY BALANCE ON DRYER
The total specific rate of heat transfer heat transfer can be calculated using;
Cpl = 4.187kj/kg.k Tsa = 70 0C + 273.15 = 343.15k
Cpv =4.285kj/kg.k TV = 100 0C + 273.15 = 373.15k
Cps =1.22kj/kg.k Tsb = 250C + 273.15 = 298.15 k
Tva = 45 0C + 273.15 = 318.15
Xa = 0.68, Xb = 0.88 ms = 35.5 kh/hr

Then the total rate of heat transfer (Qs)

WOOD ASH
Qs/ms = 1.22(298.15 – 343.15) + (0.31) (4.187) (373.15 – 343.15) + (0.31 – 0.12) 225 + (0.12)
(4.187) (318.15 – 373.15) + (0.31 – 0.12) (4.285) (318.15 – 373.15)
Qs/ms = -54.9 + 38.9391 + 42.75 – 27.6342 – 44.77825

Qs = 35.5*(-45.62335)
Qs = -1619.628925kj/hr*1hr/3600s
Qs = -0.449896923kw
The negative value shows the removal of heat from the dryer.
4. EQUIPMENT SIZING, DESIGN AND SELECTION
Equipment design for this preliminary process evaluation involves determining the size of the
equipment in terms of the volume, flow per unit time or surface area and designing of the
thickness as well as the pressure that the equipment could with stand. Some of the calculations
associated with the soap production units are presented in the following to indicate the extent of
the calculations which are sometimes adequate for a preliminary design. [8]
4.1 EQUIPMENT SIZING
SIZING OF TALLOW STORAGE TANK
Mass of tallow = 12.528kg/hr
ρ=m/v volume = mass/density
Volume = 12.528/0.21662
Volume = 58.8339 m3/hr
For one day the volume of tallow required is
Volume = 1388m3

WOOD ASH
Adding 10% safety factor
Volume = 1526.8 m3
SIZING OF POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE STORAGE TANK
Mass of KOH = 6.496 kg/hr
ρ=m/v volume = mass/ density, density of KOH = 2120kg/m3
Volume = 6.496/2120
Volume = 3.064*10^-3 m3/hr
For one day
Volume of KOH = 0.0735m3
Considering 10% safety factor
Volume of KOH = 0.0808 m3
SIZING OF LYE STORAGE TANK
Mass of lye = 51kg/hr
Density of lye (KOH solution) = 1533.945kg/m3
Volume = mass/density
Volume of lye = 51/1533.945
Volume of lye = 0.033247 m3/hr
For one day
Volume of lye = 0.7979m3
Considering 10% safety factor
Volume of lye = 0.87769 m3
SIZING OF SAPONIFICATION VESSEL

WOOD ASH
Inputs to the saponification vessel = 70.024kg/hr
Average density of inputs = 1144.61kg/m3
Volume = 70.024/1144.61 = 0.061177281 m3/hr
In saponification vessel there is a reaction. Hence, the probability of foaming is high. Therefore,
we should take 15% allowance for volume.
Volume of saponification vessel = 0.070354m3
SIZING OF STATIC SEPARATOR
Mass in to the static separator = 70.024kg/hr
Density of soap = 0.932kg/m3
Volume of static separator = 70.024/0.932 =75.133m3/hr
Considering 10% allowance
Volume of static separator = 82.6463m3
SIZING OF WASHING COLUMN
Mass in = 63.81588kg/hr
Density = 0.932 kg/m3
Volume of washing column = mass/density = 63.81588/0.932
Volume of washing column = 68.4719 m3/hr
Considering 10% allowance
Volume of washing column = 75.319m3
SIZING OF NEUTRALIZING VESSEL

WOOD ASH
Mass in = 29.075kg/hr
Density = 0.932kg/m3
Volume = mass/density = 29.075/0.932
Volume of neutralizing vessel = 31.196m3/hr
Assuming 10% allowance
Volume of neutralizing vessel = 34.3159m3
SIZING OF VACUUM DRYER
Mass in = 45.94117647kg/hr
Density = 0.932kg/m3
Volume dryer = mass/density = 45.94117647/0.932
Volume of dryer = 49.293m3/hr
V = 54.22241858m3
SELECTION OF PUMP FOR SOAP PRODUCTION
Pump selection depends on the capacity of the flowing fluid and total head loss along the pipe
including the head loss due to the friction in the pipe and head loss due to the pipe fitting.
For this project, carbon steel centrifugal and positive displacement pump are chosen. Positive
displacement pump is selected to drive tallow, KOH and lye (KOH solution). Because, positive
displacement pump is used to drive viscous or small amount fluids. For processes after
saponification vessel, centrifugal pump is chosen Due to its simplicity, low capital cost, uniform
flow, small floor space, low maintenance cost, quiet operation and adaptability for use the motor
or turbine drive.
4.2 EQUIPMENT DESIGN
DESIGN OF TALLOW STORAGE TANK

WOOD ASH
Capacity (volume) with 10% allowance = 1526.8m3
Eight tankers of 191m3 each is required
For cylindrical shape
V = ΠD2/4 H, take H/D = 1.5
Rearranging the above equation,
D = (2v/Π) 1/3 = (2*191/3.14) 1/3
D = 4.8m = 4800mm H= 7.2m
P = pa + ρgh
P = 101325 N/m2 + 0.21662kg/m3*9.8m/s2*7.2m
P = 101340.28 N/m2
Considering 5% corrosion allowance
P = 0.05*101340.28
P = 5067.014 N/m2
P i = P + (0.05*P)
Pi = 106407.294 N/m2 = 0.1064 N/mm2
The design stress for carbon steel in a temperature range of 0 0C to 50 0C is 135 N/mm2.
Thickness = pi*di/2f-pi = (0.1064N/mm2*4800mm)/ (2*135N/mm2 – 0.1064N/mm2)
Thickness = 1.89 mm
Adding 2mm for corrosion allowance
Thickness of storage tank for tallow = 4mm
DESIGN OF TOP COVER FOR TALLOW STORAGE TANK

WOOD ASH
P = Pa = 101325 N/m2, because the pressure exerted on the top of the storage tank is only
atmospheric pressure.
Thickness = pi*di/2f-pi = (0.101325N/mm2*4800mm)/ (270 N/mm2 – 0.101325N/mm2)
Thickness = 1.8 mm
Considering 2mm corrosion allowance
Thickness of top cover for storage tank = 3.8mm
DESIGN OF LYE STORAGE TANK
For cylindrical shape,
V = ΠD2/4 H, take H/D = 1.5
D = (2V/Π) ^1/3
D = 0.825m = 825.3554mm
H = 1.5D, H = 1.238m
P = pa + ρgh
P = 101325 N/m2 + 1533.945kg/m3*9.8m/s2*1.238m
P = 119935 N/mm2
Assume 5% corrosion allowance
P = 0.05*119935
P = 5996.7 N/m2
Pi = p + (0.05*p)
Pi = 125931.77N/mm2 = 0.1259 N/mm2
Design stress for stainless steel in temperature range of 0 0C to 50 0C is 165 N/mm2.

WOOD ASH
Thickness = pi*di/2f-pi
Thickness = (0.1259N/mm2*825.3554mm)/ (330N/mm2-0.1259N/mm2)
Thickness = 0.315mm
Adding 2mm as safety factor
Thickness of lye storage tank = 2.315mm
TOP COVER OF LYE STORAGE TANK
P = Pa = 101325N/m2
Thickness = pi*di/2f-pi = (0.101325N/mm2*825.3554mm)/ (330N/mm2-0.101325N/mm2)
Thickness = 0.25349mm
With 2mm corrosion allowance
Thickness of top cover for lye storage tank = 2.25349mm
DESIGN OF POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE STORGE TANK
Capacity (volume) of KOH storage tank with 10% allowance =0.0808m3
V = ΠD2/4 H, take H/D =1.5
Rearranging,
D = (2v/Π) 1/3 = 0.3756m = 375.66mm
H = 0.56m
P = pa +ρgh
P = 101325N/m2 + 2120kg/m3*9.8m/s*0.56m
P = 113032.1736 N/m2
Assuming 10% corrosion allowance

WOOD ASH
P = 0.05*113032.1736N/m2
P =5651.61N/m2
Pi = p + (0.05*p) = 113032.1736 N/m2 + 5651.61N/m2
Pi = 118683.7823N/m2 =0.11868N/mm2
Thickness = pi*di/2f-pi = (0.11868N/mm2 *375.66mm) / (330N/mm2 – 0.11868N/mm2)
Thickness = 0.135mm
Thickness = 2.135mm
THICKNESS OF TOP COVER FOR POTASSIUM HYDROXID STORAGE TANK
P = Pa = 101325N/m2 = 0.101325N/mm2
T = pi*di/2f-pi = (0.101325N/mm2*375.66mm)/ (330N/mm2- 0.101325N/mm2)
T = 0.11538mm
Thickness of top cover for potassium hydroxide storage tank = 2.11538mm
DESIGN OF SAPONIFICATION VESSEL
Capacity (volume) with 10% allowance =0.070354m3
V =ΠD2/4 H take H/D = 1.5
Rearranging,
D = (2v/Π) 1/3 = [(2*0.070354)/ (3.14)] 1/3
D = 0.3588m = 358.88mm
H = 1.5*0.3588m = 0.53833m

WOOD ASH
P = pa + ρgh
P = 101325N/m2 + 1144.60795kg/m3*9.8m/s2*0.53833
P = 107363.5478 N/m2
Considering corrosion allowance 10%
P = 0.1* 107363.5478N/m2
P = 10736.35N/m2
Pi = p + (0.1*107363.5478N/m2)
Pi = 118099.9026N/m2 = 0.11809N/mm2
Design stress factor for stainless steel @ 70 0C is 159 N/mm2
T= pi*di/2f-pi = (0.11809N/mm2*358.88mm)/ (318N/mm2-0.11809N/mm2)
T = 0.1333mm
Adding 2mm for safety factor
Thickness of saponification vessel = 2.1333mm
THICKNESS OF TOP COVER FOR SAPONIFICATION VESSEL
P = pa + ρgh because, the inside reaction as well as the rotation of agitator exerts pressure on the
top cover. Therefore, the cover thickness is the same as wall thickness.
MIXER DESIGN
Capacity (volume) to be stirred = 0.070354m3
Diameter of the impeller should be 1/3 of tank diameter.
Diameter of tank = 0.358m
Diameter of impeller = 0.11933m H/D = 2
H = 0.23866m

WOOD ASH
Reynolds number should also be calculated.
Re= ρ∗N∗D I/ μ
Where DI=impeller diameter µ=viscosity N=rotational speed of the fluid
Where ρ =1144.60795Kg/m3, DI=0.11933m, N=200rpm=200/60=3.36rps, μ = 2.45 pa/sec
Re = (1144.60795kg/m3*3.36*0.11933)/ (2.45)
Re = 187.318
Determination of Power
NP=P/D5N3ρ
P=shaft power, D=mixer diameter, N=mixer speed, ρ=fluid density
From the graph of power versus Reynolds number the power number is 3.5
Pnd=P*g/ ρ N3DI5
P delivered = p*ρ N3 Di5/g =[ 3.5*1144.60795*(3.36)3*(0.11933)5]/ (9.8)
P = 0.375 HP
MIXER THICKNESS
P=pa+ρgH
kg
P=101,325pa+1144.60795 *9.81m/s2*0.23866m
m3
P=104002N/ m2
=0.104N/mm2
Take 5% corrosion allowance
P =0.05*N/ M 2
=5200N/ M 2
Pi = (104002+5200)N ¿ m2
Pi=109202N/ m 2
=0.1092N/mm2

WOOD ASH
Pi∗di
t= =0.1092*119.33/ (2*165-0.1092)
2 f − pi
t =0.0395mm
Corrosion allowance=2mm
Minimum thickness of mixer=0.0395mm+2mm= 2.0395mm
DESIGN OF STATIC SEPARATOR
For conical shape,
V = ΠD2/4 *(H-2a/3) where H/D =1.5
a= -3/2 *H
Rearranging the above equation,
3v 3∗82.6463 0.33
D=( ) 0.33 = ( ) = 3.36362m = 3363.62mm
2Π 2∗3.14
H = 1.5* 3.36362 = 5m
P = pa + ρgh
P = 101325N/m2 + 0.932kg/m3 *9.8m/s2*5m
P = 101370.668N/m2
P = 0.05*101370.668N/m2
P = 5068.5334 N/m2
Pi = p + (0.05*p)
Pi = 106439.2 N/m2 = 0.106439 N/mm2
The design stress for carbon steel at 70 0C is 131N/mm.2 [5]

WOOD ASH
pi∗di
T= = (0.106439N/mm2*3363.62mm)/ (262N/mm2- 0.106439N/mm2)
2 f − pi
T = 1.367mm
Corrosion allowance = 2mm
Thickness of static separator = 3.367mm
DESIGN OF TOP COVER FOR STATIC SEPARATOR
P = pa =101325N/m2 =0.101325N/mm2
pi∗di
T= = (0.101325N/mm2*3363.62mm)/ (262N/mm2-0.101325N/mm2)
2 f − pi
T= 1.3mm
Corrosion allowance =2mm
T = 3.3mm
DESIGN OF WASHING COLUMN
V = ΠD2/4 H take H/D =1.5
Rearranging,
2 v 0.33 2∗75.319 0.33

D=( ) =( ) = 3.587m =3587mm
π 3.14
H = 1.5*3.587m = 5.38m
P = pa + ρgh ρav= [(1533.945kg/m3) + (0.932kg/m3)]/ 2 =767.4385kg/m3
P = 101325N/m2 + 767.4385kg/m3*9.8m/s2*5.38m
P = 141791.21N/m2 = 0.14179N/mm2

WOOD ASH
P = 0.05*141791.21N/m2
P = 7089.5605 N/m2
Pi = p + (0.05*p)
Pi = 148880.7705 N/m2 = 0.14888 N/mm2
Design stress for carbon steel at a temperature of 80 0C is 129N/mm2.
pi∗di
T= = [(0.14888N/mm2 * 3587mm)]/ [(2*129N/mm2- 0.14888N/mm2)]
2 f − pi
T = 2.07mm
Adding 2mm for safety factor
Thickness of washing column = 4.07 mm
DESIGN OF TOP COVER OF WASHING COLUMN
P = Pa + ρgh
Because, when a series of rings inside the washing column rotates, it creates turbulence. Hence,
the inside material exerts pressure on the wall and cover of the column. Therefore, the thickness
of top cover will be the same as the wall thickness.
DESIGN OF NEUTRALIZING VESSEL
V = ΠD2/4 H, take H/D = 1.5
Rearranging,
D = (2v/ Π) 0.33 = [(2*34.3159m3)/ (3.14)] 0.33
D = 2.76736m = 2767.36596mm

WOOD ASH
H = 4.15m
P = pa + ρgh ρavg = [ρkoH + ρH3po4]/ 2 = 1977kg/m3
P = 101325N/m2 + 1977kg/m3*9.8m/s2*4.15m
P = 181729.59 N/m2
Assuming 105 allowance because, since there is a reaction inside the vessel, the probability of
getting corrode is high.
P = 0.1*181729.59 N/m2
P = 18172.959 N/m2
Pi = p + (0.1*181729.59)
Pi = 199902.549 N/m2 = 0.1999 N/mm2
Design stress for stainless steel @ 70 0C is 159 N/mm2
pi∗di
T= = (0.1999N/mm2*2767.36596mm)/ (318N/mm2-0.1999N/mm2)
2 f − pi
T = 1.74mm
Corrosion allowance =2mm
Thickness of neutralizing vessel = 3.74mm
DESIGN OF TOP COVER OF NEUTRALIZING VESSEL
P = Pa + ρgh
Because, the inside reaction has a probability to exert on the top cover. Therefore, cover
thickness will be the same as wall thickness.
DESIGN OF DRYER

WOOD ASH
V = ΠD2/4 H, take H/D =1.5
Rearranging,
D = (2v/Π) 0.33 = [(2*54.22241858m3)/ (3.14)] 0.33
D = 3.218m = 3218.34mm
H = 4.827m
P = Pa + ρgh ρavg = (ρsoap + ρwater)/2 = 500.466kg/m3
P = 101325N/m2 + 500.466kg/m3*9.8m/s2*4.827m
P = 125001.8575 N/m2
P = 0.05*125001.8575 N/m2
P = 6250N/m2
Pi = P + (6250N/m2)
Pi = 131251.6679 N/m2 = 0.13125 N/mm2
The design stress for stainless steel @ 70 0C is 159 N/mm2
pi∗di
T= = (0.13125N/mm2*3218.34mm)/ (318N/mm2-0.13125N/mm2)
2 f − pi
T = 1.328mm
Adding 2mm safety factor
Thickness of the dryer = 3.3288mm
Area of dryer is calculated based on the energy required to the dryer or energy released from
dryer.
From energy balance,

WOOD ASH
Q = -0.449896923kw = -449.896923w
Q = UAΔTLMTD
A = Q/U*ΔTLMTD
The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is = 5405w/m2 k
(T 11−T 21 ) 1−(T 12−T 22)2 (70−100 )−(25−45)

ΔT LMTD = (T 11−T 21)1 = (70−100) = -10/0.405465108
ln ln
( T 12−T 22) 2 (25−45)
ΔT LMTD = -24.66303462k
A = -449.896923w/ (5405w/m2k*(-24.66303462k))
A = -449.896923w/ -133303.7021w/m2
A = 0.003374976958 m2 = 0.036327949ft2
4.3 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION
Equipment specification typically includes the determination of vessel dimensions and

description of other internal parts of the equipment. It also involves the determination of
parameters like speed, power and any other operating parameters pertaining to the particular
equipment. Specification of equipment can be approached from a duty specification view point.
[4]
SUMMARY OF EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION
The major considerations under equipment specifications are;
1. Identification of the equipment
2. Function of the equipment
3. Material handled
4. Basic design data
5. Material of construction

WOOD ASH
Information and data used are from peter and Timmerhaus, Mc Cabe and smith and chemical
Engineering hand book, 5th edition.
SAPONIFICATION VESSEL
Duty: to react potassium hydroxide, fat and lye.
Type: non reversible
Capacity: 35.5kg/hr
Number required: 1
STATIC SEPARATOR
Duty: separates the soap from the lye
Type: a settling vessel which does not use any mechanical action
Material of construction: carbon steel
Area: 2m2
Width: 1.5m
Length: 1.725m
STORAGE TANK 1
Duty: to serve a stock pile for the tallow.
Description: vertical cylindrical tank with flat ends.
Capacity: 191m3
Height: 7.2m
Diameter: 4.8m
Number required: 8
Thickness: 4mm

WOOD ASH
WASHING COLUMN
Description: cylindrical and slightly inclined to the horizontal
Capacity: 75.319m3
Length: 5.38m
Diameter: 3.587m
Rotational speed of rings: 1324rpm
Number required: 1
STORAGE TANK 2
Duty: to temporarily store potassium hydroxide.
Description: vertical cylindrical tank with flat ends.
Capacity: 0.0808m3
Diameter: 0.3756m
Thickness: 2.135mm
Material of construction: stain less steel
Number required: 1
STORAGE TANK 3
Duty: to temporarily store lye solution before entering saponifier.
Description: vertical cylinder tank with flat ends.
Capacity: 0.87769m3
Height: 1.238m

WOOD ASH
Diameter: 0.825m
Thickness: 2.315mm
NEUTRALIZER
Duty: to react weak acid with potassium hydroxide.
Type: continuous stirred tank reactor.
Capacity: 34.3159m3
Height: 4.15m
Diameter: 2.76736m
Thickness: 3.74mm
Material of construction: stainless steel
CENTRIFUGE
Duty: to separate soap and lye
Type: tubular centrifuge
Diameter: 4.25in
Number: 1
The energy consumption of a tubular bowl centrifuge handling dilute slurries is 1.49kw
Tubular centrifuge bowl maximum centrifuge force * gravity =13200
DRYER
Duty: to reduce water levels to about 12% in the laundry soap
Type: vacuum shelf dryer Moisture content: 31% Capacity: 35.5kg/hr
Column diameter: 3.218m Area: 0.036f
5. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
WOOD ASH
This design project aims to present a process that is capable of operating under conditions which
will yield profit. As a necessity the economic viability of this manufacturing business must be
addressed considering the society and government with which it will operate. The primary
concern of an investors lies in the rate of return (ROR) based on accurate cost estimates and
sound data.
Since the profit equals total income minus all expenses, it is essential that all the costs involved
in manufacturing process are considered. A capital investment is required for any industrial
process and determination of the process consists of fixed capital investment of physical
equipment and facilities in the plant plus necessary investment is an important part design
project. The total investment for any working capital which must be available to pay salaries,
keep raw materials and products on hand and handle other special items requiring a direct cash
outlay.
Using payback period, rate of return and unit product cost a profitability analysis will be
conducted to see the viability of this plant design.
Basis of economic analysis:
Start of construction: January 2016

Completion of construction: January 2017
Commencement of processing: January 2018
Plant operation: 3 shifts per day
Process: continuous
Plant life: 15 years
Plant production rate: 256ton per annum
Selling price of laundry soap:
Chemical engineering cost index for 2004= 111.5 and for 2003= 108
Time value of money is not neglected
5.1 TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT
The total capital investment is sum of the following:

WOOD ASH
Fixed capital investment (FCI) is the capital needed to supply all manufacturing and
facilities. This includes
 Direct (manufacturing) fixed capital investment – the amount of money necessary for
the installed process equipment with all auxiliaries needed for a complete process
operation.
 Indirect (non manufacturing) fixed capital investment – construction overheads and
all plant components which are directly related to the process operation.
Working capital is the capital needed for the daily running of the plant. This consists of the total
amount of money invested in:
 Start up
 Raw material and supply carried in stock
 Finished and semi finished products in stock
 Accounts receivable and payable
 Cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expense
 Taxes payable
It is estimated that working capital is 15% of total capital investment.
5.2. FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT
The fixed capital investment is the capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and
plant facilities (peter et al). It can also be defined as the total cost of the plant ready for start up.
The fixed capital investment can be divided into two. This is
1. The direct fixed capital investment
2. The indirect fixed capital investment
5.2.1 ESTIMATION OF DIRECT FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT
The direct fixed capital investment is determined based on capital investment.
The following table shows cost of basic equipments.
Table 5.1: cost of equipment to be purchased in 2014 [15]
No List of equipment to be Cost of equipment in 2014 (in

WOOD ASH
purchased birr)
1 Tallow storage tank 3108000birr
2 Pump used to drive tallow 316000birr
3 KOH storage tank 268000birr
4 Pump used to drive KOH 174000birr
5 Lye solution storage tank 228000birr
6 Pump used to drive lye 198000birr
solution
7 Saponification vessel 318000birr
8 Pump used to drive wet soap 320000birr
9 Static separator 132000birr
10 Pump used to drive crude soap 320000birr
11 Washing column 334000birr
12 Pump used to drive washed 302000birr
soap
13 Centrifuge 198000birr
14 Pump used to drive wet soap 304000birr
15 Neutralizer 8456000birr
16 Pump used to drive soap 314000birr
17 Dryer 10000birr
Since the plant is erected in 2016, we have to know the cost of equipment in 2016. To know the
cost of equipment in 2016,
Cost in 2016 = cost in 2104*(1+ rate/100) t
Where t = difference in year from 2014 to 2016
Inflation rate in Ethiopia averaged 17.88% from 2006 until 2015. [16]
Cost in 2016 for tallow storage tank = cost in 2014*(1+17.88/100) 2
Cost in 2016 for tallow storage tank = 3108000 (1+ 17.88/100) 2 = 4318781.82birr
Using the same fashion as above, the following cost of equipment table in 2016 is generated.

WOOD ASH
Table 5.2: cost of equipment in 2016
Number List of equipment to be Cost of equipment in 2016(in

purchased birr)
1 Tallow storage tank 4318781.82
2 Pump used to drive tallow 439103.943
3 KOH storage tank 372404.6099
4 Pump used to drive KOH 241785.0826
5 Lye solution storage tank 316821.8323
6 Pump used to drive lye 275134.7491
solution
7 Saponification vessel 441883.0819
8 Pump used to drive wet soap 450220.4986
9 Static separator 183423.1661
10 Pump used drive crude soap 444662.2208
11 Washing column 464116.193
12 Pump used to drive washed 419649.9709
soap
13 Centrifuge 275134.7491
14 Pump used to drive wet soap 422429.1098
15 Neutralizer 11750199.18
16 Pump used to drive soap 436324.8042

WOOD ASH
17 Dryer 13895.6944
Total cost of purchased equipment 21265970.16
PURCHSED EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION COST
The installation of the equipment includes factors directly related to the erection of purchased
equipment (e.g. painting, platform, insulation, formulation, construction expenses). This is
estimated to be 39% of purchased equipment cost for solid-fluid chemical process plant. [8]
= 8293728.362birr
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL COST
Instrument cost, installation-labor cost and expenses of auxiliary equipment and materials
constitute the major portion of the capital investment required for instrumentation. This
component is estimated to be 13% of purchased equipment cost for solid-fluid chemical process
plant. [8]
= 2764576.121birr
PIPING COST
This refers to the cost for raw material, intermediate product, finished product, steam, water, and
waste products piping. Items involved in the complete erection of all piping used directly in the
process which include the labor, valves, fittings, pipe, support etc. the piping cost is estimated to
be 31% 0f purchased equipment cost for solid-fluid chemical process plant. [8]
= 6592450.75birr
COST OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
The electrical system consists of the power wiring, lighting, transformation and services,
instrument and control wiring. This component is estimated to be 10% of purchased equipment
cost for solid-fluid chemical process plant. [8]
= 2126597.016birr
COST OF BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

WOOD ASH
The cost involved in the erection of all buildings connected with the plant (labor, materials and
supplies). Cost of plumbing, heating, lighting, ventilation, and similar building services are
included here. This component is estimated to be 29% of purchased equipment cost for solid-
fluid chemical process plant. [8]
= 6167131.346birr
COST OF YARD IMPROVEMENT
This involves costs for fencing, grading, roads, sidewalks, rail road sidings, landscaping and
similar items. Yard improvement cost for chemical plant is estimated to be 10% of purchased
equipment cost. [8]
= 2126597.016birr
SERVICE FACILITY AND UTILITY COST
Utilities for supplying steam, water, power and fuel are part of the service facilities of a chemical
process plant. Services include the cost of waste disposal, fire protection, and miscellaneous
service items (shop, first aid, cafeteria equipment etc.). This component is estimated to be 55%
of the purchased equipment cost for solid-fluid chemical process plant. [8]
= 11696283.59birr
COST OF LAND
The plant will be sited at Debre Brhan in the northern part of Ethiopia. This component is
estimated to be 6% of the purchased equipment cost. [8]
= 1275958.21birr
Total fixed direct cost = 41043322.41birr
5.2.2 ESTIMATION OF INDIRECT FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT
ENGINEERING AND SUPERVISION COST

WOOD ASH
This involves construction design and engineering, drafting, purchasing accounting, construction
and cost engineering, travel, reproductions, communications and home office expenses including
overhead. This component is estimated as 32% of purchased equipment cost. [8]
= 6805110.451birr
CONSTRUCTION EXPENSES
This component involves construction and operation, construction tools and rentals, construction
payroll, taxes, insurance and other overheads. This component is estimated as 34% of purchased
equipment cost. [8]
= 7230429.854birr
CONTRUCTORS’ FEE
The contractors’ fee can be taken as 18% of purchased equipment cost. [8]
= 3827874.629birr
CONTINGENCY FEES
A contingency amount is included in all estimates of total capital investment in recognition of the
fact that, there will be unexpected events and changes that will inevitably increase the cost of the
project (i.e. strikes, price changes, small design changes, storms, floods etc). This component is
estimated as 36% of purchased equipment cost. [8]
= 7655749.258birr
Total fixed indirect cost = 25519164.19birr
Total fixed capital investment (FCI) = total fixed direct cost + total fixed indirect cost
FCI = 66562486.6birr
Total capital investment (TCI) = fixed capital investment + working capital investment
TCI = FCI + WCI but, WCI = 0.15*TCI
TCI = FCI + 0.15TCI

WOOD ASH
TCI = FCI/0.85 = 66562486.6/0.85
TCI = 78308807.77 birr
WCI = 0.15* TCI
WCI = 11746321.16birr
5.3 ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST
The two basic components that affect product pricing are costs of manufacture and competition
in selling. It is unprofitable to sell a product bellow the manufacturer’s production costs and
unfeasible to sell it at a price higher than that at which comparable merchandise is being offered.
Other variables also affect pricing. Company policy may require a minimum profit on new
product lines or a specified return on investments, or discounts may be offered on purchases in
quantity.
This involves estimation of cost for operating the plant and selling the products. Total product
cost is broken down into two:
Total product cost (TPC) = manufacturing cost + general expense
The manufacturing cost (direct product cost) is also subdivided into the fixed charges, plant
overheads and variable production cost. The fixed charges are costs that do not vary with
production rate, where as the variable production cost is the cost dependent on the amount of
product produced. Plant overheads comprise hospital and medical bills, general plant
maintenance cost safety services among others (peter et al, 1990).
The general expenses comprise administrative expenses, distribution and marketing expenses
and research and development expenses.
FIXED CHARGES
Depreciation (10% of FCI for machineries) = 6656248.66birr
Local taxes (3-4%of FCI) assume 3% = 1996874.598birr
Insurance (0.4-1% of FCI) assume 1% = 665624.866birr

WOOD ASH
Rent (8–12% of FCI) assume 9% = 5990623.794birr
Total fixed charges = 15309371.87birr
Total fixed charges = 15% of total product cost (TPC)
TPC = 15309371.87/ 0.15
TPC = 102062479.2birr
DIRECT PRODUCTION COST
Raw material (10-50% of TPC), assume 30% = 30618743.75birr
Operating labor (OL) (10-20% of TPC) assume 15% = 15309371.87birr
Direct supervisory and electric labor (10-25% of OL) assume 15% = 2296405.781birr
Utilities (10-20% of TPC) assume 15% = 15309371.87birr
Maintenance (2-10% 0f FCI) assume 6% = 3993749.196birr
Operating supplies (OS) (10-20% of maintenance) assume 15% = 599062.3794birr
Laboratory charges (10-20% of OL) assume 15% = 2296405.781birr
Plant and royalties (2-6% of TCI) assume 4% = 3132352.311birr
Plant overhead cost (5-10% of TPC) assumes 5% = 5103123.96birr
Direct production cost = 75555462.94birr
Manufacturing cost = fixed charges + direct production costs + plant overheads
Manufacturing costs = 95967958.77birr
GENERAL EXPENSE
General expense = administrative cost + distribution and selling costs + research and
development costs + interest
Administrative cost (2-6% of TPC) assumes 2% = 2041249.584birr

WOOD ASH
Distribution and selling costs (2-26% of TPC) assume 3% = 3061874.376birr
Research and development cost (5% of TPC) = 5103123.96birr
Interest (0-10% of TCI) assume 3% = 2349264.233birr
Total expense = manufacturing cost + general expense
Total expense =108523470.9birr
Unit selling price for soap = 28birr/kg
Unit selling price for glycerin = 761.918birr/kg
BREAK EVEN POINT
Total product cost = (Qs*28) + (Qg*761.918)
Q = 102062479.2/ 789.918
Q = 129206.4229kg/yr
PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
Gross profit = total income – total expense
Total income = (annual capacity of soap*unit price) + (annual capacity of glycerin* unit price)
= (256000*28) + (250130.88*761.918)
= 197747219.8birr
Gross profit = 197747219.8 –108523470.9
Gross profit = 89223748.9birr
NET PROFIT
Net profit = gross profit* (1 – income tax)
Tax in Ethiopia is 35% of income.
Net profit = 89223748.9*(1- 0.35)

WOOD ASH
Net profit = 57995436.79birr
PAYBACK PERIOD
Taking the minimum acceptable rate (mar) =12%, and taking the percentage of fixed capital
investment to total capital investment;
FCI/ TCI = 40096480birr/ 47172329.41 birr = 0.85
0.85 0.85
Payback period reference = 0.85 = 0.85 = 4.81 year
mar+ 0.12+
n 15
FCI 66562486.6 bir

Payback period = = = 1.0295year
NP +d 57995436.79 birr +6656248.66 birr
Since payback period is less than payback period reference, the project is feasible.
RATE ON INVESTMENT (ROI)
NP 57995436.79
ROI = *100 = *100 = 74%
TCI 78308807.77
Since 74% is greater than 12% the project is feasible.
ANNUAL CASH FLOW
Annual cash flow = Np + d
= (57995436.79 + 78308807.77) birr
= 64651685.45 birr
NET PRESENT WORTH
The service life, n = 15 years
I = 12% d= 6656248.66 birr
Annual cash flow (R) = 64651685.45birr
To convert to present value, we have the following formula

WOOD ASH
R ( ( 1+ i )n−1)
P= + rec (1+i) –n, but rec = 0 rec = recovery
i ( 1+i )n
P = present worth of an annuity
15
64651685.45 ( ( 1+ 0.12 ) −1) 289223566.3
P= =
0.12 ( 1+0.12 )
15
0.65682
P = 440333868.6 birr
Hence,
NPW = P – TCI
NPW = 440333868.6 – 78308807.77
NPW = 362025060.8 birr
Since NPW is positive, the project is acceptable and feasible.
Cumulative
Cash flow breakeven point (BEP)
Pay back period = 1.0295 year
Project life = 15 years
Figure 5.1 cash flow diagram

WOOD ASH
6. PLANT SITING AND LOCATION
6.1 PLANT SITING AND LAYOUT
Application of sound engineering principles, exhausting costing and profitability analysis only
will not be enough for successful operation. The success and profitability of the plant is largely
dependent on so many factors. These factors are:
 Plant location
 Availability of raw materials
 Marketing areas
 Maintenance
 Availability of utilities: water, fuel, power, etc.
 Availability of cheap labor
 Personal safety measures
 Control and instrumentation
 Storage facilities
 Population control
 Quality control
6.1.1 PLANT LOCATION
The geographical area of the plant has a strong influence on the success or failure of the plant. In
other words, it has a crucial effect on the profitability of the plant, and the scope of future
expansion. Therefore, a plant should be located where minimum cost of production, as well as
distribution could be obtained, amongst other factors.

WOOD ASH
6.1.2 CHOICE OF LOCATION
In order to make the design project realistic, the aspect of site selection must be given some
consideration. There are a number of considerations concerning the choice of site locations for
laundry soap with in the country. Some of these are general considerations whilst others relate
directly to the process and its requirements. The following list contains a few of the important
considerations.
 Designation as a heavy industrial development area

 Prior existence of similar chemical plants and location of other industrial centers
 Existing roads and services and also appropriate terrain, sub surface, drainage etc
 Suitable access for transportation of raw materials and chemicals and for construction
of a chemical plant.
 Availability of a local workforce and distance from local communities.
 Environmental discharge regulation and cost of land and service etc.
 Climate condition
 Proximity to both the raw materials supply and the market for the product chemical
 Political and strategic considerations
 Location community consideration
 Proximity to major transportation networks e.g. roads, railways
 Availability of suitable land etc.
The importance of the geographical location of the plant cannot be over emphasized. The
location considered for the sitting of laundry soap plant is Debre Birhan in Amhara region. After
detailed analysis of the various locations appropriate for sitting the laundry soap plant has been
done, the location of the laundry soap plant will be Debre Birhan.

WOOD ASH
7. PLANT SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL
7.1PLANT SAFETY
Every organization (company or industry) has the moral and legal obligation to protect the health
and welfare of its employees as well as that of the general public. Therefore, good safety
measures have to be put in place to ensure the safety of lives and prevent damage to equipment.
The primary aim of these safety measures therefore is to prevent or minimize workers exposure
to the potential hazard, injury to workers, loss of lives, and destruction of properties. They are
also needed to ensure safe as well as efficient operation.
These safety measures are employed in industry mainly to prevent or control hazards. A hazard is
a property which in particular circumstances could lead to harm. Common safety hazards in the
manufacturing industry include; dangerous machinery, explosion to fires, faulty electrical
connections and falling materials due to poor housekeeping among others.
HAZARDS DUE TO MATERIALS HANDLING
Potentially hazardous situations include handling and packaging operations, equipment cleaning
and repair, decontamination following spills and equipment failure. Hazards that workers are
likely to be exposed can be prevented by a number of ways, example of which is the provision of
PPEs (personal protective equipment). These equipments include chemical splash goggles,
overcoat/chemical suit, rubber boots, ear plugs, face shield, etc. these equipments are worn to
protect the worker from the dangers of handling some of the chemicals especially potassium
hydroxide.
HAZARDS DUE TO VARIOUS PROCESSES
Hazards that might be caused during processes in this plant include fire hazards, electrical and
mechanical hazards.

WOOD ASH
 FIRE HAZARDS: during the process of heating the raw materials, for example, heating
takes place at high temperatures of about 600-650 0C with the production of hot flue
gases through a chimney. Care must be taken near or during operation of the
saponification vessel for example the control of temperature. Laborers are so careless and
tend to attempt checking temperature manually. This and many other careless practices
may lead to a fire hazard. Over heating of vessel should also be avoided to prevent
explosions or fire outbreak.
 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS: the main source of energy for this plant is electricity since
most of the process units would be powered by it. Care must be taken in dealing with
electric powered units, power should be shut down immediately when faulty electrical
connections are detected and alternative power source be sought for use. Workers must
also be careful especially during power fluctuations as this might cause electrocution that
might lead to fires.
 MECHANICAL HAZARDS: these hazards may be due to improperly fixed or dangerous
machinery. Some machines are designed in such a way that it picks everything in its path.
For example, packing. Such equipment is likely to cause a mechanical hazard. Parts of
machinery should not be left just anywhere on the plant site, rather, good housekeeping
of machine parts should be employed.
With the above mentioned safety measures, the plant can be safe to work on.
7.2 POLLUTION CONTROL
Pollution according to the dangerous substances directive 76/464/EEC of the European

Union is the discharge by man directly of substances or energy into the environment, the
result of which causes hazards to human health, harm to living resources and to ecosystems,
damage to amenities or interference with other legitimate uses of the environment.
Pollution in any industry is of major concern because the more or less it produces pollutants
that indicate the level of control measures in places. Pollution can either be abated by
preventing it at the source or using the end-of-pipe technology. The concept of zero
emissions and pollution prevention at source is the best and less expensive option for any
industry. This is where raw materials are prepared and purified through initial cleaning
processes before production.

WOOD ASH
However, most of the pollution control measures are end-of-pipe technology where waste at
the end of production is treated before released.
8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
8.1 CONCLUSION
At this end, one can envisage that the production process is a feasible one within the confines of
the country. This plant can be duplicated in regions in the country in which the raw materials are
readily available. The establishment of this plant in other locations will provide employment.
From the literature, the tallow, when left to decompose, tend to be very toxic to the soil. This
process introduces a way out whereby almost all of the tallow would be utilized in this very
lucrative venture.
The glycerin, also, obtained after the saponification process, serves as a valuable source of
product for export and other purposes. With the advancement of this project some measures will
have to be put in place to ensure that the quality of the laundry soap remains unaltered. Thus the
farmers (animal rearers) will have to be motivated to produce a high quality of tallow required
for efficient production.
Generally, it is concluded that, with the high rate of return over the plant life, this project is very
viable and rewarding to investors and the nation.
8.2 RECOMMENDATION
 We recommended that, in the near future, the industry should partner with tallow and ash
suppliers to overcome the shortage of raw material.
 Due to the cost intensive nature of this project, a lower annual production rate should be
used.
 The issue of safety and control should be enforced at all levels and times to ensure the
smooth running of the plant, to protect lives and the environment as a whole.
 The marketing department should market the product to raise the profitability measure
higher than as shown during project life.

WOOD ASH
The processes and product of the plant be subjected to ISO audit to give the company the needed
recognition on the world market
REFERENCES
1.A.H. phelps, “air pollution aspects of soap and detergent manufacture”, APCA journal, 17(8):
505-507, August 1967.
2. Campbell, 1990
3. Campbell, 199; MIshra et al., 1993
4. Chemisnott, 2000
5. Coulson and richardson’s chemical engineers series volume 6. 4thEdition.
6. Customs authority, external trade statistic, various years. CSA, statistical abstract, 1990-2002
7. Etiengni and Campbell, 1991
8. Guthric (1969, 1974), peters et al (2003), peter et al (1990).
9. Kuntom et al. (1994)
10. Kuntom et al. (1996)
11. Kirk and othmer, 1954
12. Robert H.perry and Don W.Green, peery chemical engineers hand book, 7 th edition. Page 18-
112, table 18-112.
13. Source category survey: detergent industry, EPA contract no. 68-02-3059, June 1980.
14. Walas, Stanley M. (1990) chemical process equipment (selection and design). In mixing and
agitation chapter 10, page 287-296.
15. Www. matches. Com (accessed on 24/04/2008)

WOOD ASH
16. Www. Trading economics.com/Ethiopia (accessed on 28/04/2008)

Entrepreurship

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Entrepreurship

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

PRODUCTION OF HOME MADE LAUNDRY SOAP FROM 2011 E.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY: ID. NO.

SUMITTED TO: INSTRUCTOR MEBRHIT G.(Msc)

ADU CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 1

ADU CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 2

Table of content ……………………………………………………………………………ii

List of tables and figures …………………………………………………………………..v

1.1 background ………………………………………………………………………...1

1.2 objectives …………………………………………………………………………..3

1.2.1 General objectives ……………………………………………………………….3

1.2.2 Specific objectives ……………………………………………………………….3

1.3 Statement of the problem…………………………………………………………..3

1.4 Scope and limitation of the project………………………………………………...4

1.4.2 Limitation ……………………………………………………………………….4

1.5 Demand study……………………………………………………………………..4

1.5.1 Market needs…………………………………………………………………….4

1.5.2 Past supply and present demand………………………………………………...5

1.5.3 Projected demand ……………………………………………………………….7

ADU CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 3

1.6 Significance of the study…………………………………………………………..8

2.1 Soap uses………………………………………………………………………..11

2.2 Chemical formula and reaction………………………………………………….12

2.3 Physical and chemical properties of soap……………………………………….13

2.4 Soap manufacturing process……………………………………………………..13

2.5 Extraction of potash from wood ash…………………………………………….17

2.6 Process description………………………………………………………………22

3. Material and Energy balance…………………………………………………………...26

3.1 Material balance…………………………………………………………………..26

3.1.1 Plant attainment………………………………………………………………...26

3.2 Energy balance……………………………………………………………………32

4. Equipment sizing, design and selection………………………………………………...38

4.1 Equipment sizing………………………………………………………………....38

4.2 Equipment design………………………………………………………………...41

4.3 Equipment specification…………………………………………………………..52

5.1 Total capital investment………………………………………………………….57

5.2 Fixed capital investment…………………………………………………………57

5.2.1 Estimation of direct fixed capital investment………………………………….57

5.2.2 Estimation of indirect fixed capital investment………………………………..62

5.3 Estimation of total product cost………………………………………………….64

ADU CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 4

6. Plant sitting and location……………………………………………………………….. .69

6.1 Plant sitting and layout………………………………………………………….69

6.1.1 Plant location………………………………………………………………….69

6.1.2 Choice of location…………………………………………………………….69

7. Plant safety and pollution control………………………………………………………..71

7.1 Plant safety……………………………………………………………………..71

7.2 Pollution control………………………………………………………………..72

8. Conclusion and recommendation………………………………………………………..73

ADU CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 5

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES PAGE

Table 1.1: supply of laundry soap (tons)……………………………………………….........6

Table 1.2: projected demand for laundry soap …..................................................................7

Table 5.1: cost of equipment in 2014…………………………………………………........58

Table 5.2: cost of equipment in 2016…………………………………………………........60

Figure 2.1: general flow sheet for soap production………………………………………..25

Figure 5.1: cash flow diagram……………………………………………………………...68

ADU CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Page 6

BEP- Breakeven point

FCI- Fixed capital investment