Qualitative Analysis Notes

Colour of salts

Salts Carbonates Sulfates Oxides General

Copper Green Blue (hydrated) Black Blue
Iron (II) Green Pale Green Green Green
(hydrated)
Iron (III) Solid: Red-brown
Solution: Yellow
Group I, Solid: White
II, III Solution: Colourless
Zinc Hot: Yellow Solid: White
Cold: White Solution: Colourless
Zinc does not show property of transition metals because of fully filled 3d-orbitals.

Solubility Rules

Salts Soluble Insoluble

Chlorides (Cl-) All except Silver (Ag), Lead(II) (Pb)
Bromides (Br-)
Iodides (I-)
Sulfates (SO42-) All except Barium (Ba), Lead(II)
(Pb), Calcium (Ca)
Nitrates (NO3-) All soluble None
Oxides (O-) Group I and Ammonium All others
Hydroxides (OH-) Group I and Ammonium All others
Carbonates (CO32-) Group I and Ammonium All others
Phosphates (PO43-) Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, Fr+, H+, All others
NH4+
**Metal None except Group I and Group II All except
Oxides/ from Ca onwards, CaO and
Hydroxides Ca(OH)2 are considered to be
sparingly soluble.

Silver (Ag+) Nitrates All others

Lead(II) (Pb+) Nitrates All others
Group I All soluble None
Ammonium All soluble None
Cation Tests
The two reagents used to test for cations are:
1) aqueous sodium hydroxide NaOH
2) aqueous ammonia NH3

Steps:
1) To a portion of aqueous unknown, add aqueous NaOH or aqueous ammonia a
little at a time. Observe the colour of ppt formed.

2) Now add excess aqueous NaOH/ aqueous ammonia or add until no further change.
Observe whether the ppt dissolves in the excess reagent

3) Unknown must be in aqueous form in order to react with the alkaline reagents

Cations Effect of aqueous NaOH Effect of aqueous NH3

Aluminium (Al3+) White ppt of aluminium White ppt of aluminium
hydroxide, soluble in excess hydroxide; insoluble in excess
sodium hydroxide to give a aqueous ammonia.
colourless solution.

Calcium (Ca2+) White ppt of calcium No ppt, or very slight white

hydroxide, insoluble in excess ppt. (No visible change)
sodium hydroxide.

Copper (Cu2+) Blue ppt of copper (II) Blue ppt of copper (II)
hydroxide, insoluble in excess hydroxide, soluble in excess
sodium hydroxide. aqueous ammonia to give a
dark blue solution

Iron (II) (Fe2+) Green ppt of iron (II) Green ppt of iron (II)
hydroxide, insoluble in excess hydroxide insoluble in excess
sodium hydroxide. Green ppt aqueous ammonia. Green ppt
turned red-brown on standing. turned red-brown on standing.

Iron (III) (Fe3+) Red-brown ppt of iron (III) Red-brown ppt of iron (III)
hydroxide, insoluble in excess hydroxide insoluble in excess
sodium hydroxide. aqueous ammonia.

Lead (II) (Pb2+) White ppt of lead (II) White ppt of lead (II)
hydroxide, soluble in excess hydroxide, insoluble in excess
sodium hydroxide to give a aqueous ammonia.
colourless solution

Zinc ion (Zn2+) White ppt of zinc hydroxide, White ppt of zinc hydroxide,
soluble in excess to give a soluble in excess aqueous
colourless solution ammonia to give a colourless
solution

Ammonium (NH4+) Ammonia produced on

warming, turned moist red
 litmus blue.
Instructions:
1. To 1 cm3 of solid Unknown M, add nitric acid (to turn solid into aqueous
form)
2. To aqueous Unknown M, add aqueous NaOH until no further change
(State Observation)
(If ppt appears/ppt soluble in excess, proceed on to Ammonia Test-4)
(If no ppt observed, continue with 3)
3. Warm solution gently and test for ammonia gas
(If ammonia gas present, Ammonium ion is present)
4. To aqueous Unknown M, add aqueous NH3 until no further change

Answer format:

Test no. Tests Observations

1. To ____cm3, add aqueous NaOH __(Colour)__ ppt observed.
until no further change
Ppt was soluble in excess aqueous
NaOH to give a colourless solution

Ppt was insoluble in excess aqueous

NaOH

Warm solution carefully Colourless and pungent gas which

turned moist red litmus paper blue was
evolved. Gas is ammonia.
2. To ____cm3, add aqueous NH3 __(Colour)__ ppt observed.
until no further change. No visible change.  Calcium

Ppt was soluble in excess aqueous NH3

to give a colourless solution

Ppt was insoluble in excess aqueous

NH3

From Test ___, it can be deduced that ___________ ion(s) is/are present.

Anion Tests

Anion Test Test Result

Carbonate, CO32- Add dilute acid such as HCl,
HNO3 and H2SO4. Bubble the
gas into limewater.
Effervescence of colourless
and odourless gas. The gas
gives a white ppt with
limewater (calcium
hydroxide).

Chloride, Cl- Acidify with dilute nitric acid, white ppt of silver chloride
then add aqueous silver nitrate.

Sulfate, SO42- Acidify with dilute white ppt of barium sulfate

hydrochloric acid, then add
aqueous barium chloride

OR
Acidify with dilute nitric acid,
then add aqueous barium
nitrate.

Iodide, I- Acidify with dilute nitric acid, Bright yellow ppt of lead
then add aqueous lead (II) (II) iodide
nitrate.

Nitrate, NO3- Add aqueous sodium Ammonia produced which

hydroxide then aluminium foil turns moist red litmus
or zinc. paper blue

Warm carefully. Test the gas

liberated with a piece of moist
red litmus paper.

Instructions:
1. To 1 cm3 of solid Unknown M, add nitric acid (to turn solid into aqueous
form)
2. To aqueous Unknown M, add dilute ________ acid (and then add _________).

Answer format:

Test no. Tests Observations

1.
2

From Test ___, it can be deduced that ________ ion(s) is/are present.

Tests of Gases
Gas Colour and odour Confirmatory test and
result

Ammonia Colourless and pungent Place a piece of moist red

(Alkaline) litmus at the mouth of the
test tube. The gas
turns moist red litmus
paper blue

Carbon Colourless and odourless Bubble gas into limewater.

dioxide The gas gives a white ppt
with limewater

Chlorine Greenish-yellow and pungent Place a piece of moist blue

or red litmus paper at the
mouth of the test tube. The
gas bleaches (turns white)
the moist red/blue litmus
paper.

Hydrogen Colourless and odourless Place a lighted splint at

the mouth of the test tube.
The gas extinguishes a
lighted splint with a
“pop” sound

Oxygen Colourless and odourless Insert a glowing splint

into the test tube. The gas
rekindless a glowing
splint.

Sulfur Colourless and pungent Place a piece of filter

dioxide paper soaked
with acidified potassium
dichromate (VI) at the
mouth of the test tube.
Or Bubble sulfur dioxide
into acidified potassium
dichromate (VI). The
acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) turns
from orange to green.

pH of oxides
Type of oxide Nature of oxide Examples
Acidic Non-metal CO2, SiO2 , SO3, SO2, NO2,
(Dioxides/Polyoxides) P4O10
Basic Metal CaO, FeO, CuO
Amphoteric Metal ZnO, PbO, Al203, SnO2,
BeO
Neutral Non-metal H2O, CO, NO
(Monoxides)

Heating of solids

Substance being Observations Chemical equation

heated
Zinc Carbonate A colourless and odourless
(ZnCO3) gas which forms a white
precipitate in limewater is
evolved.
The gas is carbon dioxide.
ZnCO3 (s)  ZnO (s) + CO2 (g)
(Zinc carbonate decomposed to
form Zinc oxide and carbon
dioxide)

The zinc carbonate turns

from white to yellow.

3) The yellow solid turns

back white when cooled.
The solid is ZnO

Copper (II) The copper carbonate turns CuCO3 (s)  CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
Carbonate from green to black.
(CuCO3)

Useful deductions from Heating of solids

Result of heating Deductions made

Carbon dioxide gas liberated
(A colourless and odourless gas which forms a dioxide
white precipitate in limewater is evolved.)
Ammonia gas produced
(A colourless and pungent gas which turns
moist red litmus paper blue is evolved)
Carbonate is present.
Metal carbonate  metal oxide + carbon
E.g Thermal decomposition of calcium
carbonate
CaCO3 (s)  CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Ammonium salt is present.
E.g. NH4Cl (s)  NH3 (g) + HCl (aq)

Solid changes colour from green to black Solid could be copper (II) carbonate
CuCO3 (s)  CuO (s) + CO2 (g)

Solid changes colour from white to yellow
when hot and back to white on cooling.
Colourless drops of liquid condensed on cool
walls of test-tube.
Green black
Yellow solid is zinc oxide. Unknown
contains zinc ion.
ZnCO3 (s)  ZnO (s) + CO2 (g)
Water of crystallisation is present.
CuSO4.5H2O (s)  CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l)

TABLE OF STRONG ACIDS

Completely Ionized in Water to Give One (or more) Protons per Acid Molecule

Acid Ionic Equation

HI (Hydroiodic acid) H+(aq) + I-(aq)
HBr (Hydrobromic acid) H+(aq) + Br-(aq)
HClO4 (Perchloric acid) H+(aq) + ClO4-(aq)
HCl H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
HClO3 H+(aq) + ClO3-(aq)
H2SO4 H+(aq) + HSO4-(aq) (HSO4- is a weak acid that
contributes additional protons)
+ -
HNO3 H (aq) + NO3 (aq)

TABLE OF STRONG BASES

Completely Ionized in Water to Give One (or more) Hydroxides per Base
Molecule

Base Ionic Equation

NaOH Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
KOH K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
LiOH Li+(aq) + OH-(aq)
RbOH Rb+(aq) + OH-(aq)
CsOH Cs+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ca(OH)2 Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) (but not very soluble)
Ba(OH)2 Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) (but not very soluble)
Sr(OH)2 Sr2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) (but not very soluble)

Preparation of Salts

A salt is a compound that is formed when any of the replaceable hydrogen ions in an
acid are partly or completely replaced by an equivalent number of metal or
ammonium ions.
eg: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
H+ in HCl replaced by Na+ from NaOH

If all the replaceable hydrogen ions of an acid have been replaced, the salt formed is a
normal salt.
e.g. H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
Both H+ in H2SO4 replaced by Na+, Na2SO4 is a normal salt

When only part of the replaceable hydrogen ions has been replaced, an acid
salt is formed. (This means that an acid salt cannot be formed from monobasic
acids.)
e.g. H2SO4 (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaHSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
Only 1 H+ in H2SO4 replaced by Na+, NaHSO4 is an acid salt

Preparation of Salts
Precipitation method
Always use the precipitation method for the preparation of insoluble salts.
E.g. Preparation of lead(II) sulfate
1. Select a soluble salt containing the lead(II) ion ___________________
2. Select a soluble salt containing the sulfate ion ___________________
3. Mix the 2 aqueous solutions together.

Write a balanced equation with state symbols for the reaction that takes place.
_________________________________________________________________
Write an ionic equation for the reaction that takes place.
_________________________________________________________________
4. Filter to obtain ___________________ as the residue and ___________________
as the filtrate.
5. Wash the residue with distilled water and pat dry between filter paper.

Done by: