Big Data: Characteristics, Methods and Technology

Gede Karya*, Benhard Sitohang, Saiful Akbar, Veronica S. Moertini*

School of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Bandung Institute of Technology
*
Faculty of Information Technology and Science, Parahyangan Catholic University
Bandung, Indonesia
gkarya@unpar.ac.id, benhard@stei.itb.ac.id, saiful@informatika.org, moertini@unpar.ac.id

Abstract— At this time the big data phenomenon becomes

one of the most interesting trends. Big data is defined as an
information asset that has high volume, velocity and variety
(3v) characteristics requiring specific technology and analysis
methods to transform it into value. The velocity aspect has a
major contribution to volume growth and processing
complexity. Therefore reducing velocity (in the context of data
streams) contributes in reducing the volume and complexity of
the analysis in generating value. The challenge is how to reduce
velocity without reducing the meaning of big data significantly.
This paper is our preliminary study for research in the field of
velocity big data reduction. This paper discusses the study of
literature on big data, starting from the definition,
characteristics, methods of analysis, and technology that exist
today. This paper also discusses the method of data stream
clustering analysis as one of the velocity reduction candidates.
The description ends with a study of current big data research
positions and future challenges, as well as research conducted
by the author of the past 3 years.
II. BIG DATA DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS
A. Definition
From the various opinions gathered in the study [2] big
data is defined as an information asset that has 3v
characteristics, including high volume, velocity and variety,
requiring certain methods and technologies to process it into
valuable knowledge in decision making.
The data-information-knowledege-wisdom hierarchy
(DIKW) [3] provides a plausible reason why the big data
phenomenon is growing so rapidly (figure 1). With the huge
potential of data, then there is a huge potential of information
also available to be transformed into knowledge to optimize
decision making (wisdom).

Keywords— big data, velocity reduction, data stream

clustering

I. INTRODUCTION
At this time the big data phenomenon becomes one of the
most interesting trends [1]. Big data has high volume,
velocity and variety (3v) characteristics. The velocity aspect
contributes greatly to the problem of increasing volume. Big Figure 1 The Wisdom Hierachy [3]
data processing is basically aimed to produce value in the So, what is expected of big data is the information assets that
form of knowledge or patterns (knowledge discovery) that are processed into knowledge that can generate value for the
can be used to support decision making. High data velocity organization.
processing requires real-time processing that requires
expensive methods and technologies. If we can reduce B. Characteristics
velocity to a certain level it will produce big data with
reduced volumes and batch processing, thus requiring Big data characteristic according to [4] is 3v, including
cheaper methods and technologies. The challenge is how to high volume, velocity and variety. In general, high size limits
reduce velocity without reducing the meaning of big data in the context of big data follow Moore's law [5]. However,
significantly. In addition, the data reduction results are the current characteristics of big data are depicted as in
expected to be closer to the final knowledge. Thus the Figure 2.
process of further analysis can be run with more
conventional methods and technologies, over a longer time
span. The velocity reduction of the data stream can be done
by sampling, filtering and custering techniques. However, for
clustering technique has its own challenge related to data
stream mining constraint, therefore discussed separately in
this paper.
This paper is a preliminary study in our research on the
reduction of big data streams. This paper discusses the
literature study of big data, starting from the definition and
its characteristics, the analytical methods used, as well as the
technology used today. This paper also discusses the method Figure 2 Big Data Characteristics
of data stream analysis especially data stream clustering. The Big data has high volume characteristics, from terabytes
discussion concludes with a study of the current big data to zettabytes. Consequently, it requires data storage and
research positions and the challenges ahead and the research processing capacity that can not be handled by conventional
that has been done by the author of the last 3 years. methods and technologies. Current applied methods and

XXX-X-XXXX-XXXX-X/XX/$XX.00 ©20XX IEEE

techniques lead to parallel processing in a distributed system
environment, both in storage media and in processing.
Further discussion of big data storage and processing
technology is found in section 4.
The velocity characteristics of the big data alter the data
processing angle in batches, into dynamic data processing,
where data is no longer seen statically, but dynamically as a
stream. In addition, big data is also associated with the
movement of large amounts of data (high volume movement)
such as spatial data, images, and others.
Big data is sourced from various events. All of our
activities that use computers, gadgets, sensors and other
equipment produce big data. In addition to a wide variety of
sources, structures are also diverse, ranging from the
structured, such as: transaction data (money market, e-
commerce, etc.), semi-structured, and unstructured, such as:
image, text opinions on social media and web pages on the
internet. For that, it takes methods and technology to
integrate big data from various sources and from different
formats.
III. BIG DATA ANALYSIS METHOD
The purpose of big data analysis is to extract knowledge
in the form of patterns (concepts) that are useful in decision
making (knowledge discovery). Big data analysis is basically
a process of data mining (DM). This section discusses data
mining, data, knowledge, data stream mining and data stream
clustering.
A. Data Mining
Data mining is the process of extracting or mining
knowledge from large data sets. The knowledge is in the
form of interesting patterns hidden in the large data. There
are several terms that have the same meaning as DM, such
as: knowledge discovery from data (KDD), knowledge
extraction, data / pattern analysis, archaeology data and
dredging data [6]. As a process of knowledge discovery, DM
processes include pre-processing data (cleaning, integration,
reduction, selection, transformation) [7], pattern discovery,
pattern evaluation and knowledge representation.
There are various types of data that can be mining, which
can be grouped into 4, such as: (1) data base, data warehouse
and transaction data. This type is more seen as static data (in
rest); (2) data streams, continuously flowing data, so it is
very dynamic to have time sensitivity (in flow); (3) graph or
data network; and (4) unstructured data format, such as:
spatial data, text, multimedia, web.
DM functionality is used to find various patterns on DM
activity. There are 5 DM functionality, such as: (1)
characterization and discrimination; (2) mining of frequent
patterns, associations and correlations; (3) classification and
regression for prediction analysis; (4) clustering analysis; and
(5) outlier analysis (anomaly mining). DM activity generally
can be grouped into: descriptive (characterizing data
properties into target data sets) and predictive (induction of
data processed for forecasting).
The patterns generated by DM activity are expressed as
knowledge if interesting (interesting patterns). Patterns can
be declared interesting if: (1) easily understood by humans;
(2) valid on new data / test data at certain level of certainty;
(3) has potential benefits; (4) novel (novelty value). The
degree of attractiveness of a treshhold pattern is determined
on the basis of the structure of the patterns discovery and the
underlying statistics. For example, for the objective measure
of association rules is support (percentage of data that meets
the rules of the pattern) and confidence (level of pattern
certainty). In the classification there is a measure of accuracy
(percentage of data classified correctly) and coverage
(similar to support on association rules). There is also a
subjective measure (user trust for data) such as: expected
(confirming the user's hypothesis), unexpected (contrary to
user's belief), actionable. The ability to produce all the
interesting patterns (completeness) and only the pattern of
interest (efficient) is a quality criterion of the DM system.
To achieve its objectives, DM adopts techniques from
various domains such as statistics, machine learning (ML),
pattern recognition, database, data warehouse, information
retrieval (IR), visualization, algorithm, high performance
computing and more.
B. Data and Knowledge
Data is a representation of facts. Data set is a collection
of data objects. A data object represents an entity. The data
object is described by the attributes. An attribute (in the
database) is a data field, representing a characteristics or
feature of a data object. Terms that have the same meaning
as attributes are dimension (in data warehouse), feature (on
ML), variable (on statistics). A set of attributes used to
describe an object is called an attribute vector or a feature
vector. The type of the attribute is determined from the set
of possible values of the attribute, can be: nominal, binary,
ordinal or numeric.
Knowledge is an interesting pattern that has the value of
novelty or benefits (usefull) for the user. Knowledge is
represented in various ways, such as: table, predicate
calculus, direct representation, production-rules, frames,
scripts, semantic networks, semantic web [8] [9]. The use of
knowledge representation is associated with the ease of
storing and conducting inference and reasoning processes.
C. Data Stream Mining
Data Stream (DS) is defined as a sequence of data objects
or samples: DS = {x1, x2 ,. . . , xt ,. . .}, where xi is the ith
data object that arrives. DS has intrinsic characteristics, such
as possibly unlimited volumes, chronological order, and
dynamic changes. For example, Google processes millions of
searches daily, each attached with a time stamp; and these
searches change according to different warm topics at
different times.
DS mining has several constraints, including: (1) single
pass, data can only be accessed once and can not be
backtracked; (2) real time response, related to the responses
in decision making, such as: stock market that requires speed
in decision making; (3) bounded memory, due to its high
speed and unlimited potential, computing the synopsis with
apporoximate results is acceptable; and (4) drift concept, a
condition of pattern discovery that changes over time [10].
In Figure 3 can be seen the general model of DS mining.
The DS to be processed is stored first in the buffer, then
processed by time window using the DM algorithm. The
most popular DM algorithms used in DS mining are
clustering and classification.

Figure 3 Model of DS Mining [10]
The DS algorithm manages the synopsis of the DS using
a time window with a particular computational approach:
incremental learning or two-phase learning. In the
incremental leraning approach (Figure 4.a), the model
gradually evolved to conform to changes in incoming data.
There are two schemes to update the model, ie with data
instances and with windows. While the two-phase learning
approach (also known as online-offline learning), the mining
process into two stages, such as: the online phase, synopsis
of data updated in real-time, and in the offline phase, the
mining process is done on the synopsis stored every time the
user submitted the request. Illustration of two-phase learning
can be seen in Figure 4.b.
Figure 4 DS Clustering Computing Approach [10]
The time window of the data object is defined as W [i, j]
= (xi, xi + 1, ..., xj), where i <j. There are different types of
time windows, such as: landmark window, sliding window,
fading window, and tilted time window.
In the landmark window, we are interested in the overall
flow of data from the instant start time of 1 to the instant tc,
windows are W [1, tc] [[11], [12], [13], [14], [15] [16]]. By
using a landmark window, all transactions in a window are
just as important, there is no difference between past and
present data. However, as the DS continues to grow, models
built with old data objects may not match new ones. To
emphasize the latest data, it may be necessary to apply
variations of sliding window, tilted time window or fading
window.
In the sliding window variant W [tc - w + 1, tc], we are
only interested in the last transaction, the other is eliminated.
Mining results depend on the window w size. If w is too
large and there is a drift concept, the window may contain
outdated information, and the model's accuracy decreases. If
w is small, the window may have less data and the model is
no longer suitable for large variants. Some experiments take
into account fixed values for user-defined sliding window
sizes or experiment values. Recently, there is a proposal for
flexible sliding windows where window sizes change
according to the accuracy of the model. When the accuracy is
high, the window extends, and when the accuracy is low, the
window shrinks.
In the fading window variant, each data object is assigned
different weight according to its arrival time so that the new
transaction gets higher weight than the old one. Using the
fading window can reduce the effects of old and outdated
transactions on mining products. The decreased exponential
function f (Δt) = λ Δt (0 <λ <1) is usually used in the fading
window. In this function, Δt is the age of a data object equal
to the time difference, between the current time and the time
of arrival. Fading window needs to select the appropriate
fading parameter λ, which is usually set to [0.99, 1] in real
application.
The tilted time window variation is between the fading
window and the slading window. It implements different
levels of detail associated with the arrival of data. More
interested in recent data on a good scale than long-term data
from the past on a rough scale. The tilted time window
roughly stores the entire data set and provides a good trade-
off between storage requirements and accuracy. However,
the model may become unstable after walking for a long
time. For example, tree structure in FP-Stream will become
very large as time goes by, and the process of updating and
scanning on the tree can degrade its performance.
D. Data Stream Clustering
Clustering or data segmentation is the process of
grouping objects into different sets called clusters. The
purpose of clustring is that the data in the same cluster has
similarities, and is different from the other clusters. Several
clustering techniques have been proposed in [17].
The methods applied to DS clustering can be grouped
into 5, such as: partitioning, hierarchical, density-based,
grid-based and model-based. Furthermore, it is necessary to
measure the distance between the clusters that allows the
merge during the clustering process. In general there are 4
types of distance measures, such as minimum distance
(single-linkage), maximum distance (complete-linkage),
mean distance and average distance. Maximum and average
distance are rarely used because it requires expensive
computing. The more popular used is the minimum and
mean distance. Minimum distance is used on D-Stream [18],
Den-Stream [19], and MR-Stream [20] algorithms. While
the mean distance is used on STREAM [15], CluStream
[21].
Figure 10 describes the data stream clustering algorithms
grouped on the basis of conventional algorithms developed,
time windows and computational approaches used.
The partitioning algorithm classifies the data set into k
clusters, where k is the predefined parameter. Iteration is
done to reassign objects from one group to another to
minimize its objective function. In traditional clustering, the
most popular method used is k-means and k-medians. The
clustering algorithm for DS is STREAM which applies the
LSEARCH technique for applying k-medians, which uses a
landmark window with an incremental learning approach.
The hierarchical method aims to group the data objects
into the hierarchical tree of the cluster. Hierarchical grouping
methods can be further grouped as agglomerative or divisive,
in which hierarchical decomposition is formed in bottom-up /
merging or top-down/split mode, respectively. Some
traditional hierarchical algorithms are BIRCH [22], CURE
[23], ROCK, and CHAMELEON [24]. The clustering
algorithm in DS is: (1) CluStream [21], which develops
BIRCH with two-phase learning approach and tilted time
window. CluStream uses micro-clusters to capture summary
information about the DS. The micro cluster is defined as the
temporal extension of the clustering feature vector in
BIRCH; (2) HPStream fix CluStream to handle high-
dimensional DS issues; (3) SWClustering fixes the degraded
CluStream after running for a long time using the temporal
cluster feature (TCF); (4) E-Stream [25] also fix ClueStream
to handle concept drift changes (cluster evolution) using
fading window and cluster histogram; (5) ClusTree [26]
indexes micro-clusters to adapt automatically to DS speeds
using the R * -tree structure; (6) REPSTREAM, developed
CHAMELEON using incremental learning and fadding
window approaches.
Figure 5 Data Stream Clustering Algorithm [10]
The density-based method builds a data density profile
for grouping purposes. Thus, groups are considered as dense
areas of objects and separated by rare regions with low
densities in data space. Density-based groupings are able to
find arbitrary-shaped clusters and do not require a
predetermined number of groups. DBSCAN, OPTICAL, and
PreDeCon are some of the best known traditional density-
based grouping methods. For DS there are several methods:
(1) DenStream, which developed the DBSCAN algorithm by
applying two-phase learning and fading window and using
micro-clusters to capture the DS information synopsis; (2)
OPTICS-Stream, development of OPTICS algorithm using
two-phase learning, and using micro-cluster and fading
model to build synopsis; (3) incPreDecon, the development
of PreDeCon and DenStream using incremental learning and
landmark window approaches.
Grid-Based. Metode clustering berbasis grid (grid based)
mengkuantifikasi ruang data ke dalam struktur grid multi-
resolusi. Struktur grid tersebut mengandung banyak sel,
masing-masing memiliki subruang dan menyimpan
informasi ringkasan objek data dalam subruang. Kemudian,
kelompok ditentukan oleh daerah padat sel padat terdekat.
Ada beberapa algoritma clustering berbasis grid tradisional
yang populer misalnya, DENCLUE [27] dengan grid
seukuran fix, STING [28] dengan grid multi resolusi, dan
WaveCluster [29] dengan metode transformasi wavelet untuk
membuat cluster lebih menonjolkan ruang yang
ditransformasikan. Khusus untuk DS ada beberapa algoritma
antara lain: (1) D-Stream, merupakan pengembangan dari
DENCLUE menggunakan two-phase learning dan fading
window; (2) MR-Stream, merupakan pengembangan dari D-
Stream dan STING dan menerapkan fading window; (3)
CellTree, berbasis grid yang berkembang menjadi Cell*Tree
[30] yang menggunakan B+Tree untuk menyimpannya
sinopsis DS dan menerapkan fading window untuk
menekankan perubahan informasi terbaru dalam DS pada
clusters.
Grid based clustering method quantifies data space into
multi-resolution grid structures. The grid structure contains
many cells, each having a subspace and storing summary
data object information in a subspace. Then, the group is
determined by the solid region of the nearest solid cell. There
are some popular traditional grid-based clustering algorithms
for example, DENCLUE [27] with a fixed-size grid, STING
[28] with multi-resolution grid, and WaveCluster [29] with
wavelet transform method to make clusters more accentuated
transformed space. Especially for DS there are several
algorithms, among others: (1) D-Stream, is the development
of DENCLUE using two-phase learning and fading window;
(2) MR-Stream, is the development of D-Stream and STING
and applies fading window; (3) CellTree, a grid-based that
evolves into Cell * Tree [30] which uses B + Tree to store it
DS synopsis and implements fading windows to emphasize
changes to the latest information in DS on clusters.
The model-based clustering method tries to optimize the
possibility between data and some statistical models. For
traditional model-based clustering, the Expectation-
Maximization (EM) algorithm is a soft-clustering method,
and Self-Organizing Map (SOM) [31] is a popular artificial
neural network method for clustering. As for the developing
DS algorithm SWEM developed from EM using fading
window and incremental learning. There are two important
extensions of SOM for DS, namely: Growing self-organizing
map (GSOM) and Cellular Probabilistic self-organizing map
(CPSOM). In GSOM, there is no need to specify the initial
size of the output map; it dynamically grows the node at the
boundary of the map whenever its accumulated error exceeds
the threshold. CPSOM is an online algorithm and is suitable
for large datasets. CPSOM uses a fading window to reduce
the weight of the neuron state. GCPSOM is a hybrid
algorithm that combines the advantages of both GSOM and
CPSOM. Therefore, GCPSOM is dynamically developing
feature maps to group DS and create track clusters as they
evolve.
IV. BIG DATA TECHNOLOGY
In part 2 it has been suggested that big data requires
technology to handle 3v characteristics and to transform it
into value / knowledge. In this section discussed about the
technology used to process big data. Beginning with the
history and basic architecture of Hadoop and Hadoop
Ecosystem, then followed by a discussion of the results of a
big data technology survey based on research [32] and [33].
The main requirement to use big data is adequate technology,
ie data processing technology in large size, with a high rate
of speed. It therefore requires computing and storage
requirements that can not be provided by conventional
information technology systems.
A. Hadoop and Hadoop Ecosystem
Hadoop is an opensource framework designed
specifically to handle big data. Hadoop was developed
initially by Google [35], then became a stand-alone Apache
project. The main components of Hadoop are distributed
storage (Hadoop Distributed File System - HDFS) and
distributed computing framework (MapReduce). HDFS is
designed to store and process large amounts of data sets
reliably, and stream them at high bandwidth to user
applications. On a large cluster thousands of servers handle
data storage directly and execute user application tasks at
locations where the data sets are stored. By distributing
storage and computing across multiple servers, resources can
grow as demand continues to be economical for every size
increase. In 2010 reported experience of using HDFS to
manage 25 petabyte data at Yahoo companies [36].
MapReduce is a programming model that implements the
processing and generation of large data sets that are specified
as map and reduce functions, and compiles them in parallel
to large-scale machine clusters. Google has used it to process
data over 20 petabytes per day in 2008 [37]. Limitations of
data processing in the context of big data follow Moore's
law.
Above the Hadoop framework has been widely
developed big data processing applications. This is
developed in addition to expansions for specific applications,
as well as the many limitations of MapReduce (which are
batch processing) to handle the processing of many (iterated)
graphs and data streams (which require real-time processing
or near real time). These applications are referred to as
Hadoop Eco System.
Based on the survey conducted in the study [32],
plaftorm big data processing can be grouped as in Figure 6.
Figure 6 Big Data Processing Platform [32]
In Figure 6 it can be seen that the big data processing
platform consists of 4 types, such as: (1) multipurpose
systems, like Hadoop, Spark, Flink and Tex; (2) database
processing using query (big SQL), such as Hive, Spark SQL,
Impala, HAWQ, IBM Big SQL and Presto; (3) large graph
processing, such as Pregel, GraphLab and GraphX, and (4)
stream processing (big stream), such as Storm, S4 (Simple
Scalable Streaming System), Infosphere Streams (Spark-
Streaming) and Flink -Streaming.
V. POSITION OF BIG DATA CURRENT RESEARCH AND
FUTURE CHALLENGES
In the study [38], a survey of the research trends on big
data has been conducted. The study was conducted on
original research papers published in journals referenced in
ScienceDirect from 2006 to 2016 using the term "big data" in
title (T), abstract (A) or keywords (K), ie 693 papers. This
research uses multi dimension in classification, among
others: time, topic, objective, artifact, application domain,
discipline, journal and active author. In this paper is
displayed dimensions that are considered important by the
author are: time, topic, objectives, artifacts and application
domain.
In terms of time horizon, big data research began to
develop in 2011, then growing very rapidly since 2013.
While from the top 3 topics is cloud, analytics, and social.
From the objective side, the majority on the performance
dimension, followed by quality, security and scalability. For
artifact dimensions, the most is the algorithm, which is
followed by the framework and architecture. As for
application domain dimension, the most is earth, then
followed by energy, medechine, ecology, marketing and
health. To obtain more insight on big data research, in a
study [38] also carried out content analysis by mapping 64
articles containing at least 1 SMACIT words with the big
data management taxonomy proposed in [39] On the basis of
content analysis can be concluded that majority research
focuses on 3 big data techniques, such as classification,
clustering and prediction.
The biggest challenge of future research is to improve the
scalability of large data algorithms and framework data,
especially clustering and classification for prediction analysis
along with improved performance and quality by utilizing
distributed computing technologies such as Hadoop, Storm,
Flink, S4 and Spark-Streaming (Infospere Streams)
VI. RESEARCH THAT HAS BEEN DONE
The author has conducted research on big data in the
period 2015 - 2017. Beginning with research on big data
technology exploration for community-based application
system [40]. The exploration results were tested on small
micro enterprise bookkeeping applications (UMK) [41].
Furthermore, in 2016-2017, a Competitive / Applied
Hibah research is conducted to prepare big data
infrastructure architecture for small and medium enterprises,
both for operational management, and for analysis. The
infrastructure was used to develop Hbase-based transactional
applications, and conducted HDFS-based and MapReduce-
based analysis experiments. The results have been published
in international journals [42], [43] and [44] and nationally
[45].
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