PARTICLES:

Everything around us, including our bodies is made up of particles. These particles are so small it
is impossible to pick them up and view with the naked eye.

To give you an idea of how small particles are, if you imagine a small raindrop, it contains over
1000 000 000 000 000 000 000 particles- amazing!

But if particles are so small that we cannot see them, what evidence do we have for their
existence?

Evidence 1:

Around 150 years ago a Scottish scientist called Robert Brown observed that pollen on water
appeared to dance around as it was knocked around in all directions by the moving water
particles (which were too small to see even under a microscope).

In the same way, if we examine smoke trapped in a glass box and shining light through it, we
observe the tiny smoke specks dancing around in a random manner - continually on the move.
This random motion of smoke and pollen is called Brownian Motion, after Robert Brown.

The diagram above shows the random motion of a single smoke speck as it is bombarded by air
particles (which, again, are too small to see).

Evidence 2:

If you were to place a crystal of potassium manganate (VII) in a beaker of water, the water will
eventually over time turn purple!
The reason behind this observation is:

If we imagine both the crystal and the water to be made up of particles, the bombardment of the
water particles against the purple crystal will cause the gradual separation of the crystal particles.
Eventually, the individual crystal particles spread throughout the water as they find space
between the water's particles. If water and the crystal were not made up of particles, then mixing
between the two would be impossible!

Evidence 3:

When a gas jar of colorless air is placed on top of a gas jar of red-brown bromine, the bromine
vapor is seen to move upwards through the top gas jar, until a few minutes later both gas jars
appear alike!

Both bromine and air are made up of fast gas particles at room temperature and pressure. When
they come into contact with one another they collide and bounce off each other in all directions.
Eventually they become evenly mixed. This is an example of diffusion.
STATES OF MATTER

How can we explain the differences in physical properties between the three states of
matter?

The answer is in terms of particles! Remember, everything is made up of particles, whether a

solid, liquid or a gas.

Solids:

Solids have a regular shape; the particles are packed in a regular pattern.
Solids cannot be compressed, the particles are as close together as they can possibly
get.
Solids are dense; there is very little space between the particles.

Liquids:

Liquids take up the shape of the bottom of a container in which you place them, the
particles are not in any fixed position.
Liquids are very difficult to compress, as the particles cannot get much closer.
Liquids are quite dense; there is not much empty space between the particles.
Gases:

Gases have no shape; they fill up whatever space is available as theparticles move
rapidly around in all directions.
Gases are easily compressed, the particles have large spaces between them, so it is easy
to push them closer together.
Gases have very low densities; there are huge amounts of space between particles.

Compressing a gas:

Due to the large spaces between particles in a gas you can force the particles closer together
using a plunger.

Remember liquids and solids cannot be compressed as their particles are already close together.

The Diffusion of Gases:

The lighter the particles of gas, the faster the gas will diffuse.

Example:

A particle of ammonia gas (the pink particle) has about half the mass of a particle of hydrogen
chloride (the grey particle), so it will diffuse faster. This is shown in the experiment below. The
cloud formed when the two gases meet is nearer to the hydrogen chloride than the ammonia.
Gas pressure changes:

How gas pressure changes with temperature:

When you raise the temperature of a gas you increase the number of collisions that the particles
have with one another and the container. They hit the container wall with more force and more
often. So gas pressure increases as temperature increases for a fixed mass of gas.

How gas pressure changes with volume:

If you reduce the size of the container i.e. the volume of the gas, the number of collisions
between the gas particles and the container wall increases since they have less space to move
within. Hence, as you decrease volume of a gas you increase its pressure, for a fixed mass of gas.

How gas volume changes with temperature:

When a gas is heated the particles gain more energy and therefore move around quicker
bouncing off each other with the container wall with more energy. This means that they take up a
greater volume as they bounce further from one another. This shows that increasing the
temperature of a gas increases its volume, for a fixed mass of gas.

Step 1 step 2

Step 3

Changes of State:

Melting:

When a solid is heated, its particles gain more energy and vibrate more. Due to the increase in
vibrations, the solid expands. At melting point, the particles vibrate so much that they break
away from their positions. It is at this point that a solid becomes a liquid.

Boiling:

When a liquid is supplied with heat, its particles gain more energy and therefore move around
quicker. This increase in movement causes the liquid to expand. At boiling point the liquid
particles gain enough energy to overcome the forces holding them together - these particles break
away from one another and the liquid now becomes a gas.

Evaporating:

Not all particles in a liquid contain the same amount of energy - some have more! This is why
evaporation of a liquid can take place below its boiling point. This is called evaporation and
explains why puddles dry up on sunny days.
Condensing:

When you cool a gas, the particles lose energy. This loss in energy causes the particles to move
more slowly as they move closer together. When the particles no longer have sufficient energy to
move away as they bump into one another the gas becomes a liquid.

Solidifying:

When a liquid is cooled, the particles once more lose energy; they vibrate less as they slow
down. Eventually they stop moving, except for vibrations in fixed positions. A solid has now
formed.

MIXTURES

A mixture contains more than one substance.

Solutions:

A mixture of salt and water is clear; you cannot see the salt. A mixture like this is called a
solution.

We say the salt has dissolved. The salt is described as the solute and the water as the solvent.

Solute + Solvent = Solution:

When salt and water are mixed, the water particles get between the salt particles and separate
them. The separate particles are too small to be seen, which is why the solution appears clear.

Suspensions:

When a solid is placed into a liquid such as water and does not dissolve we say it is insoluble.
Chalk is insoluble in water and appears as white specks when placed in the liquid. A mixture like
this is called a suspension. In a suspension the particles of solid do not dissolve but form clusters
that are large enough to be seen.
Disperse systems:

Some mixtures have insoluble 'bits' in them which unlike a suspension are evenly spread
throughout the other substance they are in.

Foams:

It contain bubbles of gas (usually air) which are dispersed through a solid or liquid. An example
of foam is hair mousse.

Emulsions:

They are made up of two immiscible liquids. Tiny drops of one are dispersed in the other. An
example of an emulsion is eye make-up remover.
Gels:

They are usually formed when mixed with a liquid. They have large molecules that attract each
other, forming a web.

The effect of temperature on dissolving solutes:

As you add sugar to water it dissolves quite slowly (at room temperature).However, eventually
no more sugar will dissolve even with stirring. The solution is said to be saturated.

In the diagram below, notice that some of the sugar dissolves, but not all of it. The sugar that
doesn't dissolve falls to the bottom of the beaker.

Stirring the water may make some more sugar dissove, but add more and more and - eventually,
it will stop dissolving.

A saturated solution is one that can dissolve no more solute at that temperature.

So what happens when you heat the sugar solution?

At room temperature in the diagram above, there was some sugar left at the bottom of the beaker.
But as the temperature is increased more of the sugar is dissolved. So sugar is more soluble in
hot water!

If a solid is soluble in a liquid, it usually gets more soluble as temperature rises!

SEPARATING MIXTURES

How to separate a solid from a liquid:

Four methods are commonly used to separate a solid from a liquid:

1. Filtering

2. Evaporating

3. Crystallizing

4. Centrifuging

Filtering:

If your solid does not dissolve in water, for example chalk, then you can separate the solid from
the liquid by filtering the suspension through filter paper.

In this example the chalk that remains on the filter paper is called the residue. The water (the
substance) that passes through the filter paper is called the filtrate.
Evaporating:

If your mixture is a solution, such as salty water, then filtering will not separate the salt from the
water.

Instead, by heating the solution the solvent (water) evaporates leaving the solid (salt) behind.
This is possible since the two substances have different boiling points.

Centrifuging:

A centrifuge is used to separate small amounts of solid held in suspension from the liquid. For
example, chalk from water.

The centrifuge contains test-tubes that are spun around at high speed that causes the solid to sink
to the bottom of the tube. The liquid is the decanted (poured off) leaving the solid behind.

Crystallizing

You can separate many solids contained in saturated solutions by leaving them to form crystals.
This process is called crystallization.

If the solution is saturated, then when the solvent evaporates, what's left behind can't hang on to
as much of the solute. So the solute leaves the solution and forms crystals.

How to separate a mixture of two solids:

By dissolving one of the two solids:

If you have a mixture of salt and sand, then by placing the mixture in water you will find that the
salt dissolves but the sand remains.

If this new mixture is then filtered, the salt in the salty water solution passes through the filter
paper to form the filtrate and the sand remains as the residue.

All that is now left to do is to heat the salty water, allowing the water to evaporate leaving behind
the salt.

How to separate the solvent from solution:

Simple distillation:

For example:

To obtain pure water from saltwater, this apparatus would be used.

The solution is heated in the round-bottomed flask. As it boils, steam rises into the condenser
(this cools the steam back to water). Eventually the salt (solute) is left behind. The water
collected in the beaker is called distilled water.

How to separate two liquids:

Fractional distillation:

If two liquids are miscible (i.e. they mix together well), they can be separated using this
apparatus.

For example: to separate a mixture of ethanol and water.

Since, ethanol boils at 78oC and water at 100oC, then by gradually heating the mixture, ethanol
and water vapor rises up the column making the glass beads hot as they condense on them.

Once the beads are 78oC, the ethanol vapor is forced into the condenser, whilst the water vapour
continues to condense and drip back into the flask. Meanwhile the ethanol, now in the condenser,
condenses and drips into the beaker as liquid ethanol.

Separating funnel:

If two liquids are immiscible, then a separating funnel is used.

For example: If you pour a mixture of oil and water into the funnel, the oil floats on top of the
water. All that is left to do is for the tap to be opened to allow the water to pour through. The tap
is closed once all the water has passed.

How to separate a mixture of colored substances:

Paper chromatography:

For example:

For separating the colored substances in black ink - the apparatus below could be used.
1. A small drop of black ink is placed into the center of the filter paper.

2. Water is then dropped onto the ink.

3. The ink slowly spreads out, separating into rings of different colors.

4. The filter paper with its colored rings is called a chromatogram.

5. The colored substance furthest from the original black ink spot is the most soluble.

ATOM

Earlier we spoke about everything been made up of particles, from a lump of gold to our entire
body! Now we are going to give these particles a name - atoms.

Single atoms are far too small to be seen even with the most powerful microscope. However, in
spite of their tiny size, we know an awful lot about atoms.

Scientists have found that every atom contains a nucleus, and a cloud of particles called electrons
that rotate around the nucleus in the center of the atom.

More about the atom:

We have already said that atoms consist of a nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons
whizzing around it. However, the nucleus itself is composed of two particles, neutrons and
protons.

All particles are light so scientists measure their masses in atomic mass unit instead of grams.

Protons and electrons carry a charge; neutrons do not.

Particle in atom: Mass: Charge:

Proton 1 unit positive (+1)
Neutron 1 unit neutral
Electron negligible negative (-1)
A magnesium atom:

The different energy levels for the electrons are called energy shells. Each shell can hold a
limited number of electrons.

The first shell can hold 2 electrons.

The second shell can hold 8 electrons.

The third shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons.

A magnesium atom holds 2 electrons in the third shell only. This is not a full shell or octet.

The magnesium atom is often written as 2,8,2 - this is known as its electronic configuration.

Facts about the atom:

The above table supplies the reader with plenty of facts about individual atoms belonging to all
the known elements. This table is known as the Periodic Table.

Each element is given a symbol, a sort of shorthand version of its name, for example Sodium has
the symbol Na. Next to the symbol are two numbers, the top number (the larger of the two), is
known as the mass number, the lower number (smallest of the two) is the proton number.

The periodic table is arranged in order of proton number, a hydrogen atom having the smallest!

Proton number:

Look at the magnesium atom diagram again. It has 12 protons. This fact is used to identify an
atom since it is specific to them.

For example:

Only a magnesium atom has 12 protons, only a sodium atom has 11 protons!

The magnesium atom has 12 electrons. The number of electrons for an atom always equals the
number of protons. This means that their opposite and equal charge cancel one another out.
Atoms are neutral!

Mass number:

The electrons in an atom have negligible mass. So the mass number only takes into account the
number of protons and neutrons.

The mass no = the no. of protons + the no. of neutrons.

Since we already know the number of protons, as given by the proton number, we can calculate
the number of neutrons.

For a magnesium atom:

Mass number = 24
Proton number =12

24 = 12 + the number of neutrons

Therefore, number of neutrons in a magnesium atom = 24 - 12 = 12 neutrons.

Isotopes:

The atoms of an element are not always the same! Although they may contain the same number
of protons their neutron numbers may differ from atom to atom.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.

ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

Magnesium is made up of atoms only, so it is an element.

An element is a substance that is made up of one kind of atom only.

Every element has a name and a symbol and is displayed on the Periodic Table.

Element Symbol:
Carbon C
Hydrogen H
Aluminium Al
Sodium Na
Potassium K
Lithium Li
Silver Ag
Mercury Hg
Lead Pb

Elements can combine with each other to form compounds.

A compound contains two or more kinds of atoms joined together.

The symbol for a compound is called its formula. It is made up from the symbols of the elements
it contains and also tells us about the % composition of each element within the compound.

Example:

H2O - A molecule of water contains 2 hydrogen atoms for every oxygen atom.
How are compounds formed?

The formation of compounds

Most elements form compounds.

For example:

A reaction between sodium and chlorine gives the compound sodium chloride (salt) quite
readily.

The noble gases do not usually form compounds. They are different from other elements, since
their atoms are described as stable or unreactive. They are stable because their outer electron
shell is full. A full outer shell makes an atom more stable.

Only the noble gases have full outer shells. This is why they are stable.

Other elements react with each other in order to obtain full outer shells, this makes them
more stable.

How atoms lose and gain electrons

Depending on their electronic configurations, atoms loss or gain electrons in order to achieve a
full outer shell.

Losing electrons:

The sodium atom has one electron in its outer shell. If it loses this one electron it will achieve a
full outer shell. By losing the one electron to another atom, it becomes a sodium ion.
The sodium ion still has 11 protons but by losing one electron it has only 10 electrons compared
to the atom. Hence, its overall charge is +1.

This +1 charge is due to the ion having one more proton than electron.

In naming ions, you take the symbol Na and assign a positive charge. This gives us the sodium
ion Na+.

Gaining electrons:

A chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outer shell. It can reach a full outer shell by gaining
one electron. It will then become the chloride ion, Cl-.

A negative charge is assigned to the ion to signify that the ion contains one more electron than
proton.

Ions:

Any atom can become an ion if it gains or loses electrons.

An ion is a charged particle. It is charged due to an unequal number of electrons and

protons.
IONIC BONDING

Remembering that elements gain or lose electrons, when forming compounds, so that they
achieve a full outer shell - let's now look at the reaction between sodium and chlorine.

Example 1:

Reaction between sodium and chlorine:

A sodium atom loses one electron to achieve a full outer shell and chlorine gains one electron to
complete a full outer shell. So when a sodium atom reacts with a chlorine atom, the sodium
atom loses its one electron to chlorine. The two ions formed are a sodium ion, Na+ and a
chlorine ion Cl-.

The two ions have opposite charges, they attract one another.

The force of attraction between them is an electrostatic one. This type of attraction is strong. It is
called an ionic or electrovalent bond.

Step 1

Step 2

Example 2:

Reaction between magnesium and oxygen:

Other metals and non-metals react together to form ionic compounds This is because metals
tend to lose electrons, whereas non-metals tend to gain electrons.
A magnesium atom has two electrons in its outer shell, whereas oxygen has six electrons. This
means that magnesium wants to lose two (to oxygen) and oxygen wants to gain two (from
magnesium) so that they can have full outer shells.

The ions attract each other due to their opposite charges. Magnesium ions and oxide ions
are formed. The product is magnesium oxide, MgO.

Step 1

Step 2

Example 3: Reaction between magnesium and chlorine

To obtain full outer shells magnesium must lose two electrons and chlorine must gain one
electron. So when we react magnesium in chlorine, one magnesium atom reacts with two
chlorine atoms to form magnesium chloride, MgCl2.(Step 1)

Step 2
COVALENT BONDING

Sharing electrons:

When two non-metals react together, they both need to gain electrons to complete full outer
shells. The only way this can be achieved is if they share their outer electrons

Hydrogen:

Each hydrogen atom has only one electron and needs one more to complete its first shell. When
two hydrogen atoms get close together their shells can overlap and then they can share their
electrons.

Since, electrons are being shared; there is a strong force of attraction between them. This force
is a covalent bond.

The bonded atoms form molecules. Hydrogen's molecular formula is H2.

Chlorine:

A chlorine atom needs a share of one other electron to obtain a full outer shell. If two chlorine
atoms are placed together the result is as shown below:

Oxygen:

Each oxygen atom requires a share of two electrons.

Since each oxygen atom has a share of two pairs of electrons, we call this a double covalent
bond.
Covalent compounds:

There are a vast number of compounds that exist as molecules.

Water:

In each molecule, H2O, one oxygen atom shares electrons with two hydrogen atoms.

Ammonia:

In each molecule, NH3, one nitrogen atom shares its electrons with three hydrogen atoms, so
that they all reach full shells.

Methane:

Its formula is CH4. One carbon atom shares its electrons with four hydrogen atoms.

TYPES OF SOLIDS

The four types that we shall study in this quick learn are:

1. Metals

2. Ionic
3. Molecular

4. Giant molecular

The Metals:

In a metal, the atoms are very tightly packed, leaving little space between them. Due to this
tight packing, the outer electrons become delocalized from their atoms. This results in a 'sea' of
electrons around a lattice of ions or 'pseudo' cations.

Properties of Metals:

Here are some general properties, but remember there are always exceptions!

They are hard.

They are tough.
They are not easily compressed.
High tensile strength - not easily stretched.
Malleable - can be bent or hammered into a shape.
Ductile - can be drawn into wires.
Good conductors of heat and electricity because of sea of electrons that can move around
the lattice carrying heat energy or charge.
Usually high melting points.

Ionic Solids:

Ionic solids are made up of a lattice composed of oppositely charged ions. One of the most
common ionic solids is sodium chloride. Sodium chloride is made up of sodium and chloride
ions packed - a lattice. The ions are held by electrostatic charges in an ionic bond.
Properties of Ionic Solids:

1. High melting points and boiling points due to strong ionic bonds. Most are solids at room
temp.
2. They are brittle - will shatter with a hammer.
3. Usually soluble in water. Insoluble in non-polar solvents.
4. Do not conduct electricity in solid state. They do conduct when molten or dissolved in
water since the ions are free to carry the charges as the ionic bonds do not hold them
firmly in the liquid state.

Molecular Solids:

In a molecular solid, the molecules are held together by weak Van Der Waal's force, but
packed in a regular pattern. Iodine is an example of a molecular solid. Each iodine molecule is
made up of 2 iodine atoms, held together by a strong covalent bond. Each iodine molecule is
held to another by weak Van Der Waal's forces.
Properties of Molecular Solids:

1. Low melting and boiling point due to weak forces between molecules.
2. They are brittle.
3. Insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvents such as tetra chloromethane and
petrol.
4. Do not conduct electricity. Molecules do not carry a charge so even when melted,
molecular solids cannot conduct.

Giant molecular solids:

Diamond and graphite:

Diamond:

It is made up of a lattice of carbon atoms. Each carbon atom can make 4 covalent bonds to 4
other carbon atoms. Each outer atom then bonds to 3 more and so on. Eventually millions of
carbon atoms are bonded to form a giant lattice.
Properties of Diamond:

Very hard - hardest known substance. Each atom held to 4 others by strong covalent
bonds - this explains the high melting point.
Does not conduct electricity due to no ions or free electrons to carry charge.

Graphite:

Graphite is made up of flat sheets of carbon atoms.

Each carbon atom makes three covalent bonds to other carbon atoms. This gives rings of 6
atoms. The flat sheets that lie on top of each other are held by weak forces - Van Der Waal's.

Properties of Graphite:

It is soft and slippery due to sheets of atoms been able to slide over one another because
of weak forces between them.
A good conductor of electricity. This is due to each atom only using 3 out of 4 outer
electrons in bonding. The fourth electron of each atom becomes delocalized throughout
the lattice, enabling graphite to carry charge.
High melting point due to strong covalent bonds holding atoms of carbon together in the
rings.
PLACING ELEMENTS IN ORDER

How the Periodic Table was designed:

Scientists have managed to place all the elements in order using the following system:

They are placed in order of increasing proton number.

Hydrogen is first with a proton number of 1.

Next the list of elements are picked out and placed into groups. Groups are defined by the
number of electrons in the outer shell of the atom.

Example:

Lithium has one electron in its outer shell so is placed into Group 1. Atoms with two outer shell
electrons are placed in Group 2. There are eight groups in total.

Finally, the groups are placed next to one another to finally complete the Periodic Table:

The Groups:

As has already been stated there are eight groups in the Periodic Table plus, a block of elements
called the Transition Metals.

Some of the groups have special names:

Group 1: the alkali metals.

Group 2: The alkaline earth metals.

Group 7: The halogens.

Group 0 or 8: The noble gases.

The zigzag line through the Periodic Table separates the Metals on the left with the non-
metals to the right of the line.

The Periods:

The horizontal rows are called Periods.

Period 3 contains Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg), Aluminium (Al), Silicon (Si), Phosphorus (P),
Sulphur(S), Chlorine (Cl) and Argon (Ar).

The Periods represent the energy shell these atoms outer electrons are located within.

Period 3 elements all have their outer electrons in the third energy level/shell.

Period 2 elements have their outer electrons in the second energy shell, and so on.

The Transition Metals:

These atoms have more complicated electronic configurations. They are found in the long block
in the middle of the periodic table:

Properties:

Often used in industry as catalysts.

Useful in making alloys.

They form colored compounds.

The Noble Gases:

This group contains helium, neon, krypton, xenon and radon.

They are different to elements belonging to other groups due to their resistance to form
compounds. The reason behind their unreactivity is their full outer shells that give stability to
the atoms.

Properties:

Non-metals
Gases
Colorless

Although they have similar properties they are not identical. For example, as you descend Group
0 the density of the gas increases as does the mass of a single atom.

Group VII - The halogens

Fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine make up the family of halogens. The last three being the
most common. All the halogens exist as molecules, bonding covalently to their own atoms -
adding stability as they complete their full outer shells.

Properties:

They all form colored vapors:

Chlorine - green.
Bromine - red/brown.
Iodine - purple.

Melting points and boiling points are relatively low due to molecules been held together by weak
inter-molecular forces. As you descend the group the melting and boiling point increases as the
attraction between molecules gets larger.

As with the noble gases, the halogens do have similar properties but not exactly the same ones.
For example, the reactivity of the element decreases as you descend the group.

This can be seen if we observe the reaction between iron wool and the different halogens.
So why are the halogens reactive?

The answer lies in the electronic configurations and specifically their outer shell electron
configurations. The halogens need only gain 1 electron from another atom to gain more stability.

Fluorine: is the most reactive since the electron it is attempting to attract is coming into a shell
closest to the positive nucleus. Greater attraction means that it is easier to gain an extra electron -
therefore it is the most reactive.

GROUP I AND GROUP II

Group I - The Alkali Metals

Lithium, sodium and potassium all belong to Group 1.

This is because they all have 1 electron in their outer shell which is why they react in similar
ways.

Properties:

Soft metals that can be cut with a knife.

Low density - can float on water.
Low melting points in comparison with other metals.
They react violently (in some cases) with water to form alkaline solutions - hence the
name, alkali metals.

Reactivity increases as you descend the group.

Potassium:

It is more reactive than lithium, since although they both need to lose one electron to have full
outer shells, potassium's outer electron is furthest from the positive attractions of the nucleus.
Therefore, it is easier for potassium to lose its outer electron than it is for lithium.

Other Trends:

Melting point and boiling point decreases down the group.

Group Ii - The Alkaline Earth Metals:

Magnesium, Calcium and Strontium all belong to Group 2.

All Group 2 elements have two outer electrons; therefore they wish to lose two when bonding to
create compounds. Losing two electrons allows them to have full outer shells, and achieve
stability.

Properties:

Silvery metals
Higher melting and boiling points than Group I elements
Less reactive than Group I elements. This is because it is more difficult to lose two
electrons compared to losing just one electron.
React with water to form alkaline solutions. Reactivity increases down the group. This is
because the smaller the atom the closer the outer electrons are to the nucleus. Therefore
there is a greater attraction between the nucleus and electrons in magnesium than there is
in calcium.
Melting points and boiling points decrease down the group due to weaker forces of
attraction between atoms.
Hardness increases as you descend down the group.
INTRODUCTION

Atoms with an unstable nucleus:

An atoms behavior is not always down to its electrons! For example: carbon has three
isotopes:

Isotopes are atoms with the same proton number but different number of neutrons.

The three isotopes of carbon as illustrated above are named as follows:

Carbon-12: C12- just less than 99% of carbon atoms

Carbon-13: C13 - just greater than 1% of carbon atoms

Carbon-14: C14 - very small percentage.

The Carbon-14 atom is the most interesting! It has an unstable nucleus because of the extra
neutrons.

As a simple rule, atoms prefer having the same number of neutrons as protons. Otherwise the
imbalance can cause the nucleus to be unstable. The result of this unstable nucleus is that the
atom 'throws' out particles, in order, to become more stable. In the case of the carbon-14 atom it
throws out a particle to become a nitrogen atom. This process of losing particles is called decay.

Carbon-14 is said to be radioactive. It is called a radioisotope or radionuclide. When it decays

it gives out radiation.

It is not only carbon that has radioactive isotopes. Atoms belonging to elements at the bottom of
the Periodic Table tend to have several radioisotopes because they have lots of neutrons as
compared to protons.
All radioisotopes eventually turn into stable atoms by giving out radiation.

Decay is a Random Process:

You can't control the decay of a nucleus because it is a nuclear reaction not a chemical one.
Hence, heat or catalysts have no effect. This lack of control is why decay is random.

Take the example above, it could take seconds or hundreds of years to turn an atom of
polonium-216 into an atom of lead-208!

Even though, decay is random, scientists have come up with a way of estimating the time taken
for decay to occur for a specific radioisotope. This is called the Half-Life.

The half-life is the time taken for half the radioisotope in a sample to decay.

Types of Radiation:

Radiation consists of three types of particle:

1. Alpha:

An alpha particle is made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, so it has a proton number of 2, and
a mass of 4 units. This is identical to the nucleus of a helium atom.

In equations or diagrams like the one below, the nucleus of a helium atom is often used to show
the emission (giving out) of alpha radiation. An alpha particle moves quickly out of the
radioisotope but soon slows down in air. Its penetrating power is poor as even paper and skin can
stop it in its tracks!

2. Beta:

A beta particle is much smaller than an alpha particle. It has almost no mass which means,
it moves very fast. It can travel as far as 30cm in air, through skin and thin pieces of metal.
Beta particles are formed when a neutron turns into a proton and electron. The new electron is
'thrown' out of the atom and the proton remains. So the mass of the isotope is unchanged, but the
atomic number (number of protons) increases by 1.

Gamma Rays:

Gamma rays usually are emitted at the same time as beta and alpha particles. They are high
energy electromagnetic rays that travel at high speed (the speed of light) with a great
penetrating power. They can travel through several metres of air, through thick sheets of
metal, and deep into the human body. Only thick sheets of lead or concrete will stop them.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RADIOACTIVITY

The Harmful Effects of Radiation:

If radiation collides with molecules in the air or in your body, it throws out of them electrons. By
throwing out electrons you produce charged particles called ions. This means it is the radiation
responsible for ionizing molecules.

If this happens in our body, the cells may die or they may undergo a change called a mutation.
The result is called radiation sickness. A large dose of radiation will cause death!

Small doses of radiation over a long period of time can cause the cells to multiply. However,
these cells are mutated. Sometime later cancer may occur.

Background Radiation:

We are surrounded by background radiation all of the time! Background radiation comes from
the soil, rocks, the air, water, plants, building materials and food. Some radiation is due to
cosmic rays from outer space. However, fortunately, our body can withstand low level radiation
without ill effects because it is able to repair any damage.

Radiation Can Be Useful:

As we've seen from the above narrative, radiation can be harmful, even cause death. However, it
can also be most helpful.

Cancer Treatment:

Gamma rays are capable of passing deep inside the body and damage cells on their travels. But
as well as causing cancer, they can be used to kill off cancer cells and even cure people from this
illness. This treatment is called radiotherapy. Cobalt-60 is commonly used to kill cancer cells.
The idea is to aim accurately at these cells with the correct strength.
Killing Microbes:

Gamma rays successfully kill microbes that cause food to decay. So food treated with this
radiation has a longer shelf life. Surgical instruments and syringes are also treated with gamma
rays, in order, to prevent infections been transferred from patient to patient.

Tracers:

A Geiger counter is an instrument that measures radiation. If radioisotopes are added to oil or
gas, engineers can follow the radioisotope, and trace any leaks in oil or gas pipes.

Carbon Dating:

When an animal or plant dies it stops taking in carbon. But its carbon-14 content continues to
decay. If we compare the carbon-14 with that from a living thing, and knowing the half-life of
carbon-14, the age of animal and plant remains can be calculated. This is known as carbon
dating.

Dating Rocks:

Twelve out of every 1000 potassium atoms is the radioisotope potassium-40. Its half-life is a
staggering twelve thousand years and decays to eventually form the stable argon atom. By
measuring the argon content of many rocks that contain potassium, scientists can calculate the
age of the rock.
ACIDS, ALKALIS AND NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES

Properties of Acids:

They are liquids.

They are solutions of compounds in water.
If concentrated they can be corrosive.
Acids taste sour (for example, vinegar).
Turn blue litmus paper red - this is an easy test for an acid!
Usually react with metals to form salts.
Acids contain hydrogen ions.
Turn Universal Indicator from green to red, and have a pH less than 7.

Examples of acids: They are vinegar (ethanoic acid) and lemon juice (citric acid)

Magnesium + hydrochloric acid -> magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas

Some common acids used in your laboratories at school will be:

1. Hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq)

2. Nitric acid, HNO3 (aq)

3. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 (aq)

Properties of Alkali:

They feel soapy to touch.

They are soluble bases.
Like acids, they can burn the skin.
They turn red litmus blue - this is how you test for an alkali!
Alkalis contain hydroxide ions (OH-).
They taste bitter.
 Turns Universal Indicator from green to blue or purple.

Some common alkalis used in your laboratories at school will be:

1. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq)

2. Ammonia, NH3NH4OH (aq)

3. Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2(aq)

Properties of Neutral Substances:

1. Litmus paper is not affected by neutral paper.

2. Tend to be harmless

3. Universal Indicator stays green.

Common examples of neutral substances:

1. Water

2. Sodium chloride solution, NaCl(aq)(common salt)

3. Sugar solution C6H12O6 (aq)

THE PH SCALE

The Strength of an Acid

Acids and alkalis can be strong or weak!

So how can we measure their strength?

The strength of an acid or alkali is shown using a scale of numbers called the pH scale. The
numbers go from 0-14.
On the scale it follows that:

An acidic solution has a pH number less than 7

An alkaline solution has a pH number greater than 7

A neutral solution has a pH number of exactly 7.

You can find the pH of any solution using universal indicator. Universal indicator is a mixture
of dyes. It comes as a solution or in paper.

Universal indicator will change from green to a different colour depending on the pH of the
solution you place it in.

Note:

In a strong acid, nearly all the acid molecules form ions.

In a weak acid, only some of the acid molecules form ions.

The more OH- ions (hydroxide ions), the more alkaline an alkali will be.

In other words, the more OH- ions there are the higher the pH number.

NEUTRALIZATION

Reactions between acids and alkalis

The Making of a Salt

When an acid reacts with an alkali it produces a salt and water.

This reaction is called neutralization. The alkali has neutralized the acid by removing its H+
ions, and turning them into water.
Neutralization always produces a Salt:

Uses of Neutralization:

Soil Treatment – Farming:

The majority of plants grow best at pH 7. If the soil is acidic or alkaline the plant may grow
badly. Therefore, chemicals can be added to the soil to change its ph.

If the soil is too acidic - the most common complaint - it is treated with a base (chemicals
opposite to an acid) in order to neutralize it. Common treatments use quicklime (calcium oxide)
or chalk (calcium carbonate).

Indigestion:

We all have hydrochloric acid in our stomach - it helps breakdown food! However, too much
acid leads to indigestion. Therefore, to cure this ailment we need to neutralize the acid with a
base such as, sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda), or an indigestion tablet.

Insect Stings:

A bee sting contains acid.

In order to relieve the painful symptoms of the sting we need to neutralize the acid. By rubbing
on calamine lotion (zinc carbonate) or baking soda the acid can be neutralized.

Wasp stings are alkaline:

Hence acid is needed to neutralize and remove the painful sting. Vinegar (ethanoic acid) is used.

Waste from Factories:

Wastes from many factories are often acidic. If this acidic solution is not treated and enters
rivers it can kill fish. Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is often used to neutralize the acid.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Examples of different reactions

Decomposition:

When a reactant breaks down to give two or more products, we call this type of reaction
decomposition.

Calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

Decomposition caused by heat is called thermal decomposition.

Decomposition can also be caused by light.

Silver chloride → silver + chlorine

Combination:

The reverse to decomposition - combination involves often two reactants reacting to form just
one product.

Sodium + chlorine gas → sodium chloride

Neutralization:

When acids react with bases, they neutralize each other the products of a neutralization reaction
are neither acids nor bases.

Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water

The products of neutralization are a salt and water.

Electrolysis:

This reaction involves the decomposition of a compound by electricity.

Lead bromide → lead + bromine gas

Fermentation:

Natural organisms, such as yeast can cause decomposition to occur. Yeast breaks down glucose,
a sugar, into alcohol.
Glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide

This reaction is important to the yeast cells since it produces the energy they require to multiply.
This reaction is used in the making of beer and wines.

This reaction is also used in breadmaking.

Precipitation:

When a reaction involving two solutions produces an insoluble product. The product appears as a
precipitate. This reaction is known as precipitation.

Barium nitrate + copper sulphate → barium sulphate + copper nitrate

In this reaction it is the barium sulphate that appears as the precipitate.

Combustion:

This reaction involves the reaction of a substance with oxygen in the air. Sometimes the word
burning is used instead of combustion.

The substance that reacts with oxygen is said to be oxidized. The result is a product called an
oxide.

This is an example of an exothermic reaction, one that gives out heat energy.

Carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide

Iron + oxygen → iron oxide

Oxidation and reduction:

If a substance loses oxygen during a reaction it is reduced.

If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction it is oxidized.

Reduction and oxidation always take place at the same time.

For example: the reaction between black copper (II) oxide and hydrogen gas,
In the reaction above, copper (II) oxide is reduced as hydrogen takes oxygen away to form water.
So the hydrogen gaining oxygen is oxidized. The copper (II) oxide is reduced to red/brown
copper.

ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Energy changes

Breaking and forming bonds

When methane, CH4 burns in oxygen gas, O2, bonds must first be broken in both molecules
before new bonds forming the products can be made.
Energy is measured in kilojoules or kJ.

When bonds break, energy must be absorbed from their surroundings. Taking in energy reduces
the temperature of the surroundings - this is called an endothermic reaction. This value is
always given a positive sign, for example, +345kJ.

When bonds are made, energy is released to the surroundings. Energy that is released to the
surroundings is called an exothermic reaction. This value is always given a negative value, for
example, -345kJ.
Remember, when reactions takes place bonds break (endothermic) then bonds are made
(exothermic).

Overall, the reaction will be exothermic if more energy is released into the surroundings than
was absorbed.

An endothermic reaction will occur overall if, more energy is absorbed from the surroundings
than is released.

Bond energy:

This is the energy required to break one mole of bonds. The bond energy is also the energy given
out when a mole of bonds is formed.

Activation energy:

This is the minimum amount of energy required to break bonds to start the reaction off.
ELECTROLYSIS

Electrolysis is the decomposition of a compound using electricity:

The decomposition of molten lead bromide occurs using the apparatus above. A current is passed
through graphite rods called electrodes.

The negative terminal is attached to one rod, which becomes the negative electrode, the
cathode.

The positive terminal is attached to the other rod. This becomes a positive electrode, the anode.

Note: The compound must be molten to allow the charged ions to flow. You cannot carry out
electrolysis on solid lead bromide.

How does lead bromide decompose?

The diagram above shows how the oppositely charged ions are attracted to oppositely charged
electrodes.

Cations (positive ions - metal ions and hydrogen) travel to the negative electrode, the cathode.

Anions (negative ions - non-metal ions) travel to the positive electrode, the anode.
Cations are positive so the go to the negative electrode, the cathode.

Anions are negative so go to the positive electrode, the anode.

The electrolysis of other compounds

Summary of electrolysis:

1. All ionic compounds when molten can be decomposed when electricity is passed through
using electrolysis.
2. The metal and hydrogen always forms at the cathode.
3. Non-metal always forms at the anode.
4. Cations travel to the cathode.
5. Anions travel to the anode.
6. The electrodes are made from inert material such as graphite, so that they do not involve
themselves with the reaction.
7. The molten substance been electrolyzed is called the electrolyte.

Examples:

At the cathode:

At the anode:

At the cathode:

At the anode:

The electrolysis of solutions:

When a salt is dissolved in water, its ions become mobile.

Hence, the solution can be electrolyzed. However, the products from the salt solution will be
different to the molten solution because of the presence of the water, which itself produces ions.

During electrolysis, these ions compete with the metal and non-metal ions from the dissolved
salts, to receive or give up electrons.

So who wins?

At the cathode:

The more reactive a metal is the more it prefers being ions.

Therefore, if a reactive metal such as zinc or magnesium is present it will remain as the ions. The
H+ ions will accept the electrons and hydrogen gas will be given off at the cathode.

If a less reactive metal, such as copper or silver is present it would rather accept the electrons
than H+.

Hence, the metal forms at the cathode.

At the anode:

If halide ions are present, Cl-, Br-, I-, they will give up there electrons to become molecules of
Cl2, Br2 and I2 respectively.

If no halogen is present, OH- will give up electrons more readily than other non-metal ions, and
oxygen forms.

Examples:

Potassium bromide solution (aq):

At the cathode:

At the anode:

Copper (II) nitrate solution (aq):

At the cathode:
At the anode:

USING ELECTROLYSIS

Depositing metals - copper

Depositing Copper:

When a solution of copper (II) sulphate is electrolyzed using copper electrodes the
following reactions occur:

At the cathode:

Copper ions become copper atoms:

The copper atoms deposit themselves on the cathode.

At the anode:

The copper anode dissolves, forming copper ions:

Mass of copper lost at anode = mass of copper gained at cathode

This method is used to purify copper in industry. By placing the impure copper at the anode,
pure copper is formed at the cathode, as the copper ions migrate from the impure copper anode.

Electroplating:

You can use electrolysis to coat one metal with another. This is called electroplating.
Electroplating is used a great deal in industry, for example; chrome-plating car bumpers.

If you wanted to coat a nickel vase with silver, you would set the vase as the cathode and the
silver as the anode.
At the anode: Silver dissolves forming silver ions.

At the cathode: Silver ions receive electrons and form a layer of silver on the vase.

The Chlor-alkali industry:

The electrolysis of salt water:

This industry has been based around the electrolysis of brine, salty water!

At the cathode: Hydrogen bubbles off:

At the anode: Chlorine bubbles off:

Na+ and OH- ions are left behind, which means a solution of sodium hydroxide forms.

The products from the electrolysis of brine are:

1. Sodium hydroxide.
2. Chlorine.
3. Hydrogen.

These products are used for many purposes:

Sodium hydroxide is used for making, soaps, detergents and paper.

Chlorine is used for making, PVC, solvents, bleach, drugs, hydrochloric acid, paints and dyes.

Hydrogen is used for making fuel for rockets and nylon.

REVERSIBLE REACTIONS

The Haber process

The reaction between hydrogen and nitrogen:

Many of the reactions you observe only go one way - this means that reactants react to form
products and eventually the reaction comes to a stop.

However, some reactions are never completed because there are two competing reactions
occurring, a forward reaction and a backward reaction.

Take the reaction between nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas, the two competing reactions that
occur are:

The forward reaction:

The backward reaction:

This is an example of a reversible reaction, and is often written as:

The symbol:

indicates a reversible reaction.

If the back and forward reaction rates become the same, we say that the reaction is in
equilibrium.

Increasing the yield of a product in a reversible reaction

If you want to increase the amount of ammonia you make, you have a problem when your
reaction mixture reaches equilibrium as the amount of ammonia been produced remains constant.

An important fact about reversible reactions:

It is in equilibrium, if you cause a change then it will oppose the change.

You cannot make a reversible reaction go to completion but you can change the conditions so
that the equilibrium shifts to the right, producing more product, in this case ammonia.

Increasing temperature:

Since the forward reaction in the production of ammonia is exothermic - gives out heat - by
increasing the temperature you are worse off.

This is because the back reaction being endothermic takes the extra energy i.e. it opposes the
change. Hence, increasing temperature produces less ammonia!

Increasing pressure:

Pressure is caused by the collision of gas molecules and the container wall.

The fewer molecules you have the lower the pressure. By increasing pressure, the equilibrium
mixture will oppose the change - more ammonia will form in order to reduce the pressure.

Adding a catalyst:

Iron acts as a catalyst for this reaction. The catalyst does not affect the equilibrium position since
it increases the rate of the forward and back reactions equally, but it does speed up the speed at
which equilibrium is reached.
Differences and similarities between metals and non-metals

Properties:

Metals:
Strong
Malleable and ductile
React with oxygen to form basic oxides
Sonorous
High melting and boiling points
Good conductors of electricity
Good conductors of heat
Mainly solids at room temp. Exception
mercury - liquid at room temp.
Shiny when polished
When they form ions, the ions are positive
High density
Non-metals:
Brittle
Brittle
React with oxygen to form acidic oxides
Dull sound when hit with hammer
Low melting and boiling points
Poor conductors of electricity
Poor conductors of heat
Solids, liquids and gases at room.temp.
Dull looking
When they form ions, the ions are negative - except
hydrogen that forms a positive ion, H+.
Low density

Common Metals and Non-Metals:

Metals: Non-metals:
Calcium Sulphur
Potassium Oxygen
Lead Chlorine
Copper Hydrogen
Aluminium Bromine
Zinc Nitrogen
Lithium Helium

Uses of metals and non-metals:

Metals:

The uses of metals are related to their properties:

They are made into jewelry due to their hard and shiny appearance.
They are used to make pans, since they are good conductors of heat.
They are used in electrical cables, because they are malleable, ductile and good
conductors of electricity.
They are strong so used to build scaffolding and bridges.
 They make a ringing sound, sonorous, hence their use in bell making.

Non-metals

Used as insulating material around wire cables since they do not conduct electricity.
Used to make pan handles as they are poor conductors of heat.
Used to make pan handles as they are poor conductors of heat.
REACTIONS OF METALS

Reaction of metals with oxygen

Look at how magnesium reacts with oxygen:

The use of a gas jar full of oxygen can be used to combust other metals. This method can be
used to compare different metals and their reactivity with oxygen by observing the reaction.

Metals that react with oxygen produce oxides as their products.

Order of
Metal: Observation: Product:
reactivity:
Burns quickly with a bright yellow 1st - most Na2O, sodium peroxide -
Sodium
flame. reactive. a yellow powder.
MgO, magnesium oxide -
Magnesium Burns with a brilliant white flame. 2nd.
a white ash.
Does not burn. Hot metal glows in Fe203, iron oxide - an
Iron 3rd.
oxygen and gives off yellow sparks. orange powder.
Does not burn. Metal eventually coats 4th - least CuO, copper oxide - a
Copper
with a black layer. reactive. black powder.

Of course, other metals react with oxygen, some more than sodium, for example, potassium.
Others, such as gold, do not react at all.

Reaction of metals with water:

Some metals also react with water, but like their reaction with oxygen, they react in different
ways. We can observe the reaction of metals and water by placing the metals in a trough of cold
water.

Alternatively, we can observe the difference in reaction of metals using steam (hot water) instead
of cold water.

The table below illustrates the observations taken when different metals are placed in
water:

Order of
Metal: Reaction: Products:
reactivity:
Violent reaction with cold water. Floats 1st - most Potassium hydroxide,
Potassium
and catches fire. reactive. KOH and hydrogen gas.
Very vigorous reaction with cold water. nd Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
Sodium 2 .
Floats. Can be lit with a lighted splint. and hydrogen gas.
Calcium hydroxide,
Calcium Less vigorous with cold water. 3rd. Ca(OH)2 and hydrogen
gas.
Very slow with cold water, but Magnesium oxide, MgO
Magnesium 4th.
vigorous with steam. and hydrogen gas.
Zinc oxide, ZnO and
Zinc Quite slow with steam. 5th.
hydrogen gas.
Iron oxide, Fe203 and
Iron Slow with steam. 6th.
hydrogen gas.
7th - least
Copper No reaction with steam.
reactive.

Note:

The first three in the table above produce hydroxides and the rest, if they react, produce oxides.

The production of the hydroxide (alkali) can be tested by adding universal indicator (UI) to the
reaction vessel - UI changes from green to purple in the presence of these hydroxides.

To test for the release of hydrogen gas, place a lighted splint over the reacting metal - if it
'pops' then hydrogen is present.

In the case of potassium, this reaction produces enough heat to set alight the hydrogen gas itself.

Reaction of metals with acid:

Let's now look at the reaction between metals and acids to see if they can also help
distinguish difference in reactivity.
 Order of
Metal: Reaction with hydrochloric acid: Products:
reactivity:
Vigorously reacts with a stream of 1st - most Magnesium chloride, MgCl2
Magnesium
gas evolving. reactive. and hydrogen gas.
Quite slow reaction with a steady Zinc chloride, ZnCl2 and
Zinc 2nd.
stream of gas evolving. hydrogen gas.
Slow reaction with a gentle stream Iron chloride, FeCl2 and
Iron 3rd.
of gas evolving. hydrogen gas.
Very slow and acid must be Lead chloride, PbCl2 and
Lead 4th.
concentrated. hydrogen gas.
5th - least
Copper No reaction.
reactive.

If we compare the results of the reaction of metals with acid with those of the reactions
with oxygen and water, we note that the same order of reactivity is repeated.

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS AND THE REACTIVITY SERIES

Displacement reactions

Look at the reaction below:

Here, we witness iron and copper competing to be compounds in solution. Iron wins as it
displaces copper from copper sulphate solution. Green iron II sulphate is formed.

Other metals displace less reactive metals in a similar manner.

A compound will always displace a less reactive metal from solutions of its compounds.

Another example of 'competition' between metals to form compounds is observed in the

reaction between metals and metal oxides.
Observe the reaction between iron and copper oxide, mixed and heated strongly.

Iron displaces the copper from the oxide - in fact iron is behaving as a reducing agent, since it is
removing oxygen from the other metal.

Other metals compete in a similar way. The general rule is:

When a metal is heated with the oxide of a less reactive metal, it will displace the metal
from it.

The Reactivity Series:

By comparing the reactions of metals in oxygen, water and acid, metal oxides and solutions of
metal salts, we can arrange metals into a list of reactivity called the Reactivity Series.
Remember:

The more reactive a metal is the more likely it is to form a compound.

The more reactive a metal, the more stable its compound.

The more reactive a metal the more difficult it is to extract from its compounds.

Copper, silver and gold appear as elements in the earth due to their unreactivity with their
environment. They are easy to extract.

Reactive metals are more difficult to extract. They are often found as compounds or ores.

A method of extraction known as Electrolysis is used to remove the element from the remaining
compound.
TYPES OF EXTRACTION:

Methods of extraction:

Many metals are found in the Earth's crust as ores. An ore is usually a compound of the metal
mixed with impurities. When the metal is dug up, a method must be used to separate the metal
from the rest of the ore. This is called extracting the metal.

The method of extraction depends on how reactive the metal is. The more reactive the
metal, the more difficult it is to extract from its compound.

Electrolysis:

It is the most powerful extraction method. But it takes a lot of electricity and that makes it
expensive. Hence, electrolysis is only used for the most reactive metals.

Metal: Method of extraction:

Potassium Electrolysis
Sodium Electrolysis
Calcium Electrolysis
Magnesium Electrolysis
Aluminium Electrolysis
Zinc Heat with carbon or carbon monoxide
Iron Heat with carbon or carbon monoxide
Lead Heat with carbon or carbon monoxide
Copper Roasting in air
Silver Occur naturally
Gold Occur naturally

Examples of the different methods of extraction:

Electrolysis: Used in extracting aluminium and extracting sodium from rock salt.

In the case of the rock salt, it is first melted in giant steel tanks:

The extraction of aluminium is dealt with in a separate learn its within this topic.

Heating with Carbon monoxide:

Used for extracting iron from iron ore using the blast furnace.

Roasting in Air:

Used in extracting copper from copper (I) sulphide (copper pyrites).

The copper is extracted by roasting the ore in air.

Recycling metals:

Metals are non-renewable resources. This means once dug up it cannot be replaced. Hence, the
supply will eventually run out.

For example:

It is expected that tin will run out within the next 15 years and copper in the next 40 years!
Therefore, the recycling of these two useful metals and others such as iron and aluminium is
most important.

In recycling, metals are melted down before reshaping into their new use. However, this can be
costly. Recycling companies will only recycle if it is economical!

THE BLAST FURNACE

How to extract iron from its ore:

The Method

Three substances are needed to enable to extraction of iron from its ore. The combined mixture is
called the charge:

Iron ore, hematite - often contains sand with iron oxide, Fe2O3.

Limestone: (calcium carbonate).

Coke: mainly carbon.

The charge is placed a giant chimney called a blast furnace. The blast furnace is around 30
meters high and lined with fireproof bricks. Hot air is blasted through the bottom.

Several reactions take place before the iron is finally produced.

Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give carbon dioxide:

The limestone breaks down to form carbon dioxide:

Carbon dioxide produced in 1 + 2 react with more coke to produce carbon monoxide:

The carbon monoxide reduces the iron in the ore to give molten iron:

The limestone from 2, reacts with the sand to form slag (calcium silicate):

Both the slag and iron are drained from the bottom of the furnace.

The slag is mainly used to build roads.

The iron whilst molten is poured into moulds and left to solidify - this is called cast iron and is
used to make railings and storage tanks.

The rest of the iron is used to make steel.

THE ELECTROLYSIS OF BAUXITE

How to extract aluminium from its ore

The Method:

The bauxite (red-brown solid) - aluminium oxide mixed with impurities - is extracted from the
earth.

The extracted aluminium oxide is then treated with alkali, to remove the impurities. This results
in a white solid called aluminium oxide or alumina.

The alumina is then transported to huge tanks. The tanks are lined with graphite, this acts as the
cathode. Also blocks of graphite hang in the middle of the tank, and acts as anodes.

The alumina is then dissolved in molten cryolite - this lowers the melting point - saves money!

Electricity is passed and electrolysis begins. Electrolysis is the decomposition of a compound

using electricity.
When dissolved, the aluminium ions and oxide ions in the alumina can move.

At the cathode:

Here the aluminium ions receive electrons to become atoms again:

At the anode:

The oxide ions lose electrons to become oxygen molecules, O2:

Uses of Aluminium:

1. Shiny metal - used as jewelry.

2. Low density - used to make aero planes and trains.

3. Non-toxic - used in drink cans.

RUSTING

The corrosion of iron

When a metal is attacked by water, air or acids in their environment, they corrode. Corrosion
results in the metal become weaker and brittle.

The corrosion of iron and steel is specifically called rusting due to the red-brown substance
called rust that forms in the presence of water and oxygen.

The experiment below shows that an iron nail only rusts if both water and oxygen are
present:

How to prevent rusting

1. Paint or grease

This prevents water or oxygen reaching the iron. However, this is only a temporary step since
paint can flake off and grease can be rubbed off quite easily. Bikes are often painted of greased
to prevent rust, since this is the cheapest method of prevention.

2. Plastic
Plastic is cheap and acts as a cover for the iron, for instance, it stops water or oxygen reaching
the metal surface. Garden chairs are often made from iron coated in plastic.

3. Galvanizing

This involves the iron been covered, usually in the form of a paint, by zinc. Since zinc is more
reactive than iron, air and water react with the zinc rather than the iron. Outside structures, such
as bridges are often galvanized.

4. Chromium plating

Works for the same reason as galvanizing. Chromium is a more reactive metal than iron. Car
bumpers are often chrome-plated.

Both chromium plating and galvanizing are examples of sacrificial protection. Zinc and
chromium are sacrificed for the iron.
THE MOLE

The masses of atoms

Relative Atomic Mass

The mass of an atom is tiny. A single hydrogen atom is only about 0.000 000 000 000 000 000
000 002 grams!

Dealing with such small numbers is difficult. Therefore, scientists found a simpler way of
comparing the mass of different atoms.

They chose the carbon atom and compared all the other atoms with it. Since a carbon atom
consists of 6 protons and 6 neutrons, they gave it a mass of 12 units (they ignored the electrons).

The mass of an atom relative to that of carbon-12 is called the Relative Atomic Mass.

If we compare the mass of a hydrogen atom with that of the carbon-12, we find its mass is a
1/12th of the carbon-12 atom. Therefore, a hydrogen atom is assigned the mass unit 1.

When a magnesium atom was compared, its mass was found to be twice that of carbon-12,
therefore magnesium was assigned the mass unit 24.

Mass and Isotopes

Many elements possess atoms with differing masses due to them having different numbers
of neutrons.

The atoms shown above belong to the isotopes of chlorine. They have different masses because
one has two more neutrons than the other. Also it was found that chlorine-35 is more abundant
than chlorine-37. For every four chlorine atoms, one will be a chlorine-37 the other three will be
chlorine-35. Therefore, the average mass of a chlorine atom is 35.5.

The presence of isotopes and their abundances must be taken into account when calculating
Relative Atomic Mass (RAM).
The RAM of an element is the average mass of its isotopes relative to an atom of carbon-12.

Avogadro's Number

The Magic Number!

If you calculate the RAM of a substance, and then weigh out that number of grams of the
substance you can calculate the number of atoms or molecules that it contains.

Carbon has a RAM of 12, if you were to weigh out exactly12 grams of carbon it would contain
602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 carbon atoms.

This is called a mole of atoms. The number is called Avogadro's number, usually written as
6.02 x 1023

Examples:

1. 24 grams of magnesium would contain 6.02 x 1023 magnesium atoms.

2. 56 grams of iron would contain 6.02 x 1023 iron atoms.
3. 18 grams of water would contain 6.02 x 1023 water molecules.

One mole of a substance is 6.02 x 1023 particles of that substance. It is obtained by weighing
out the RAM or the formula mass in grams.

FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS

What information can we get from a chemical formula?

The formula of water is H2O. This is because 1 atom of oxygen combines with 2 atoms of
hydrogen.

Alternatively, we can say that 1 mole of oxygen atoms combines with 2 moles of hydrogen
atoms to form 1 mole of water molecules.

Moles can be changed to grams; therefore we can say 16 grams of oxygen combine with 2
grams of hydrogen to form 18 grams of water.

The formula of carbon dioxide is CO2. This is because 1 atom of carbon combines with 2 atoms
of oxygen. Therefore, 12 grams of carbon combine with 32 grams of oxygen to form 44 grams of
carbon dioxide.

Alternatively, 1 mole of carbon atoms combine with 2 moles of oxygen atoms to produce 1
mole of carbon dioxide.

To find the formula of a compound

 1. Start with the number of grams that combine
2. Change the grams to moles
3. This gives you the ratio which they combine
4. So now you know the formula

A formula obtained in this way is called the Empirical Formula.

Example:

1. 32 grams of sulphur react with 32 grams of oxygen

2. 1 mole of sulphur reacts with 2 moles of oxygen
3. Ratio of 1:2
4. Formula SO2 - sulphur dioxide

Finding mass by experiment

The Reaction between Magnesium and Oxygen

The apparatus below is used to calculate the mass of magnesium oxide, but firstly you must
know the masses of the elements that combine.

Method:

1. Weigh the mass of the crucible and lid

2. Add a coil of magnesium ribbon and reweigh.
3. Heat crucible strongly, lifting lid occasionally to allow oxygen in.
4. When burning is complete allow the apparatus to cool.
5. With the lid on reweigh the crucible and its contents.

Results:

Mass of magnesium oxide - mass of magnesium = mass of oxygen

4.0g - 2.4g = 1.6g

2.4g of magnesium = 0.1 moles

1.6g of oxygen = 0.1 moles

Therefore the ratio of magnesium to oxygen used is 1:1

Conclusion:

The formula of magnesium oxide is MgO.

WRITING EQUATIONS

How to write an equation:

Four steps to writing equations:

1. Write the equation in words

2. Write the equation in symbols. Check that you are using the correct formulae.
3. Check that the equation is balanced. Balancing means that you have the same number of
atom on one side as you do on the other. The reason for balancing is because atoms are
not lost or created during a reaction. Remember when you balance you multiply the
whole formulae whether it’s an element or molecule - you do not change its formulae.
4. Add state symbols.

Example 1:

Magnesium burns in oxygen to produce magnesium oxide.

Because oxygen has two atoms on the left, we multiply by 2 the MgO so that we now have 2
oxygen atoms on the right.

However we now have two magnesium atoms on the right, so we need to multiply Mg by 2 on
the left to balance.

Example 2:

Hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to form water when a spark is placed in the mixture.
There are two oxygen atoms on the left but only one on the right. Hence we need to multiply the
H2O on the right by 2.

This gives us two oxygen atoms on both sides but we are now left with only two hydrogens on
the left and four hydrogen atoms on the right. Therefore, we multiply the H2 by 2.
CHANGES TO THE EARTH

The Atmosphere

Layers in the atmosphere

The atmosphere is the layer of gas around the Earth.

The atmosphere can be divided into four parts:

Troposphere: Where we live.

Stratosphere: Some jet aircraft.

Mesosphere: Space shuttle orbits within.

Ionosphere: Mainly charged particles.

The gas is at its most dense at sea level but thins out rapidly as you rise through the troposphere.

What is Air?

This part chart shows the gases that make up air.

How did the atmosphere evolve?

The life story so far...

The Earth formed around 4600 million years ago, when a hot, dense mass of gas and dust
around the sun collapsed on itself - this was caused by gravity.

A mass of gas and dust got hotter and hotter as the particles were pulled in and squashed
together. It then began to cool down, solidify and break up into chunks called planets - one of
which was Earth.

Around 4500 million years ago, the hot gases that had built up inside the Earth burst out through
volcanoes. Gradually, over millions of years our atmosphere developed from these gases.

As molten rock poured out of the Earth's crust it threw out water vapour, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen (so light it went straight into outer space!), and smaller
amounts of argon and other noble gases.

The water vapour cooled and condensed and formed the oceans.

This is where life on Earth began 3500 million years ago.

All the hydrogen chloride and much of the carbon dioxide dissolved in rain and ocean water.
This acidic solution attacked rock and wore it away.
The first green plants appeared about 2200 million years ago - this is when photosynthesis
began. It used up carbon dioxide and produced oxygen.

Some of the oxygen reacted with other elements; the rest went into the atmosphere!

The ozone layer

The ozone layer is about 25 km above sea level, in the stratosphere. It has the formula O3. It is
produced when ultra-violet light causes oxygen molecules to break into atoms.

Then:

The ozone layer protects us from the harmful sun's rays.

CYCLES IN NATURE

All living things depend on nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air. We also depend on
water. However, these substances do not just get used up and disappear, nature recycles them!

Four main cycles to consider are:

1. The nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen circulates between air, the soil and living things.

2. The carbon cycle

Carbon dioxide circulates between the air, soil, and living things.
3. Photosynthesis

This process followed by respiration recycles oxygen.

4. The water cycle

Water circulates between the air, oceans and living things.

EVIDENCE FOR ROCK FORMATION AND DEFORMATION

How the rocks of the Earth formed

Different Types of Rock

Many different processes have produced the characteristics of the Earth's surface. These same
processes ensure that the surface of the Earth is constantly changing!

Rock formation by heat - igneous rocks:

Deep inside the Earth is molten (liquid) rock. At times, this molten rock (magma) finds
weaknesses in the Earth's crust and is thrown outside.

These 'gaps' in the crust are called volcanoes - they throw dust, fragments of rock and magma
from a hole at the top. These fiery eruptions eventually solidify to form igneous rock. Around the
volcano, new land develops as layer upon layer of rock form.

Examples of igneous rock are granite and basalt.

Igneous rocks tend to be hard with many containing interlocking crystals.

Rock formation from sediments:

These are called sedimentary rocks.

Erosion:

Wind, rain, snow, sea, rivers, oceans and glaciers can cause land to be worn away.

This process of wearing away is called 'erosion'.

Rocks that have been weathered and eroded into small fragments are often found in rivers or in
the sea being transported. Eventually, these fragments settle at the bottom of river or sea beds.

In time, this sediment will eventually harden and become new layers of rock. These sedimentary
rocks are made from recycled material from older rocks.

Dead animals and plants are often trapped in the layers of sedimentary rock - they can form
fossils over many years.
Examples of sedimentary rock are limestone, chalk and sandstone. Sedimentary rock tends to be
crumbly, often contain a layered effect and may contain fossils.

Rock formation from rocks that change with heat and pressure:

In many places on Earth, layers of sedimentary rock have been squashed, buckled or broken.
Inside the Earth great forces act to cause these effects.

Mountains are made from rocks that have buckled up and heated while deep under other rock.
These new rocks which have formed from sedimentary rock been subjected to heat and/or
pressure is called metamorphic rock.

Examples of metamorphic rock are marble and slate. Metamorphic rock is very hard.
THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION

WHAT IS RATE?

Rate is a measure of how fast or slow something is. In chemistry, we speak of a rate of
reaction, this tells us how fast or slow a reaction is.

Why do chemists want to know the rate of a reaction?

If you are making a product, it is important to know how long the reaction takes to complete,
before the product is produced.

Rate is a measure of a change that happens over a single unit time. That unit time is most
often a second, a minute, or an hour.

Reaction between zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid

What we observe over time is that gradually the zinc disappears and bubbles of gas appear. After
a few minutes the bubbles of gas form less and less quickly until finally no bubbles appear
because all the acid has been used up, some zinc remains.
To summarize, during this reaction zinc chloride and hydrogen gas are been formed at the
same time as zinc and hydrochloric acid react.

HOW TO MEASURE RATE

Using the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid as an example, the following are methods
by which you could measure the rate of that reaction.

1. Measure that amount of zinc used up per minute

2. Measure the amount of hydrochloric acid used up per minute

3. Measure the amount of zinc chloride been formed per minute

4. Measure the amount of hydrogen been produced per minute

When choosing which method to measure rate always choose the most straightforward.

In the example above, by far the easiest would be to collect the bubbles of hydrogen and measure
its volume.

Methods Used for Measuring Rate

me

MEASURING VOLUME OF GASES EVOLVED

To measure the hydrogen gas released in the above reaction we use the apparatus as shown. As
the bubbles of gas are given off, the plunger in the syringe moves out as hydrogen gas fills it.
After, say every 20 seconds we read the volume of gas in the syringe. The reaction is complete
when the syringe no longer moves.
To find the actual rate we plot a graph of volume of hydrogen (cm3) against time (seconds).

Note:

1. The rate is not a constant throughout the reaction - it changes!

2. The reaction is fastest at the start, gradually becoming slower as the reaction proceeds.

3. From the graph, the fastest part of the reaction is shown by the steepest curve.

4. The curve on the graph goes flat when the reaction is complete. This is because, as time goes
on the volume of the gas evolved does not change.

Measuring the Rate of Loss of a Gaseous Product:

In the reaction between calcium carbonate (marble chips) and hydrochloric acid we can use the
apparatus below to find the rate of reaction.
Marble chips and acid are placed in the flask but separated by a piece of card - preventing the
reaction from proceeding. This apparatus is placed on a balance and the mass of the flask and its
contents is read.

To start the reaction, the flask is gently lent to one side, causing the card to fall and the marble
chips and acid to mix.

A piece of cotton wool is placed in the neck of the flask to allow carbon dioxide gas to escape.
As the gas escapes the mass of the flask reduces. Take readings of mass loss over a time interval,
e.g. 30 seconds.

To find the actual rate we plot the loss in mass (grams) against time (seconds)
As with the previous experiment, the steepest part of the curve is at the start, hence the fastest
part of the reaction is at the start.

Gradually the curve becomes less and less steep as the reaction slows down. Eventually a flat
curve appears indicating the end of the reaction.

CHANGING THE RATE OF A REACTION

How to change the rate of a reaction

There are 4 methods by which you can increase the rate of a reaction:

1. Increase the concentration of a reactant.

2. Increase the temperature of the reactants.

3. Increase the surface area of a reactant.

4. Add a catalyst to the reaction.

Before, we discover the reasons for the above causing an increase in rate, we must first look at
what is needed to cause a reaction to occur!

If we take the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid, in order for them to
react together:

1. They must collide with each other

2. The collision must be with sufficient energy.

The rate of a reaction depends on how many successful collisions there are in a given unit
of time.

The Effect of Concentration

If the concentration of acid (a reactant) is increased, the reaction proceeds at a quicker rate.
In dilute acid there are less acid particles. This means there is less chance of an acid particle
hitting a magnesium particle as compared with acid of a higher concentration.

In concentrated acid there are more acid particles, therefore there is a greater chance of an acid
particle hitting a magnesium particle.

Remember:

The more successful collisions there are the faster the reaction.

The graph below shows results from two experiments. Experiment A was with concentrated acid
and experiment B used dilute acid.

As you can see, the greater the concentration of the acid used in a reaction the steeper the curve
and the shorter the reaction time. Hence, these results show that an increase in concentration
increases the rate of a reaction.

The Effect of Temperature

At low temperatures the reacting particles have less energy. When particles are heated they gain
energy. The gaining of energy enables the particles to move around quicker, this increases
their chance of colliding but also, the increase in energy increases the possibility of a collision
occurring with sufficient energy. Therefore rate of reaction increases with increasing
temperature.

The Effect of Surface Area

The rate of reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid increases as you increase the
surface area of the magnesium.

For example:

Powdered metal (greater surface area) reacts quicker with acid than strips of metal (lower surface
area).

The greater the surface area of the metal the more of its particles are exposed to the acid. This
increase in exposure increases the frequency of successful collisions.

The Effect of a Catalyst

Some reactions may be speeded up by using a catalyst. A catalyst reduces the energy required
for the reactants to successfully collide. The result is more collisions become successful, hence
the rate of a reaction increases.
HOW OIL IS FORMED

Oil is thought to have formed over millions of years from the breakdown of tiny dead
creatures. Natural gas is formed alongside oil.

The dead organisms sank to the bottom of lakes or seas and became trapped in muddy
sediments. As the sediments built up, the lower layers were under pressure. They eventually
turned to rock. If there was no oxygen in the sediments, heat and pressure turned the remains of
the organisms into oil and natural gas.

Some rocks are porous - they have a network of tiny holes in them.Sandstone and limestone are
examples. Oil is a liquid so it seeps into porous rocks. Gas also diffuses into these rocks.

Porous rocks may also contain water. Gas and oil do not mix with water. They are less dense
than water. This means they form layers above the water.

Sometimes the rock layers form so that the oil and gas are trapped under the rock such as shale
that is not porous. Large amounts of oil and gas may collect in a porous rock. The pressure on
the oil may build up so much that when a hole is drilled through the rock cap, oil gushes out.

Fractional distillation of crude oil

Crude oil is a mixture of many thousands of different compounds with different properties. They
are called hydrocarbons because they only contain the elements hydrogen and carbon.

To make crude oil useful, batches of similar compounds with similar properties need to be
sorted. These batches are called fractions and they are separated by fractional distillation.

The theory behind this technique is that some of the compounds in crude oil are easily vaporized,
for example, they are volatile due to their low boiling points. Others are less volatile and have
higher boiling points.

In fractional distillation, the crude oil is heated to make it vaporise. The vapour is then
cooled. Different fractions of the oil are collected at different temperatures.
 No. of Boiling
Fraction: carbon Color: point Uses:
atoms: range oC:
Below
Refinery gas 1-4 Colorless Gaseous fuel, making chemicals.
room temp.
Colorless to Motor car fuel, making
Gasoline (petrol) 4 - 12 32-160oC
pale yellow chemicals.
Colourless to
Kerosine (paraffin) 11 - 15 160-250oC Heating fuel, jet fuel.
yellow
Diesel fuel for lorries, trains, etc.
Diesel oil 15 - 19 Brown 220-350oC
and heating fuel.
Residue C
20 - 30 Fuels for power stations, ships
1. lubricating oil 30 - 40 Above
Dark brown etc. Some is distilled further to
2. heavy fuel oil 350oC
50 and give lubricating oils, waxes, etc.
3. bitumen
above

As the hydrocarbon molecule chain increases its boiling point increases, it becomes more
viscous, becomes more difficult to light, the flame becomes sootier and it develops a
stronger smell.
PRODUCTS FROM CRUDE OIL

Alkanes

Physical properties:

The chemistry of carbon compounds is called organic chemistry. There are millions of organic
chemicals, but they can be divided into groups called homologous series. All members of a
particular series will have similar chemical properties and can be represented by a general
formula.

The alkane series is the simplest homologous series. The main source of alkanes is from crude
oil.

Alkanes are covalent compounds. They are hydrocarbons, which mean they contain hydrogen
and carbon. The general formula for an alkane is CnH2n+2.

Properties and uses of alkanes:

Name of Melting point Boiling point Density State at room

o o
alkane: C: C: g/cm3: temperature:
Methane CH4 -182 -162 0.42 Gas
Ethane C2H6 -183 -88 0.55 Gas
Propane C3H8 -188 -42 0.58 Gas
Octane C8H18 -57 126 0.72 Liquid
The first four alkanes are gases at room temperature.

Alkanes with 5-17 carbon atoms are liquids.

Alkanes with 18 or more carbon atoms are solids.

As the number of carbon atoms increases, the melting points, boiling points and densities
increase.

They are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene.

Their chemical reactivity is poor. The C-C bond and C-H bond are very strong so alkanes are
not very reactive.

They will carry out combustion. Burning alkanes in air (oxygen) produces water and carbon
dioxide. The reactions are very exothermic (give out heat energy), so alkanes in crude oil and
natural gas are widely used as heating fuels.

For example:

If alkanes combust in too little air, carbon monoxide may form. This is dangerous and can cause
death.

Cracking alkanes

The lighter fractions (for example, petrol) are in large demand. The heavier fractions are not so
useful but unfortunately chemists have to be able to convert these heavier fractions into petrol
and other useful products, due to supply and demand, by a method known as cracking.
Cracking breaks down molecules into smaller ones. Catalysts or heat may be used to crack the
alkane chain into smaller ones.

Note, that one of the products that is formed when we crack naphtha contains a double bond
between two carbon atoms. A hydrocarbon that possesses one double bond belongs to the next
homologous series called alkenes.

Another reaction that often occurs after fractional distillation is reforming. Hydrocarbons of the
same formula have different boiling points. Straight-chained alkanes have greater boiling points
than the branched version. This means they catch light more easily - but this can be too much for
the hot cylinder of the car engine. Reforming converts straight-chained alkanes to branched.

Alkenes

The members of this series contain a double bond. They are hydrocarbons.

The general formula of the alkenes is CnH2n Most alkenes are formed when fractions from the
fractional distillation of crude oil are cracked.

Properties of alkenes:

Like alkanes, the boiling point, melting point and densities increase with larger size molecules.

They are insoluble in water.

They combust like alkanes to produce carbon dioxide and water. However, they burn with
sootier flames due to their higher percentage of carbon content to hydrogen.

Chemically, alkenes are more reactive than alkanes. This is because they possess a double bond
that can be broken open and added to in a reaction.

For example:
These reactions are called addition reactions.

Saturated and unsaturated:

Organic compounds, like alkanes, which have four single covalent bonds to all their carbon
atoms, are described as saturated.

Alkenes are hydrocarbons with a double bond between two carbon atoms and are described as
unsaturated. This is because they do not have the maximum number of atoms attached to their
four bonds, as one is double!

Polyunsaturated margarines and vegetable oils contain many C=C bonds.

POLYMERIZATION

Making plastics

Facts about plastics:

Polythene (polyethene) is made by forming a long chain of ethane molecules. Many other
compounds are made in a similar way. A compound made like this is called a polymer.

Polymers are long chains of monomers. A monomer is the building block or in other words the
repeating unit that is used to make the polymer. In the above example, ethane is the monomer
and polythene the polymer.
Polystyrene (many styrene molecules) is another well-known polymer.

Many polymers can be easily moulded into many shapes - these are called plastics.

Polymerization is the name given to the reaction that produces polymers.

Remember: alkenes can become polymers but alkanes cannot. This is because alkanes are
saturated whereas alkenes are unsaturated which means that they can carry out addition
reactions, required for polymerization.

This type of polymerization is called addition polymerization.