Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Submitted to
April 2011
Report Preparation
Sudhir Mathur Head, Geotechnical Engg Division, Central Road Research Institute
U.K.Guru Vittal Scientist F, Central Road Research Institute
T.Sanyal Geotech Advisor, Jute Manufactures Development Council
P.K.Choudhary In-charge, Geotech Cell, Indian Jute Industries Research Association
CONTENTS
Page No
1 Introduction 1
3 Structure of Jute 6
6 Functions of JGT 10
9 Durability of JGT 20
Appendix – V (References) 98
Terms & Definitions
1. Bast: Belonging to group of strong, woody fibers, such as flax, hemp, or jute, obtained
from phloem tissue and used in the manufacture of woven goods and cordage
2. Denier: A measure of the fineness or size of a yarn expressed in terms of mass per unit
length; numerically equal to number of grams per 9,000 metres length of fibre
3. Tenacity of Fibre: Capability of fibre to keep a firm hold on objects without slippage
4. Separation: Segregation of two layers of materials by preventing their intermixing
5. Filtration: Process of retaining soil particles while allowing water to pass through
6. Erosion: Detachment of soil particles from a soil surface and the transportation of the
detached particles to new location
7. Geotextile: Textile materials which are permeable, made by either woven or non woven
process, used along with soil or backfill material for improving the performance of civil
engineering structures
8. JGT: Jute geotextile – Textiles made by using Jute fibres by adopting either woven or non
woven techniques
9. Woven geotextile: Manufactured by weaving weft threads through warp threads, usually
(but not necessarily) having stronger warp threads than weft threads. A textile structure
comprising of two or more sets of filaments or yarns interlaced in such a way that the
elements pass each other essentially at right angles and one set of elements is parallel to
fabric axis.
10. Non woven geotextiles: Geotextiles produces from randomly distributed continuous
filaments or staple fibres, which are bonded together chemically, thermally or mechanically
or a combination of such processes
11. Jute netting: A type of open weave jute geotextile, having large openings between
successive warp and weft threads, mainly used for erosion control applications
12. Percent Open Area (POA): The net area of a fabric that is not occupied by fabric filaments,
normally determinable only for woven and non woven fabrics having distinct visible and
measurable openings that continue directly through the fabric
13. Drapability: Bending ability of geotextile for making full contact with the soil and taking the
shape of the contour of the soil surface.
14. Typical value: Refers to average value of the geotextile sample property, which should be
determined by testing statistically sufficient number of samples
15. Minimum average roll value (MARV): Derived statistically as the average value minus two
standard deviations
16. Pore size: The size of the opening between fabric fibres
17. Apparent Opening Size (AOS) or Equivalent Opening Size (EOS): AOS is a measure of
the largest effective opening in a geotextile. AOS is determined by sieving glass beads of
successively bigger size until 5 per cent or less pass through the fabric.
18. Clogging: The plugging of a fabric by deposition of particles within the fabric pores
19. Filter cake: A thin layer of fine soil particles accumulated in the soil adjacent to the fabric
as a result of smaller soil particles being washed through the soil pores and the geotextile
20. Permeability, Longitudinal or in plane: The fabric property which permits a fluid, normally
water, to flow in the plane of the fabric, also known as ‘Transmissivity’
21. Permeability, Transverse: The fabric property which allows a fluid, normally water, to flow
through a fabric perpendicular to the plane of the fabric, also known as ‘Permittivity’
22. Coefficient of Permeability (Coefficient of Permittivity): A measure of the permeability of a
porous media such as soil or geotextile to water. It is the ratio of discharge velocity to the
hydraulic gradient under laminar flow conditions
23. Trench drains: Covered type of drains constructed in the sub-soil for lowering the water
table or for effective drainage of sub-soil water
24. Puncture resistance: Resistance to failure of a fabric from a blunt object applying a load
over a relatively small area
1. Introduction
1.1 India is the largest producer of Jute and allied fibres. It produces more than 60 per cent of the
total jute produced all over the world. India and Bangladesh are the two major players in this
field. In India major production of the jute goods are consumed domestically, whereas
Bangladesh exports majority of its products to other countries. In India jute cultivation is confined
to West Bengal, Eastern Bihar, Assam, Orissa, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and to some extent in
Meghalaya. Out of these states, West Bengal, Bihar and Assam contribute about 80 per cent of
the total production. Figure 1, shows the picture of jute plant, jute fibre and jute bales.
1.2 Jute is a textile fibre, which when converted into fabric possesses many of the desired
properties required for geotechnical engineering works and termed as Jute Geotextile (JGT).
Textile materials in woven, non-woven or other forms, when applied to soils (geo) for improving
its engineering characteristics are termed as Geotextiles. Use of synthetic geotextiles made up of
polymeric materials like polypropylene, polyester etc, to address soil related problems in civil
engineering is a well tried and accepted concept all over the world. Application of Jute
Geotextiles (JGT) in this field, however, is a recent phenomenon. Natural fibres of jute can be
processed as fine yarns which, in turn, can either be woven into permeable and drapable fabrics
by appropriate weaving machineries (woven fabric) or can be matted together in a random
manner (non-woven fabric). Different type of jute geotextiles are shown in Figure 2, 3, 4 and 5.
1.3 Both woven and non-woven fabrics have been used in many road projects successfully to
facilitate construction, ensure better performance of the structure and reduce maintenance cost.
The jute geotextiles have also been used in protection of river banks, in managing slopes
including hill slopes, control of surface soil erosion, stabilisation of embankments, prevention of
reflection cracks in bituminous pavements and consolidation of soft soils, etc. The enormous
potential of jute geotextile is being increasingly appreciated by end-users because of its low price
and technical feasibility.
Constituents Percentage
– Cellulose 60 – 62
Hemi Cellulose 22 – 24
Lignin 12 – 14
Others (Wax, Ash, Nitrogen etc.) 1–2
Jute Fibre
Jute Plant
Jute Bale
2.3 Jute fibres as already mentioned are natural fibres, comprising approximately 83 per cent to
87 per cent natural cellulose and 12 to 14 per cent Lignin. The fabric made of jute yarns
biodegrades, leaving a fibrous residue. The other important feature of jute is that it does not
draw upon the valuable nitrogenous reserves and ultimately decomposes, as is usually the case
with other natural fibres. Jute geotextile acts like a straw or peat mulch aided by its degrading
fibres, which help to retain the moisture and improve the soil-permeability. JGT possesses better
drapability and also wettability, compared to all other geotextiles. JGT being the most
hygroscopic among widely used fibres and is also more wettable than other fibres. This has been
reported after a study was undertaken in this regard by Dr.T.S.Ingold and Mr.J.Thompson. The
comparative physical properties of jute and other fibres are shown in Table 2. A brief description
of the physical properties of jute fibre has also been given below Table 2.
Table 2: Comparative physical properties of Jute and Other Fibres.
a) Tenacity
It depends on thickness of the filament. It remains almost constant at 30-85 per cent RH
but decreases at very dry or wet condition. For conducting tenacity test on jute fibre, the
fibre length is kept as 10 mm and time to break is kept as 10 seconds.
b) Elongation
The elongation at break varies from 1.0 per cent to 1.2 per cent under normal
atmospheric condition while in wet condition it increases marginally.
c) Flexural Rigidity and Torsional Rigidity
It is a measure of resistance to bending. This is quite high at normal moisture content.
2
Flexural rigidity of jute ranges from 3.0 to 6.0 dynes cm . Torsional rigidity of jute reduces
10 2
with increased moisture content. Modulus of Torsional rigidity (in x 10 dynes cm ) is of
the order of 0.25 to 1.30. These are measures of resistance of jute fibres (single fibre)
against bending and torsion.
d) Hygroscopicity
Jute is highly hygroscopic in nature. Jute being the most hygroscopic among widely used
fibres, is also more wettable than other fibres. The moisture retention capacity
accelerates its spinnability and subsequent manufacturing processes.
e) Thermal behaviour
Like many other textile fibres, jute is a good insulator of heat. The transference of heat
through the fabric is not only dependent on conductivity of fibre but also to a large extent
on the volume of entrapped air in the fabric.
3. Structure of Jute
3.1 Strand of jute fibre consists of numerous individual filaments which are entangled at different
places to form a meshy structure. Prior to spinning, entanglement of fibre mesh is mechanically
broken into individual fibres. The fineness and length of an individual fibre may vary from 8
denier to 30 denier (gm/9000 m) and from a few mm to 300 mm respectively.
*Note: Type 1 open mesh JGT has now been removed from the IS Specifications
Table 5: Woven Jute Geotextiles
Jute Fibre
Softening
Carding
Drawing Garneting
cum
Cross lapping
Spinning
Needle Punching
Winding
Packing
Beaming
Weaving
Packing
6. FUNCTIONS OF JGT
6.1 JGT, like the synthetic variety, improves the geo-technical properties of the soil on which it
is applied. JGT, being permeable, allows the water retained within the soil to permeate across
it and also along its plane. The extent of cross permeability (termed as permittivity) and in-
plane permeability (termed as Transmissivity) depends on the pore size of JGT (termed as
porometry). The porometry of JGT determines the extent of soil particle retention on which it is
laid. Properly designed JGT (in most cases, in relation to the mean diameter of the soil-grains
i.e., d50) arrests migration of the soil particles and imparts strength to the soil body. Properly
designed JGT would perform the following functions:
Separation
Filtration and drainage
Initial reinforcement
Control of surface soil detachment
Promoting vegetation growth or biotechnical support
6.2 Separation
6.2.1 Separation function implies segregation of two layers of materials by preventing their
intermixing, i.e., intrusion of one layer into the other comprising either dissimilar materials or
similar materials with different grading. The phenomenon causes reduction in thickness of a
particular pavement layer making the overlying structure susceptible to failure.
6.2.2 In road construction, separation is needed to segregate the sub-base from the subgrade for
prevention of the excessive pavement deflection under axle loads of moving vehicles.
Intermixing of two layers causes reduction in the thickness of a pavement to lower than the
desired thickness. Load carrying capacity and the pavement life are consequently reduced.
6.2.3 Separation of two layers for at least one season cycle helps for gradual riddance of water
from the base soil by use of JGT through concurrent functions of filtration and drainage.
Experiments have proved that once this phenomenon takes place, chances of subsidence of a
part of any road or structure due to intermixing become substantially less. Biodegradability of
JGT therefore does not normally pose any technical impairment after a season cycle (about 12
months) of their application.
6.3 Filtration
6.3.1 As already indicated in previous sections, JGT is supposed to perform two contrasting
functions; soil retention and ensuring permeability of water through and along them. JGT
provides a technically superior solution to traditional granular graded filters. JGT can be
manufactured with pore sizes commensurate with the median grain size of the base-soil to
ensure their retention. At the same time the requisite quantity of water is allowed to pass across
and along JGT without causing to develop any differential pore water pressure. The functions of
permittivity and Transmissivity are therefore important. With a tailor made JGT, differential water
over pressures across it can be effectively dissipated, preventing migration of soil particles
concurrently.
6.3.2 JGT, like its synthetic counterpart, first retains the coarser particles of the soil. These
coarse particles block smaller ones in the soil, which in turn prevents migration of even smaller
grains. This phenomenon, which is known, as „filter cake formation‟ is in fact an indication of
formation of natural filter within the soil. The situation can develop only if it is ensured that JGT
has made full contact with the base soil (i.e. if drapability of the JGT is ensured). For ensuring
full drapability, JGT requires to be suitable ballasted. This load on top of a JGT not only prevents
its uplift under certain condition, but also protects the fabric from continuous exposure to
weather.
6.3.3 Soil properly overlain by JGT is seen to develop „filter cakes‟ usually within a period of 3 to
4 months from the date of application according to laboratory tests carried out in Research
Institutes. Development of „filter cakes‟ is a sure indication of the base-soil having attained
natural stability. Once the soil attains natural stability, function of any separating fabric, be it
synthetic or natural, becomes redundant. Though laboratory experiments by some researchers
have shown formation of „filter cakes‟ within about 3 to 4 months from the date of application of
JGT, it is advisable to ensure durability of JGT for at least one season cycle. Bio-degradation of a
JGT therefore does not normally pose any deficiency in its expected performance for drainage or
filtration.
6.3.4 Clogging is generally accumulation of particles on and into the openings of JGT. Soil
particles at the base or particles in suspension of flowing water tend to block the pores of JGT by
deposition on its surface or within its layer. Chemicals in water are sometimes responsible for
chemical clogging of JGT. Performance of JGT is consequently adversely affected leading to
progressive clogging. Such clogging may be allowed if the rate of deposition is very slow or for a
limited duration.
6.4 Drainage
6.4.1 JGT performs drainage function by conducting water. Proper drainage of soil accelerates
its consolidation. The cohesion of the soil, as a result, is increased which, in turn, accentuates
the separation effect of the JGT.
6.4.2 JGT possesses a high degree of Transmissivity, i.e., it can drain water effectively along
their plane. JGT is also capable of holding water to about five times their own weight. In roads,
lateral drainage of water from sub-base and subgrade is critical. JGT used as a separator may
facilitate the lateral evacuation of water from the road-structure and prevent water accumulation
at the subgrade level.
8.2.2 Thickness
This is an important property in connection with Transmissivity of JGT. It is measured between
the upper and lower surfaces of the JGT at a specified pressure (2 kPa). ASTM D 5199/IS-
13162 Part-3 stipulate that the accuracy should be at least 0.02 mm under a pressure of 2 kPa.
Thickness of commonly used JGT ranges from 1.5 mm to 5 mm. Thickness of JGT influences the
Transmissivity of fabric.
8.2.4 Drapability
It is the bending ability of fabric in making full contact with the soil and taking the shape of the
contour of the soil surface. Drapability of wet jute fabric is more when compared to its dry state.
JGT should have the ability to shape itself in keeping with the soil surface contours and to
establish full contact with the surface. The extent of drapability is assessed by measuring the
sag (D) in mm of the JGT in between two points (S) also in mm. Drapability of jute is more when
it is wet. Drapability can be a measure of JGT‟s flexural stiffness, i.e., bending of JGT under its
own weight between two points (vide test method in ASTM D 1388). Open weave JGT
possesses a better drapability than its synthetic counterpart. A study on drapability of JGT and
synthetic geotextiles was taken up by Dr.T.S.Ingold and Mr.J.Thompson. They tested drapability
of JGT and synthetic geotextile by placing the samples (of equal unit weight) over an open span
and measuring the sag during dry state as well as wet state of the fabric. It was noted by them
that sagging of JGT (in both dry as well as wet state) was much more than synthetic geotextiles.
In other words, JGT hugs the ground in a much better manner than synthetic geotextiles.
8.3 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties of JGT are basically indicative of the product‟s resistance to mechanical
stresses developed as a result of application of loads and/or installation conditions. The tests
that may be used for determining mechanical properties of a JGT are tensile strength, puncture
strength, burst strength and tear strength. Test for friction resistance (soil-JGT friction) is also
considered to be important.
9. DURABILITY OF JGT
9.1 It has been established after several laboratory tests on samples of JGT with varying linear
density that its biodegradation depends on environmental factors. It has also been observed that
jute degrades faster in an acidic ambience having pH value less than 5.2. The rate of
degradation of JGT is generally fast in the initial stages, but slows down subsequently. On the
other hand, when pH is in a higher range (above 7) i.e. in an alkaline environment, the laboratory
tests conducted by IIT, Delhi have initially revealed that higher the linear density of yarns in a
JGT, quicker is its degradation, though more elaborate studies are needed for this purpose to
come to a definite conclusion. As already stated in section 4, several case studies in fields
showed that the strength of JGT typically gets reduced by about 60 to 70 per cent after lying
embedded in estuarine soil for around 18 months.
9.2 Bacteria and fungi are two main groups of micro-organisms responsible for the microbial
decomposition of any natural geotextile. Moisture plays a key role in this respect. It has been
reported that the minimum moisture requirements for the growth of bacteria and fungi in JGT are
20 per cent and 17 per cent respectively. Jute attains the aforesaid moisture contents when the
relative humidity in the atmosphere is above 80 per cent.
9.3 Temperature is also instrumental for bacterial and fungal attacks on the jute. A temperature
0 0
of 37 C is the optimum temperature for bacterial growth and 30 C for growth of fungi in JGT.
Both sunlight and rain causes quick degradation of JGT. The organic content accelerates the
decay of jute fibre. The degradation studies on jute so far conducted indicate that the mechanism
of its biodegradation is complex, being dependent on interaction of a number of influencing
factors.
9.4 In order to increase the life of jute geotextiles, jute geotextiles have been successfully treated
with bitumen, copper based chemicals, phenol and some other patented chemical compounds.
However, few environmentalist expressed a view that chemicals should be so selected that may
not pollute the ground soil and water. The jute mills have therefore after several deliberations
have decided to treat jute geotextile with COMPSOL (trade name) which is a Copper Ammonium
Carbonate solution prepared to meet the U.S. and Canadian WHMIS (Workplace Hazardous
Materials Identification System) standards. It is an aqueous solution containing Copper as
Copper Ammonium Carbonate (5-10 per cent ml/Litre and Ammonium Hydroxide 6-15 per cent
ml/Litre). The remaining ingredient is water and other components, present in less than 1 per
cent concentration. It is claimed that these component have no significant additional hazards.
The compound is stable, does not cause hazardous polymerization, and is not compatible with
strong acids. No toxicological data is available on Copper Ammonium Carbonate, though
Ammonium Hydroxide is mildly toxic. There is no cancer causing agent in the compound. It is
not irritating to contaminated tissues. It does not produce mutagenicity (change in genetic
material), embryo toxicity, teratogenicity (damage to developing foetus) and reproductive toxicity.
Other properties of COMPSOL are given below:
Specific Gravity – 1.20 at 150°C
Solubility – Completely soluble in water
pH – 9.9 at 15°C
Evaporation rate – Similar to water
0
Freezing point – Minus 5 C
9.5 Bitumen as water-repellent
Normally 90/15 Grade Industrial bitumen is used. Modified bitumen and polymerized bitumen
have not been tried. As a result of the application of rot resistant chemical or bitumen, the life of
a JGT can be prolonged to about 2 to 5 years, subject to the specific subsoil environment. As
already stated in section 4, several case studies in fields showed that the strength of JGT
typically gets reduced by about 60 to 70 per cent after lying embedded in estuarine soil for
around 18 months.
10.5 Jute geotextiles (JGT) evidently pose no environmental threat. Being biodegradable JGT
ultimately coalesce with the soil on which it is laid, adding nutrients to it and retaining water for
quicker growth of vegetation. Unlike synthetic geotextiles which are not biodegradable, JGT
have no disposal problems.
11.1.4 The netting structure of the geo-jute provides innumerable miniature check dams in the
flow or runoff which trap fine soil particles and a part of runoff, thereby improving soil moisture
status. The heavy strands of jute absorb the impact of falling rain drops and check splash
erosion. The open mesh provides protection to seeds and plants sown from washing away by
runoff. The jute mat also functions as a mulch to maintain humidity and regulates temperature
for proper seed germination. Thus, geo-jute creates improved micro-environment for the growth
of vegetation and biodegrades in due course (which may take place in about two years) adding
additional organic matter to the soil.
11.1.5 JGT have to perform usually two contrasting functions namely, soil retention and
permittivity. It is always advisable to develop a vegetative cover over the affected soil surface.
JGT‟s function ceases once the vegetation is fully grown and reinforces the soil. Untreated JGT
have a useful life of one season (generally) by which time the vegetation has to grow.
Decomposition of JGT adds nutrients to the soil, besides acting as a water receptor. It is
recommended that the laying of JGT along with seeding are so timed as to take advantage of the
increased moisture content of the soil from the monsoon showers. JGT possess the highest
moisture absorption capacity of all fibres – natural or synthetic – about 500 per cent of its own
dry weight and much higher than that of two other natural fibres in use as natural geotextiles
namely, Sisal (175 per cent) and Coir (150 per cent).
The porometry and the strength of JGT are the basic criteria for design. Soil loss by detachment
and transportation is prevented initially by JGT, which will be subsequently be done by the
vegetative cover. The vegetative cover controls erosion naturally after degradation of JGT.
Kinetic energy of rain-splash is dissipated by JGT before vegetation takes over the function.
Slope, composition of soil and rainfall are guiding factors for choice of the type of JGT. The
design-approach may be three pronged:
Agronomic (biological)
Land/soil management
Mechanical
JGT is useful tool for agronomic control by helping in rapid growth of vegetation. Land/soil
management also needs JGT. Mechanical methods are, in fact, manipulation of the surface
topography by construction of terraces/benches or silt fences. JGT maybe used as a component
of the slit-fence. Each or a suitable combination of the three methods is necessary for surface
erosion control.
The types of JGT useful for the purpose are indicated below:
2
Type I – Weight 750 gm/m May be used where
Aperture size – 20x20 mm - Soil type is mixture of coarse to very
Thickness – 7 mm coarse aggregates like rock-particles.
0
Thread/m (warp x weft) – 70x70 - Steep slopes up to 45
Tensile strength – 30 x 20 kN/M - Annual rainfall upto 3000 mm
(warp x weft)
2
Type II – Weight 500 gm/m May be used where
Aperture size – 25x25 mm - Soil is mixture of silt and sand or
Thickness – 5 mm clay
0 0
Thread/m (warp x weft) – 65x45 - Moderate slopes (45 to 30 )
Tensile strength – 25x 20 kN/M - Annual rainfall upto 3000 mm
(warp x weft)
2
Type III – Weight 300 gm/m May be used where
Aperture size – 25x25 mm - Soil is sandy clay
0
Thickness – 3 mm - Gentle slopes < 30
Threads/m (warp x weft) – 100x120 - Annual rainfall upto 2000 mm
Tensile strength – 20 X 15 kN/M
(warp x weft)
11.1.8 Monitoring
Close monitoring should be carried out for at least one season cycle. Displacement of JGT, of
any, is to be noted and watched without disturbing it initially. Torn portions of JGT may be over
lapped by fresh JGT pieces duly stapled on all sides. Watering/maintenance of the plant-saplings
may be done as per procedures suggested by the botanists/agronomists/forest department, as
the case may be.
11.2.3 The basic function of JGT in bank-protection in rivers and waterways is filtration as a more
precise alternative to conventional granular filters. Filter design for erosion-control in banks of
rivers, canals and waterways should address three basic criteria:
i) Design of JGT
ii) Survivability of JGT
iii) Durability of JGT
11.2.4 The design basically involves selection of a Jute Geotextile (JGT) which will ensure soil
tightness and proper permittivity of water to prevent differential over-pressures from developing
across it. It has already been stated that soil tightness i.e. retention of fines and permittivity are
two contrasting functions. A judicious compromise has to be made in respect of selection of JGT
so that both the functional demands are met. Survivability of JGT is important and therefore
fabric should possess sufficient strength against installation stresses.
11.2.6 Installation :
The bank should first be cut to a stable slope preferably at the angle of internal friction of
the bank soil. The surface should be levelled and made free from angular projections,
undulation, soil-slurry or mud.
Anchoring trench (usually rectangular) should be excavated at the top of the slope.
Recommended dimensions of the trench – 500 mm deep and at least 250 mm wide at
the bottom. The trench should be free from foreign material, mud etc.
JGT should then be unrolled across the trench and along the slope from top down to the
lowest water-level. JGT should be stapled with U-shaped nails (usually 11 gauge) within
the anchoring trench both at the sides and bottom at an interval of 150 mm along the
length of the trench. There should be at least two staples both depth-wise and width-
wise in each cross section.
JGT should be laid with the overlapping in the direction of water flow. Care should
always be taken to ensure that JGT does not suffer damage due to puncture, tear and
similar operational stresses. The recommended overlap is 150 mm (minimum). The
overlapped portion should be stapled at an interval of 75 mm.
The anchoring trench should then be filled with stones/boulders for securing and
protecting the JGT. Care should be taken to ensure that JGT touches the bank slope at
all points (proper drapability).
Armour overlay of stone/boulder should then be placed on the JGT carefully. It should
be ensured that armour stones/boulders are not dropped on the JGT, but are carefully
placed and properly arranged. A thin layer of sand as a cushion on top of the JGT is
recommended to avoid puncture of the fabric by granular overlay.
Similar care in laying should be taken when a combination of granular filter and JGT is
used under reversing flow-conditions.
There must be a beam at the toe of slope. This can be done by folding the JGT as per
dimensions (usually 500mm diameter) with sand filling and duly stapled on the other side
preferably at an interval of 75 mm. Alternatively, an angular trench may be dug at the toe
and the JGT placed on it ensuring full contact with the soil, duly stapled at a spacing of
75 mm and ballasted. Care should be taken to see that the overlapping layer is not
displaced during installation.
Suitable grass seeds should then be spread on the treated bank. Alternatively, saplings
of suitable plants may be planted at close intervals through the interstices of the overlay,
taking care to place them into the bank soil.
Installation should be completed preferably just before the monsoon to take advantage o
the rains for quick germination of seeds.
11.6.2 Reflection cracks occur after re-surfacing of a cracked road. Thermal changes usually
tend to induce a tensile force in the horizontal direction. Repetitive vehicular loads induce vertical
shear. Combination of the two causes parallel shear to develop. Understandably, the crack(s) on
the pavement-base are the line(s) of weakness on either side of which there is interplay of
fluctuating stresses. Crack(s) once formed want to move up and result in a line of cleavage in the
riding surface.
11.6.3 Synthetic Geotextiles have been successfully used in some parts of the world to delay the
propagation of reflection cracks in both bituminous as well as rigid pavements. Jute Geotextile
(JGT) instead of synthetic one, is also one of the viable options for use as a reflection crack
arresting layer. JGT is to be laid on an old bituminous pavement after sealing the existing cracks
with neat bitumen. JGT may be laid with a tack coat of bitumen followed by a premixed sheet of
bitumen–stone chip–stone dust mix. The grade of bitumen should be decided on the basis of site
conditions and ambient temperature. Modified rubberised bitumen may also be tried. Jute and
o
bitumen have excellent thermal compatibility. Bitumen heated up to 190 C may be safely used.
The quantity of tack coat should depend on the nature of surface of the pavement base.
2
Normally, bitumen at the rate of 0.3 kg/m may be used as tack coat overlain by another coat of
bitumen of the same quantity. Woven JGT to be used should be capable of withstanding tensile
stress to the extent of 30 kN/metre initially in both machine and cross-directions. JGT having a
porometry of 70 per cent coverage (open area of about 30per cent) should serve the purpose.
The specifications are provisional and are subject to alteration in accordance with the site
conditions.
Table 10: Comparative cost of Jute Geotextiles (JGT) & Synthetic geotextiles(SGT)
2
A. Open mesh JGT (exfactory) Rs.7.00 to Rs.14.00 per m
Open mesh SGT Rs.30.00 per m2 (not usually used)
2
B. Woven JGT (ex-factory) Rs.22.00 to Rs.45.00 per m
2
Woven SGT Rs.90.00 to Rs.110.00 per m
2
C. Non woven JGT (ex-factory) Rs.9.00 to Rs.18.00 per m
2
Non woven SGT Rs.50.00 to Rs.60.00 per m
12.2 Since mid eighties large scale experimental trials followed by commercialisation of JGT in
different application areas have established the efficacy of the product. It has also been
established that biodegradability of jute has got no detrimental effects on its demand. Table 11
shows the domestic consumption of JGT during the year 2000 and 2001.
Table 11: Comparative Consumption of JGT during 2000 and 2001 in India
Railways
(760 gsm treated , 500
gsm grey & 500 gsm non 15,000 7.5 10,000 + 6.3
woven)
13.3 Comparative study of Synthetic and Jute Geotextile for Erosion Control
13.3.1 This laboratory study was taken up to evaluate performance of JGT for surfacial erosion
control and to assess the comparative performance of such systems made with synthetic
geotextiles vis-à-vis JGT. An artificial embankment slope constructed beneath a rainfall simulator
was used for the experiment. The embankment slope modelled by battered face of the soil was
0
inclined at 26 to the horizontal to represent a 1V:2H slope. The slope width of 5 m was divided
into 6 trial bays, each 500 m wide to allow space between adjacent bays. To conduct the
experiment,
Simulated rainfall was generated using a series of nozzles fixed to an oscillating bar above
the slope.
Rainfall drop size was kept equal to 1.3 mm
2
Kinetic energy of rainfall was 14 joules/ m / mm
Eight storms were simulated, each having return period of 100 years for Eastern England
region
First five storms had rainfall intensity of 40 mm/hour with one hour duration. The first storm
was on a pre-wetted slope. The remaining four storms at this intensity were run in pairs at
three day intervals such that the first storm of each pair fall on a dry slope. Two hours
duration was allowed for drainage before starting the second cycle on a wet slope. After a
three day drying the same cycle was repeated.
A different approach was adopted for the last three storms. Rainfall intensity was increased
to 75 mm/hour and the storm duration was decreased to 20 minutes. The first cycle
comprised one storm falling on a dry slope and after two hours, a second storm was applied
on a wet slope. After three day period, the slope was pre-wetted and a single storm was
applied to the wet slope.
Each of the five samples were installed on 500 mm x 1.8 m trial plot in accordance with the
supplier‟s instructions
The sixth plot was top seeded in a usual manner and used as a control plot. All the six plots
were seeded to assess the ability of each product to resist washout of the un-germinated
seed. The control plot and other five plots were covered with 200 mm top soil comprising of
12 per cent clay, 29 per cent silt, 33 per cent sand and 26 per cent gravel. Seeding was
2
done by hand using commercially available grass seeds at the rate of 28 gm/m .
Table 15: Type and Characteristics of Fabrics Selected for Trials
Geotextile Composition Properties
Weight Thickness Tensile Opening Durability
2
(gm/ m ) (mm) Strength Size (mm x (Years)
(kN/m) mm))
JGT Jute 500 - 7.5 11 x 18 2
Commercial Wood / Wool 360 - 25 x 37 1.5
synthetic mat 1 mulch contained
(CSM 1) in PP strand
mesh
Commercial Polyamide 260 9 0.8 - -
synthetic mat 2
(CSM 2)
Commercial Polyethylene 450 18 4.4 6x8 -
synthetic mat 3
(CSM 3)
Commercial HDPE 1740 - - - -
synthetic mat 4
(CSM 4)
13.3.2 Results
Some inconsistent and very low run-off values were obtained for the initial application of 40
mm/hour intensity storm to the pre-wetted slope due to high initial rates of filtration. Similar
problems were encountered for dry slope at the higher intensity of rainfall. These results were
disregarded when calculating mean run-off values, there by leaving reliable data for wet slopes
only at 75 mm/hour rainfall intensity. The run-off values obtained are presented in Table 16.
Table 16: Run-off (in cc) in Different Test Beds
System Dry Slope, Wet Slope, Wet Slope,
Rainfall – 40 mm/Hr Rainfall – 40 mm/Hr Rainfall – 75 mm/Hr
Control Section 25 33 50
JGT 2 9 11
CSM 1 3 16 31
CSM 2 19 41 34
CSM 3 28 37 23
CSM 4 16 33 23
Storm Duration One Hour One Hour 20 Mins
The relative effect of different rainfall intensities, where sediment loss is expressed in grams are
shown in Table 17. During this test, storm duration was normalised in all the three cases to one
hour.
Table 17: Sediment Loss (in Grams) in Different Test Beds
System Dry Slope, Wet Slope, Wet Slope,
Rainfall – 40 mm/Hr Rainfall – 40 mm/Hr Rainfall – 75 mm/Hr
Control Section 70 92 263
JGT 6 25 57
CSM 1 4 23 84
CSM 2 56 121 189
CSM 3 81 106 124
CSM 4 51 104 136
The results clearly showed that JGT is very effective in reducing erosion of the soil beds. All the
products tested reduced erosion, where as JGT proved to be most effective at higher intensity of
rainfall. JGT reduced erosion under lower rainfall unprotected soil (initially dry condition) and to
27 per cent of unprotected soil (initially wet condition). JGT seems to operate mainly through
considerable reduction in run-off. JGT is the most effective product for containing erosion due to
higher intensity rain and also showed a tendency to become more effective with time. This is due
to better drapability of JGT when it is wet which helps to maintain close contact between JGT
and the soil surface.
13.4 Use of Jute Geotextiles for Construction of Roads for Light Traffic – A laboratory
Experiment
This experimental study was taken up to ascertain improvement in load bearing capacity of
subgrade soil with the introduction of JGT and two layers of bricks. Six sets of plate load tests
were conducted with mm thick steel plate of 30cm X 30cm deep. The plate was placed centrally
into the test pit of size 150cm X 150cm and 30 cm deep. The conventional method was followed
for the plate load test. The schedules of the tests are given below in Table 20.
Table 20: Test Details for Use of JGT in Light Traffic Roads
Test The Test Pit Layers of brick laid over
Set the final level
(a) 30cms No brick Layer
(b) 60cm; made 30cms by filling with same virgin soil One layer of brick
(c) 60cm; made 30cms by filling with same virgin soil No brick layer
over JGT (60cms x 60cms)
(d) Same as in set (c) One layer of brick
(e) Same as in set (b) Two layer of brick
(f) JGT(60cms x 60cms) was placed at 60 cms depth Two layer of brick
and 30cms depth was made by placing virgin soil
over JGT
(The experimental study was made by Dr. Amalendu Ghosh, Prof.,Civil Engineering Deptt, B.E
college, West Bengal, India; Published in All India Seminar on “Application of Jute Geotextile in
Civil Engineering: (March 07,2002)
13.4.1 Characteristics of Soil Used
The soil used on the test was silty clay having properties given in Table 21.
Table 21: Properties of Soil Used in the Experiment
Property Value
Liquid Limit 78 Per Cent
Plastic Limit 40 Per Cent
Natural Moisture Content 30 Per Cent
2
Unconfined Compressive strength 4.7 t /m
Procter Test - OMC 21 Per cent
Procter Test - Max Dry density 1.57 gm/ cc
*compacted soil was obtained in the pit near OMC at the unconfined compressive strength of the
2
compacted fill of 6.6 t/m .
13.4.3 Characteristics of Jute Geotextile Used
2
Weight 418 gm/m
Thickness 2.305 mm
Tensile strength 0.0704 Kg/cm
-3
In-plane permeability 6.428 x 10 cm/sec
-3
Cross plane permeability 1.358x 10 cm/sec
13.4.4 Conclusions
Placement on the layer of bricks on the top of the surface of compacted soil set (b) helps for
increasing the load Carrying capacity quite significantly compared to virgin soil, set (a) or
simple a jute geo-textile layer overlain by compacted soil set (c)
The response of two layers of bricks over compacted soil (set e) has been better. But when
one brick layer along with a jute geo textile layer (set d), the load carrying capacity is
improved and is higher than that in the case when only two layers of bricks are used (set e).
The best results is obtained when two layers of bricks are used in addition to layer of jute
geo-textile (set f) but (set d) appears to be most effective both from performance and
economic point of view in case of two low volume rural road construction.
Fig. 10: Cumulative Deformation Vs. No. of cycles for unreinforced and reinforced pavements
Fig. 11: Cumulative deformation Vs. No. of cycles for unreinforced and reinforced pavements
Fig. 12: Cumulative deformation Vs. No. of cycles for unreinforced and reinforced pavements
14. Some Case Histories/ Field demonstration
To promote use of jute geotextiles in civil engineering applications, a series of field experiments
were carried out using jute geotextiles for different functions. Application of jute geotextiles for
different functions at different locations are described in the following sections.
14.1 Jute Geotextiles as Separator
14.1.1 Roads around Kandla Port
In Kandla port area, authorities were facing the problem of road construction on soft soil. The
road network in the Kandla port trust area was to be improved to facilitate better movement of
vehicular traffic. The soil in the port area is very soft and has very low bearing capacity,
premature failure of road pavements were a common occurrence in the area. In order to improve
the pavement performance, it was suggested that a layer of geotextile be provided over the soft
subgrade to prevent the intermixing of subgrade and subbase soil. In the broad spectrum of
geotextiles, natural geotextiles made of jute are very helpful. They are eco-friendly, economical
and at the same time serve the desired function. It was proposed to use jute geotextile as a
separator between pavement layers. The performance of pavements constructed on soft soils
can be improved using jute geotextiles. The jute fabric as separator was provided with a view to
prevent the penetration of subgrade material into voids of granular base course, for faster
dissipation of pore pressures and ensures better drainage, which result in long term performance
of the pavement. It was also expected that provision of fabric would reduce rutting and subgrade
would develop its full bearing capacity. The properties of jute geotextile used in the experimental
trial are given in Table 25.
The table shows that the fabric has low tensile strength but fails at a large strain of the order of
30 per cent. In particular, in falling cone test, no clear depression or punching was observed
under the fall of the cone indicating the resistance of fabric for puncturing with aggregate or the
material used in base layers.
Design
The geotextile can provide restraint and acts as reinforcement and prevent localized bearing
capacity failures, which result from individual stones being forced into the subgrade. The
pressure at the stone/geotextile interface is related to the burst pressure for a given aggregate
size. A design guide for separator function indicating the requirement of burst resistance was
developed for the field application.
Construction Details
Site was cleaned properly from its rough surface. Spreading and compaction of moorum cushion
was carried out subsequently. The area was instrumented by installation of settlement gauges.
Property Value
2
Weight (gm/m ) at 20 per cent moisture content 760
Threads / dm (MD x CD) 102 x 39
Thickness (mm) 2
Width (mm) 76
Strength (kN/m) (MD x CD) 20 x 20
Elongation at break (%) (MD x CD) 10 x 10
Pore sixe (O90) micron 300
2
Water permittivity at 10 cm water head (litre/m /sec) 50
2
Puncture resistance (N/cm ) 380
The road was constructed in the year 2000 and was kept under constant observations under the
offices of Howrah Highway Division, PW (Roads) Department. They evaluated the performances
of the portion treated with JGT and compared with untreated stretches. The widening portion
without having JGT showed signs of distress and formed depressions and pot holes whereas the
portion treated with JGT is much better and showed very little or negligible distress even after a
lapse of three monsoons.
14.1.4 Rehabilitation of Roads
The following roads under Serampore Municipality, West Bengal were rehabilitated using jute
geotextiles.
a. Road in front of Serampore Municipality and Railway level Crossing (Medium traffic)
b. Netaji Subhas Avenue (High traffic volume)
c. Thakur Das Babu lane, in front of Bandav Samity (Low traffic volume)
All the above roads had continuously suffered from early distresses and required frequent repairs
and rehabilitation. To solve the perpetual problem rehabilitation work was done applying Jute-
Geotextiles and their performance have been kept under rigid monitoring and regular inspection.
The work was completed before the advent of monsoon in the year 2002. Almost couple of
monsoons have already been elapsed there is practically no appreciable signs of distress was
observed. The riding quality of the above roads surfaces is good. This indicates the
improvement of performance level due to use of JGT in repairing work.
14.2. Jute Geotextiles as Initial Reinforcement
14.2.1 To Support Embankments at Kakinada
A deep-water port was under construction at Kakinada in Andhra Pradesh and within the port
area a number of highway embankments were under construction for transporting cargo from the
ships to the storage godowns. At some locations, the subsoil was soft silty clay and the water
table was at 0.5m below the ground level. The whole area was getting submerged during high
tide (Fig 23). The highway constructed earlier faced many problems during and after construction
such as subsidence of the fill during construction, excessive post construction settlements and
lateral spreading of fill material etc. On the basis of settlement calculations, it was estimated that
as much as 30 per cent of the fill would sink into the soft subsoil during spreading of the fill itself,
necessitating extra quantities of costly granular fill material, thereby, pushing up the cost of
construction.
In order to mitigate the above problems, various alternatives were examined, among which
geotextile was found to be the promising one. The use of jute geotextile to improve
embankments over soft subsoil was proposed as it is an effective method for reinforced soil
construction. Geotextiles was proposed be used to improve i) the embankment stability against
bearing capacity failure, ii) stability against slope failure through the foundation, iii) allow a more
controlled construction over very soft or difficult foundation soils, iv) ensure more uniform
settlement of the embankment and v) to also act as separator between the embankment material
and soft sub soil. They also performed as drainage blanket for draining pore water during
consolidation. Embankment stability usually needs to be improved only during the short period in
which the foundation consolidates, and in such cases the long-term durability of the geotextile
reinforcement is of secondary concern.
Reinforcement in an embankment on soft soil is very effective when placed at or close to the
foundation surface. If the reinforcement were absent, the factor of safety at the end of
construction would fall to a value below unity. In other words, the desired cross section cannot be
built without the reinforcement. Again the factor of safety starts increasing, as the strength of the
foundation soil improves due to consolidation and the foundation soil attains the required
strength. Thus the reinforcement is needed only to improve the stability during construction and
in that period of consolidation during which the soil attains the required strength. Fig 15 and 16
show the construction of embankment using JGT as initial reinforcement at Kakinada.
Fig 15: Embankment Construction Using Jute Geotextiles – Kakinada
Table 28: Dry Density of Soil before and after Laying of JGT
Location Dry Density (gm/cc) Dry Density (gm/cc) after laying JGT at elapsed months of
before laying JGT 3 7 21 30
1 0.70 0.85 0.89 0.95 1.05
2 0.82 0.87 1.01 1.25 1.35
3 0.84 0.92 0.89 0.94 1.07
Table 29: Void Ratio and Compression Index of Soil at Different Elapsed Time
Location Void Ratio Compression Index
Before Following Laying at Elapsed Before Following Laying at Elapsed
Laying Months of Laying Months of
3 7 21 30 3 7 21 30
1 2.63 2.10 2.00 1.70 1.60 0.65 0.52 0.51 0.50 0.45
2 2.10 1.80 1.75 1.30 1.10 0.61 0.56 0.50 0.40 0.38
3 2.10 1.90 1.80 1.60 1.40 0.61 0.60 0.50 0.44 0.40
Conclusions
Water content, void ratio and compression index decreased while insitu density increased by the
use of jute geotextiles. Jute geotextiles appears to be very effective even in weak subgrade soils
in reducing their compressibility and increasing their strengths as reflected from good
performance even after a lapse of seven years.
Detailed Project Report (DPR) for each of these roads was prepared by CRRI. The project roads
are being constructed by respective state agencies through established tendering process being
followed in case of any other PMGSY road. CRRI has been entrusted the job of quality
management and third party random quality checking.
Types of JGT in Use in the Project
Different types of JGT which were developed by IJIRA have been chosen on the basis of soil
survey carried out by CRRI in these project roads and the specific end use of JGT. Woven JGT
to be used for separation function shall be having three different values of tensile strength – 15
kN/m, 20 kN/m and 30 kN/m. Of all the three varieties of woven JGT, about 50 per cent of the
material to be laid would be treated with a branded rot resistant textile friendly chemical
(COMPSOL – A blend of Copper Ammonium Carbonate solution and Ammonium Hydroxide
conforming to specifications of WHMIS – Workplace Hazardous Materials Identification
Standards of USA and Canada). The remaining 50 per cent will be laid as untreated. This will
enable carrying out a comparative study on the necessity of rot resistant treatment of JGT as a
separator, filter and drainage medium above subgrade soil.
Non woven JGT of 500 gsm has been used for facilitating drainage. Non woven JGT possesses
low tensile strength but is an efficient drainage medium. In fact transmissivity criterion is more
dominant than permittivity for geotextiles for efficient water dispersion from soil.
Open weave JGT of 500 gsm will be used on the side slopes of road embankments and in
shoulder areas of selected stretches for surfacial soil erosion control. This is a bio-engineering
measure intended to improve slope stability and embankment integrity. Laying of open weave
JGT would be followed by sowing the seeds of grass/ leguminous plants which will have deep
roots and thrive under the local climatic conditions.
In areas prone to water logging, woven JGT of 20 kN/m tensile strength will be treated with
bitumen to prevent its early degradation due to prolonged contact of the fabric with water.
Bitumen to be used for coating woven JGT shall conform to IS 702 (Industrial grade bitumen of
grade 90/15). Bitumen absorption by the untreated JGT shall not be less than 60 per cent of its
weight. Work could not be taken up in two of the above roads due to frequent floods and other
local problems. Construction work has been completed in six roads. Performance monitoring is in
progress in five of these completed roads.
14.3.1 Design and Construction of Filter using Jute Geotextile Behind Retaining Wall,
New Delhi
The drainage filter should adequately satisfy its performance during and after construction of the
structures. In case of high embankments constructed using fly ash (pond ash) as fill material, the
drainage aspects of the fill material is of critical importance during construction period because of
high permeability or fly ash. In the case of Road Over Bridge, such as Hanuman Setu, the filter
criteria was critical during the construction, as the water percolation into the back fill was more
during construction particularly in monsoon season. After construction of ROB, the percolation of
water was negligible as the road pavement material was almost impermeable and camber of 1 in
30 also facilitates a faster run-off. Thus, the filter thickness requirement was more during
construction than after construction. To facilitate quick drainage, jute geotextile was chosen as
filter it can be effectively and economically used. A non woven jute geotextile would satisfy the
filter criteria.
Design criteria
Fly ash was used as a backfill material in the said project. Because of lower specific gravity and
finer‟ gradation of the material, design requirement was more critical than the conventional
backfill material. 750 gsm non woven jute geotextile was substituted for 30 cm thick conventional
filter. Conventional filter was designed based on normal practice of IRC.
The filter was designed according to the following criteria:
Grain size curve of filter material may be parallel to the base material. Gradation characteristics
of different materials in this project are given below:
i. Pond Ash
D15 = 0.075 mm
D85 = 0.09 mm
ii. Gradation type 1 (medium to course sand)
D15 = 0.45 mm
D85 = 3.0 mm
iii. Gradation type 2 ( fine gravel, uniformly graded)
D15 = 15 mm
D85 = 20 mm
Construction
Fly ash was compacted in layers of 20 cm thickness up to the edge of the facing panel. Once the
height reached up to the next geogrid level, trench of width 0.6m was excavated in the
compacted fly ash. Jute geotextile was cut to the required size and placed vertically in the trench.
Sand and coarse aggregates were filled in the trench and compacted. At the time when the
construction of the embankment was just completed and only paving was left, about 100mm of
rainfall occurred. From the visual inspection after the rainfall, it was found that jute geotextile
retained the fine fly ash effectively and water drained through the jute geotextile.
Fig 18: Construction of Road Side and Cross Trench Drains Using JGT at
Joshimath – Malari Road
Fig 19: Construction of Road Side Trench Drain Using JGT
Description Properties
Material 100 per cent Jute
Type Open Weave with square grids
Grid size 2.5 cm x 2.5 cm
Mass 750 gsm
Form Continuous rolls of 1.2m width
2
Condition 84 1.2 257.25m 3.67 Nil
after laying
JGT
Evidently the road was found to be in a better shape after the treatment compared to the
adjoining stretches where JGT was not applied with the overlay. The trial brought out the fact that
JGT may help in reinforcing the bituminous overlay.
List of some important field trials using jute geotextile are given in Appendix III, available
standards at Appendix IV and list of manufacturers are given in Appendix V.
There are references aplenty on the studies conducted in the foreign universities on Jute
Geotextiles. The pioneering research on road application of Jute Geotextiles was done by Prof.
S. D. Ramaswamy and Prof. M. A. Aziz of National University of Singapore in 1989. Outdoor
field tests conducted in Parker, Colorado by Fifield and Malnor (1989) assessed the erosion
control effectiveness of 32 different products, including blankets, hydromulches, tackifiers and
geotextiles. Data was collected for three years, 1987 – 1989. Numerous parameters of erosion
were evaluated including the C Factor, sediment production (soil loss), runoff (water leaving plots
and vegetative production. The C Factor for the 32 products ranged from 0.001-0.033. Jute
showed a C Factor of 0.004 (the smaller the number, the better the performance) for a 3:1 slope
and 0.005 for a 1:5:1 slope. This means that jute retained 99.6% (3:1 slope) and 99.5% (1.5:1
slope) of the sediment expected to be lost from bare ground. From these tests, it is apparent that
jute is one of today‟s top performing erosion control products. Extensive research has also been
carried out in Cranfield University, UK (Silsoe College) by Prof. Jane Rickson on open weave
Jute Geotextiles used for erosion control in road embankments. A significant study on Jute
Geotextiles was made by Dr. T. S. Ingold and Mr J Thomson who, as consultants to the
International Trade Centre, UNCTAD/GATT, Geneva, submitted several reports on applications
and marketability of Jute Geotextiles in European countries to the Common Fund for
Commodities and the International Jute Organization (now International Jute Study Group). Brief
details of some of the specific international case studies of JGT usage are given below:
15.1 Erosion Control Using JGT at Vail Pass, Colorado, USA
During the mid 1970‟s, a 22 km stretch of Interstate No 70 in Colorado, USA was constructed
over mountainous terrain in central Colorado. This project, known as Vail Pass, involved one of
the most intensively researched and planned Interstate Projects to-date, utilising a cooperative
effort of Federal/State Highway and USDA forest service administrators, Colorado Division of
Wildlife personnel, private consultants and other state and local agencies. Crossing the
continental divide at an elevation of 10,500 feet the project had to address numerous
environmental factors relating to erosion control, wildlife habitat, revegetation and preservation of
a fragile and scenic alpine landscape.
Jute mesh was selected as the primary erosion control material for all slopes steeper than 3:1.
More than 200 acres were covered with jute, demonstrating the confidence which the project
designers had in the ability of jute to perform as needed for this environmentally sensitive project.
Placed over straw or hay mulch, the jute “effectively stopped rill and gully erosion common on
highway slopes at this altitude.” To create a more natural appearance, slope preparation included
the placement of large boulders, tree stumps and shrub/tree plantings. The jute proved easy to
place over and around these landscape components and could also be planted through, where
smaller woody material was used.
Project evaluations of the treatments used to control water quality and erosion were conducted
by the USDA Forest service. Their evaluations stated that the use of jute over hay/straw mulch
“proved to be highly successful, providing immediate erosion control protection during
establishment of vegetation cover.” the slopes of Vail Pass were protected from erosion and
revegetated, quickly transforming a difficult construction project into an aesthetically pleasing and
ecologically functional landscape.
15.2 JGT Use for Road Project in Meridian, Mississippi, USA
This case study, completed in 1987, incorporated the use of jute and soil bioengineering
techniques. The site is a logging road cut slope located on the boundary of the meridian Naval
Air Station in central Mississippi. The section of cut slope treated was approximately 3 m high by
22 m long, very steep (1.25:1) and it had been severely eroded. The top bank had been steadily
undercut, gullying and shallow mass wasting were well defined and almost no vegetation existed
on the slope. Most of the erosion had been caused by rainfall, with ground water seepage also
contributing to the slope deterioration. The project design included the use of a soil
bioengineering system called live fascines (live branches tied together in sausage-like bundles)
combined with jute mesh. The jute served two important functions. It was used to line trenches
within which the fascines were placed and was applied over the critical crown and foot sections
of the slope.
The site was evaluated twice in 1987, once at 12 weeks and again at 20 weeks after installation,
which took place in February, 1987. Both inspections found the “soil stability of the cut bank had
greatly increased overall” and where shallow mass wasting was occurring before installation, no
further loss of soil had occurred. No gullies or rills had developed where the jute mesh fabrics
systems were in place.” In less than six months the slope had been stabilised and was
supporting vigorous plant growth. Erosion had been effectively controlled. Jute ensured success
of this difficult site.
15.3 Erosion Control using JGT in Mine Areas, Southeastern Ohio, USA
This case study refers to usage of JGT for erosion control in coal mine areas. A coal mine in
Muskingum County of southeastern Ohio has been using jute to revegetate ditches and swales.
Use of jute has helped the mine agencies to meet stringent reclamation regulations for erosion
control. The mine uses jute mesh primarily for revegetation of drainage channels where slopes of
12 per cent to 18 per cent occur. These areas are seeded, mulched with hay or straw then
covered with jute. Over the years, performance of jute has been consistent, stabilising soil and
promoting a vegetative cover within as little as 6 weeks. Jute has allowed the environmental
team at the mine to use less rip-rap for the gentler ditches and swales, helping the mine to save
money. For a given budget, JGT can control erosion over a larger area than more expensive
erosion control products. Applications of 5,000 – 10,000 sq. m of jute per year are common in
this project. Ease of installation and erosion control protection for up to two growing seasons are
additional seasons why jute is used year after year. With 15 years of performance at this site it
was obvious that jute meets this mine‟s erosion control needs.
15.4 Application of JGT on Rural Roads of Bangladesh for Slope Protection
JGT was successfully used for slope protection work on Pakulla-Lauhati Road of Delduar
Upazilla, under District Tangail about 80 km north of Dhaka, Bangladesh. In this study, treated
JGT was used. JGT resembling PVD (Band Drains) were installed in the embankment area
adjoining a river. Sandy soil was used for construction of embankment and JGT was used to
provide cover to this embankment slope and also to promote vegetation growth on this slope.
In a similar manner, successful application of JGT for erosion control and prevention of
landslides have been reported from hilly areas of Chittagong in Bangladesh.
15.5 Use of JGT in road projects in UK
Rickson (2000) has reported several case studies in UK wherein JGT has been used
successfully. Rickson has reported that due to better water holding capacity, geotextile induced
roughness to the flow of run-off water, ponding of flow by geotextile, etc, JGT performed better
than other types of geotextiles when used in erosion control applications. Geotextiles can be
used to enhance soil‟s bearing capacity. She has reported that by tensile strength of JGT is on
the lower side compared to present day specifications, which have been obviously evolved
keeping in view polymeric geotextiles.
Some photographs collected from various sources on application of Jute Geotextiles in foreign
countries are also appended herewith (Fig 25 to 27).
Slope stabilization of slope of road embankment with JGT
Softening
Piling Softener
Emulsion Application
Carding
SPINNING
DRAWING
WINDING
BEAMING
WEAVING
PACKING
(Typical Jute Bale)
NON-WOVEN JGT FABRIC
A. EROSION CONTROL
Application Quantity Site & user Date of Result
Supplied applica
tion
2
1. Mine Spoil 10000m Sahashradhara, Uttar 1987 By 1990 erosion
Stabilisation Pradesh, Central Soil & checked & water
Water Conservation pollution decreased
Research & Tr. Institute
2
2. Hill slope 5000 m Chunbhati & Kalijhora, 1988 Treated areas
protection Darjeeling, Deptt. Of Forest, produced double
Govt. of West Bengal vegetation density
than the untreated
areas after 6
months
2
3. Sand dune 5000m Digha Sea Beach, 1988 80per cent covered
Midnapore, Forest Deptt. by vegetation after
Govt. of West Bengal 6 months
2
4. Control of 5000m Arcuttipur, T.E. Cachar, July „95 97per cent
top soil erosion Assam, reduction in soil
loss
2
5000m -do- -do- 93per cent
reduction in soil
loss
2
5. –do- 3000m Rosekandy TE July „95 95per cent
Cachar, Assam, reduction in soil
loss
2
6. Erosion 100 m Valuka, Malda, Irrigation August No damage by
Control in Deptt., Govt. of West Bengal „96 rains in ‟96 & „97
embankment
2
7. Land slide -5000m Kaliasour, U.P. CRRI & PWD 1996 60per cent growth
repair of U.P. Govt. of vegetation
observed in 1997
8. Road side -do- Ponta Sahib, Himachal 1997 Report not
slope protection Pradesh, CRRI & P.W.D. available
Govt. of H.P.
2
9. Afforestation 1000m Hijli & Porapara, Midnapore Aug. Growth of the trees
& Erosion each Forest Deptt., Govt. of West „97 in the treat-darea
control Bengal significantly higher.
No. sign of erosion
2
10. Hill slope 4000m Lamding, Assam (Chief April -Report not
protection Engineer, N.F. Rly. Assam) „97 available
2
11. Railway 4000m Keonjhar, S.E. Rly. Orissa April, -do-
Track slope „98
protection
2
12. –do- 15000m Jammu Tawai Links, N. Rly. Sept. -do-
2000
13. Mine spoil 44, 000 Bilaspur, Western Coal Fields Expect
2
stabilisation m Ltd. ed in
May,
2001
Appendix – III (continued)
10. –do- 15, Kankinada, A.P, (CRRI & 1997 Report not
2
000m Kandla Port Trust) available
2
11. Drainage 1000m Joshimath – Manali Road 1996 No damage of the
and filtration of U.P., (CRRI & PWD of U.P. stretch after one
trench drain for Govt.) year
roads
12. Filtration & -do- Hanuman Setu and Okhla Fly 1996 & Report not
drainage during Over Delhi, (CRRI & DDA) 97 available
construction of
roads
2
13. River bank 9000m Ganga Anti-erosion Division 1998 Report not
protection Murshidabad available
2
14. –do- 2000m Mahananda Embankment 1998 -do-
Division Malda Govt. West
Bangal
2
15. –do- 2000m -do- 1999 -do-
-do-
2
16. –do- 11,000m Balurghat Irrign. Divn. Govt. 2000 Reports awaited
of West Bengal
2
17. Road 7500 m Howrah Highway Divn. Govt. 2000 -do-
Constrn of West Bengal
2
18. Road 6000 m Alipore & Kalyani Divn. Govt. P.W.D. -do-
Surfacing of West Bengal 2000
2
19. Road 15000 m Kandla Port Gujarat 1984- -do-
construction 2000
20. River bank 14,300 Balurghat Irrign. Divn. Govt. Work
2
m of West Bengal yet to
start
APPENDIX IV
LIST OF STANDARDS
Though mostly references of various test methods have been drawn from American Standards,
some Indian standards for jute and allied products are available which may be consulted for
ensuring quality control of JGT. The following references will serve as a guide.
Regarding permittivity and porometry, reference may be made to ASTM D4491-35 and D 4716 –
87.
In addition, a further list of American and Indian Standards is given below for consultation:
1. ASTM D 4595 “Test method for Tensile Properties of Geotextiles by the Wide Width Strip
Method” Annual Book of ASTM Standard Vol. 4.08 American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, P, 1992 pp 880-890.
2. ASTM D 4632 “Test method of Determining Apparent Opening Size for a Geotextile”
Annual Book of ASTM Standard Vol. 4.08 American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, P 1992 pp 339-342.
3. ASTM D 4751 “A Test Method for Determining Apparent Opening Size for a Geotextile”
Annual Book of ASTM Standard Vol. 4.08 American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia.
4. ASTM D 4533 “Test Method for Trapezoid Tearing Strength of Geotextile” Annual Book
of ASTM Standard Vol. 4.08 American Society for Testing and Material, Philadelphia.
5. ASTM D 276 “Test Method for Identification of Fibres in Textiles” Annual Book of ASTM
Standard Vol. 4.08 American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia.
6. ASTM D 5101 “Standard Test Method for Measuring the soil Geotextile System Clogging
Potential by the Gradient Ratio Method” Annual Book of ASTM Standard Vol. 4.08
American Society for Testing and Materials Philadelphia, P, 1992 pp 1190-1196.
7. IS 13162 – 1992, Glossary of Terms for Geo-synthetics, Part I : Terms used in Materials
and Properties.
13. IRC : 56-1974 (reprinted 1991) – Recommended Practice for Treatment of Embankment
Slopes for Erosion Control (The Indian Roads Congress Publication)
REFERENCES
1. Abdul Jabbar Khan (2008), Quality Control of Jute Geotextiles and development of Testing
facilities, International workshop on Jute geotextiles, Kolkata
2. Akhter.F., Ahmed,Z., Banu,H., Haque,M.S (2003) Utilisation & feasibility of retting effluent
as fertilizer in vegetable crops production, Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences Vol 6/4
3. Amalendu Ghosh (1997), Geojute in unpaved Roads – Efficacy and cost effectiveness,
Proceedings of Workshop on Jute geotextiles, Kolkata
4. Banerjee, P.K., Ghosh, M., (2008) Studies on jute-asphalt composites. Journal of Applied
Polymer Science, 109/5
5. CFC/IJO (1995) Technical specification and market study of potentially important jute
geotextiles, Project completion report by Silsoe College, Cranfield University, U.K
6. CFC (1998), Jute geotextiles – Techno Economic manual, Technical paper No. 1, CFC,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
7. Chakrabarty.S., Bhandari.G.N and Adak.N (1997), Performance of a model footing on
compacted PFA, geojute reinforcement overlying soft clay, Proceedings of Workshop on
Jute geotextiles, Kolkata
8. Chattopadhaya.B.C (1996), Report on Test results of Geojute, BE College, Howrah
9. Datye.K.R and V.N.Gore (1994), Application of Natural Geotextiles and Related Products,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol 13, No. 67, Elsevier Applied Sciences, Oxford
10. Dvorscak P., (2004) Použitie Protieróznych Prírodných Materiálov Rohoží A Sietí Na
Svahoch Ciest, Technicka univerzita vo Zvolene, Slovakia – Intl. Symposium on Jute,
May,Liberec, Czech Republic
11. Ellis H (1993), Natural Erosion Control Materials Solve Problems on Manchester Airport‟s
New Rail Link, Geosynthetics World, London
12. Gary.D.H and Sotir.R.B (1996), Biotechnical and soil engineering slope stabilisation – A
Practical guide for erosion control, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York
13. Ghatak.S (2002), Construction of Bituminous road overlay using Jute Geotextile, All India
Seminar on applications of Jute Geotextiles in Civil Engineering, Kolkata
14. Ghosh.S.N., Chatterjee.P.K., S.Palit (1993), Controlling soil erosion by Geojute
application, Textile trends
15. http://www.naturalfibres2009.org/en/iynf/sustainable.html
16. Junno Marjut, (2004) Application of Natural fibres in Erosion Control, Environment
Designer, AMK, Finland - Intl. Symposium on Jute, May, Liberec, Czech Republic
17. Juyal.P, Sastry.G and MSRM Rao (1994), Rehabilitation of a Mined area in Himalayas by
th
Geojute and other measures, Proc of 5 International Conference on Geotextiles,
Geomembranes and related products, Vol 2, Singapore
18. Jute Geotextiles – A survey of marketing and distribution systems in selected European
Countries (1991) - International Trade Centre, UNCTAD/GATT, Geneva
19. Kaniraj.S.R and G.V.Rao (1994), Trends in use of geotextiles in India, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, Vol 13, Nos 6-7, Elsevier Applied Sciences, Oxford
20. Lee.S.L., Karunaratne.G.P, Ramaswamy.S.D, Aziz.M.A and N.C.Dasgupta (1994), Natural
geosynthetic drain for soil improvement, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol 13, Nos 6-7,
Elsevier Applied Sciences, Oxford
21. Majumdar.A.K, Bhattacharya.S.K., S.Ghatak, K.Goswami and D.Sanyal (2006), Case
studies on field trials for road construction with jute based geotextiles, Proceedings of
International Seminar on Geosynthetics in India – Present and Future, New Delhi
22. Rao.P.J., et al (1996) Report on evaluation of Jute Geotextiles in civil engineering
applications, CRRI, New Delhi
23. Rao.P.J. et al (1996), Design and construction of drainage filter using jute geotextile at
Hanuman Setu, Proceedings of national Seminar on Jute based Geotextiles, New Delhi
24. Ranganathan.S.R (1994), Development of potential jute geotextiles, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, Vol 13, Nos 6-7, Elsevier Applied Sciences, Oxford
25. Ramaswamy.S.D, Karunaratne.G.P and S.Palit (1992), Application of Biodegradable Jute
geotextile filters, Proceedings of International Conference on Filters and Filtration
phenomena in Geotechnical and hydraulic engineering, Karlsruhe, germany
26. Ramaswamy.S.D, and M.A.Aziz (1982), Jute fabric in road construction, Proceedings of
nd
2 International Conference on geotextiles, Las Vegas
27. Ramaswamy S.D. and Aziz M.A., Singapore State University (1989), - Discussion of Jute
Geotextiles for Roads, Proc. Int. Workshops on Geotextiles, CBIP, Nov., Bangalore, Vol.2
28. Ramaswamy S.D. and Aziz M.A., Singapore State University (1989) - Jute Geotextiles for
Roads, Geotextiles Vol.1, Tata Mc.Graw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi
29. Ramaswamy S.D., Singapore State University (1991) - Appraisal Highlights and
Recommendation on Jute Geotextiles, UNIDO Report, Vienna
30. Ray.P, Ghosh.S.K and A.Mukherjee (2008), A Critical review on quality control and testing
of jute geotextiles, International workshop on Jute geotextiles, Kolkata
31. Report on Erosion Control Trials – ski piste, San Sicario, Italy (1986), Civil Engineering,
June – London, U. K.
32. Report on Geo-Jute Erosion Control System (1985) – Jute Market Promotion Project
I.T.C., UNCTAD/GATT, Geneva
33. Report on Geo-Jute Trials for Erosion Control on River Severn in U.K. (1985) – New about
Jute, I.T.C., UNCTAD/GATT, Geneva
34. Report on Jute Products for Geotechnical & Biotechnical Applications, March (1987) –
prepared by Mr. James Thomson & Dr. T. S. Ingold for International Jute Organisation
35. Results of Current Research of Synthetic and Natural Fibre Erosion Control Systems –
International Trade Centre, UNCTAD/GATT, Geneva – prepared by Dr. T. S. Ingold & Mr.
James Thomson
36. Sarsby R.W., (2007) - Use of „Limited Life Geotextiles (LLGs)‟ for basal reinforcement of
embankments built on soft clay. Geotextiles and Geomembranes Journal, Elsevier
Science, UK- vol. – 25 (4/5)
37. Rickson, R.J. et al (1996) Technical Specifications and Market Study of Potentially
important jute geotextile products, IJO Jute geotextile Conference, Dhaka
38. Sanyal T (1992) Control of Bank erosion naturally, Proceedings of National Workshop on
Role of Geosynthetics in Water Resources Projects, New Delhi
39. Sanyal.T and Chakraborty.K, (1993), Application of Jute mattresses in the bank protection
works of Hoogly Estuary, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Elsevier Science, UK
40. Shahid.A.S.M, (1994), „Geojute provides long lasting erosion control, Proceedings of fifth
international conference on geotextiles, geomembranes and related products, Vol 2,
Singapore
41. Shukla.M.K, Sunil Bose, A.Dhawan and P.K.Sikdar (2004), Investigation on use of
Geosynthetics / Jute fabric for retardation of reflective cracking in bituminous overlays,
Proceedings of ICGGE-2004, IIT-Bombay, Mumbai
42. Sikdar.D, Chattopadhyay.K.K and Chattopadhyay.B.C (1997), Characteristics of geojute
as filter medium for bank protection, Indian geotechnical Conference, Baroda
43. Sivaramakrishnan R (1994) Jute geotextile as revetment filter for river bank protection,
th
Proceedings of 5 International Conference on geotextiles, geomembranes and related
products, Vol 2, Singapore
44. Sudhir Mathur and U.K.Guru Vittal (2008), Jute Geotextile – Potential and applications in
road works, International workshop on Jute geotextiles, Kolkata
45. Tan S.A.; Muhammed M., Karunaratne G.P. and Lee S. L., (1994) - Use of Jute
th
Geotextiles in Layered Clay Sand Reclamation Scheme, Proc. 5 Int. Conf. On
Geotextiles, Geomembranes and Related Products, Vol. 2, Singapore
46. Use of Jute Fabrics in Erosion Control (1986) - International Trade Centre,
UNCTAD/GATT, Geneva – Mr. James Thomson & Dr. T. S. Ingold (Jason Consultancy
SA)
47. www.jmdcindia.com
48. www.jute.com
49. www.jute.org
50. Zahid Hossain Prodhan (2008), Application of Jute Geotextile on rural roads of
Bangladesh for slope protection, International workshop on Jute geotextiles, Kolkata
51. Zlatuska K., (2004) Utilization of Geo Textiles made from Natural materials in Civil
Engineering, A.KTI, Int. Symposium on Jute, May, Liberec, Czech Republic