1.

0 OBJECTIVE
1.1 To study the effect of different type of thermoplastic on fracture.
1.2 To emphasis the use of tensile using Instron machine to the polymeric materials.
1.3 To investigate the differences in mechanical properties on linear low density
polyethylene (LLDPE) and polypropylene (PP).

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Tensile testing which also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials

science and engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until
failure [1]. The properties that are able to measure via a tensile test are ultimate tensile
strength, breaking strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. From these
measurements the following properties can also be determined, such as Young's
modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics [1].

Tensile test is performed for several reasons. The results of tensile test are used in
selecting materials for engineering application. Tensile properties frequently are
included in materials specification to make the quality is good. Tensile properties are
often measured during development of new materials and processes, so that different
of new materials and processes can be compared. And finally, tensile properties are
often used to predict the behaviour of materials under forms of loading other than
uniaxial tension [2]. Stress-strain tests have traditionally been the most popular and
universally used of all mechanical tests are described by ASTM standard test such as
D638, D882, and D412. These test can be more difficult to interpret than many other
tests because the stress can become homogeneous (it varies from region in the specimen
as in cold-drawing or necking and in crazing). Also, since a polymer’s properties are
time dependent, the shape of the observed curve will depend on the strain rate and
temperature [3].

A tensile specimen is a standardized sample cross section. The sample are in

dumbbell shaped or also called as dog bone shaped. It has two shoulder and a gauge in
between two of the shoulder. The shoulders are large so they can be readily to gripped,
while the gauge section has a smaller cross section therefore the deformation and failure
can occur in that area. The Figure 2.1 shows the tensile specimen. This test is a
destructive method, in which a specimen of a standard shape and dimensions (prepared
according to ASTM D 638: standard test method for tensile properties of plastics) is
subjected to an axial load . ASTM D638 typical parameter:

 Cross head speed:

 Between 5 mm per min and 500 mm per min. It varies as a function of
the material’s rigidity, shape and thickness. Typically, the softer the
material, the faster it will get pulled.
 Dumbbell type:
 The dumbbell dimensions are modulated as a function of the material’s
thickness. Sample cutting is of paramount importance for obtaining
accurate and reproducible results.
 Conditioning and testing temperature:
 Usually 23°C ( ± 2 °C) (unless otherwise specified). Polymer are not
suitable to test at lower temperatures as it get more brittle at low
temperatures. This is related to Glass transition Temperature where
usually polymer have lower 𝑇𝐺 .

Figure 2.1: Tensile Specimen [1].

Among properties that are measured over short times the most prominent is the

stress‐strain measurement in tension, but often also in compression or flexure. Several

important parameters are obtained during this measurement; tensile strength at break

(SB); ultimate elongation (γY); modulus of rigidity/elasticity (E); yield stress (SY) and

elongation at yield (γB); as well as the energy to break (a measure of toughness). A

stress-strain behaviour of polymers as measured at a constant rate of strain is shown in

Figure 2.2 [4].

 Figure 2.2: Stress-strain behaviour of polymers as measured at a constant rate of
strain [4].

Between A and B, Hooke's law for elastic solids is followed, so that the initial slope
stands for the modulus of rigidity, E. The stiffer the material, the higher its modulus,
producing a lower elongation at similar stresses. Quite often it is impossible to detect a
straight line from the origin and in such case the ratio between stress and strain at a
particular standard value is chosen as the modulus (usually at 2% or 100% elongation,
depending on the ductility) [4].

The points C represents yielding, which is considered the upper limit of elasticity.
From this point on, a plastic response prevails, which is truly a flow process
(irreversible). Such a response occurs only in ductile bodies, while brittle ones break at
the yield point or below. It is only the elastic response that is eventually recovered upon
release of the tensile forces [4].

In the region C‐D, a decrease of stress is observed, caused by the formation of a

"neck" in the specimen, wherein the cross‐section drops suddenly in the centre while
necking proceeds until an even cross section is obtained, as in Figure 2.2 [4].

In addition, the polymeric materials can be broadly classified in terms of their

relative softness, brittleness, hardness and toughness. The tensile stress-strain curve
diagrams serve as basic for such a classification. The area under the stress-strain curve
is considered as the toughness of polymeric materials. The figure 2.3 shows tensile
stress strain curve for several types of polymeric materials [2].
 Figure 2.3: Tensile stress strain curve for several types of polymeric materials
[2].

3.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

3.1 Materials
3.1.1 Plastic sample polypropylene(PP)
3.1.2 Plastic sample linear low density polyethylene(LLDPE)
3.2 Equipment
3.2.1 Universal Testing Machine(UTM)
3.2.2 Vernier Caliper

4.0 PROCEDURE
4.1 Each specimen (PP and LLDPE) was measured with the vernier calipers to
determine the diameter of the cross section, the width and length of the specimen.
4.2 The mean of the three measurements were calculated and recorded.
4.3 Refer to ASTM standard to obtain strain rate or loading speed.
4.4 The specimen was mounted in the Universal Testing Machine.
4.5 Next, the specimen was placed in the grips of Universal Testing Machine, taking
care to align the long axis of the specimen and the grips with an imaginary line for
joining the points of attachment of the grips to the machine.
4.6 The distance was measured between grips (option). The specimen was installed
inside the testing machine and load was added little by little until the specimen
break.
4.7 The grip was tighten evenly and firmly to the degree necessary to avoid the slippage
of the specimen during the test, but not the point where the specimen would be
crushed.
4.8 The data was started acquisition program.
4.9 The UTM and conduct uniaxial tensile test was started on all materials provided.
4.10 When fracture occured, the machine was stopped and the appearance of fracture
was recorded and the stress-strain was recorded.
4.11 The load and extension data from the testing machine were collected by the data
acquisition software while the fractured specimen was pulled in tension.
4.12 The fractured specimen was removed from the machine and the location and
character of the fracture was observed. These fractures were sketched.
4.13 The broken parts were fitted together and the final cross sectional area and final
length were measured.
4.14 Upper jaw automatically returned to its original position by pressing continue.
4.15 These procedures were repeated for another specimen.

5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 RESULTS

Table 5.1: The thickness of the Polypropylene(PP)

Sample PP 1 PP 2 PP 3
1ST Reading/mm 0.18 0.18 0.18
2ND Reading /mm 0.18 0.18 0.18
3RD Reading /mm 0.18 0.18 0.18
Mean/mm 0.18 0.18 0.18

Table 5.2: The width of the Polypropylene(PP)

Sample PP 1 PP 2 PP 3
1ST Reading/mm 6.18 7.12 7.10
2ND Reading /mm 6.08 7.10 7.12
3RD Reading /mm 6.14 7.12 8.10
Mean/mm 6.13 7.11 7.44
 Table 5.3: The thickness of the Linear-Low Density Polyethylene(LLDPE)
Sample LLDPE 1 LLDPE 2 LLDPE 3
1ST Reading/mm 0.13 0.15 0.07
2ND Reading /mm 0.09 0.12 0.05
3RD Reading /mm 0.08 0.05 0.06
Mean/mm 0.10 0.11 0.06

Table 5.4: The thickness of the Linear-Low Density Polyethylene(LLDPE)

Sample LLDPE 1 LLDPE 2 LLDPE 3
1ST Reading/mm 6.40 6.60 7.00
2ND Reading /mm 6.00 6.00 7.00
3RD Reading /mm 6.20 5.70 6.30
Mean/mm 6.20 6.10 6.90

Table 5.5: Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene(PP)

Tensile Elongation Modulus of
Max Load
Strength at break Elasticity
(N)
(MPa) (%) (MPa)
1 180.480 0.20 13.4 4797.75

2 141.327 0.18 14.5 4012.13

3 139.553 0.19 9.4 3893.94

Mean 153.787 0.19 12.4 4234.61

SD 23.134 0.01 2.7 491.26

 Table 5.6: Mechanical Properties of linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE)
Tensile Elongation Modulus of
Max Load
Strength at break Elasticity
(N)
(MPa) (%) (MPa)
1 11.892 0.07 679.30 82.70

2 14.767 0.10 712.30 89.30

3 16.690 0.07 583.00 152.20

Mean 14.449 0.08 658.20 108.10

SD 2.415 0.01 67.20 38.40

200

180

160
Tensile Strength(MPa)

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
PP LLDPE
Type of Plastic Specimen

Figure 5.1: Tensile Strength of PP and LLDPE

 800

700

600
Elongation at break(%)

500

400

300

200

100

0
PP LDDPE
Type of Plastic Specimen

Figure 5.2: Elongation at break of PP and LDDPE

5000

4500

4000
Modulus of Elasticity(MPa)

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
PP LLDPE
Type of Plastic Specimen

Figure 5.3: Modulus of elasticity of PP and LLDPE

 210

180

150
Tensile Stress(MPa)

120

PP
90
LLDPE

60

30

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Tensile Strain(%)

Figure 5.4: Stress-Strain Curve of sample 1(PP) and sample 1(LLDPE)

Figure 5.5: Stress-strain graph of Polypropylene (PP) from the data acquisition
software.
Figure 5.6: Stress-strain graph of linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) from data
acquisition software.

5.2 DISCUSSION

Figure 5.1 shows the tensile strength of PP and LLDPE. We notice that tensile
strength of the PP(153.787MPa) is higher than that of the LDDPE(14.449MPa) which
is difference 139.338MPa. The results show polypropylene has higher mechanical
properties than linear low density polyethylene components and that related to PP have
a rigid shortly methyl group attached to every second carbon atom of the polymer main
chain, which restricts rotation of the chain producing a stronger but less flexible
material, whereas LLDPE is a linear polymer with short chain branching and it has less
compact so it has higher flexibility. LLDPE show elastic behavior (soft and weak), so
they have lower tensile strength and higher elongation as compared to PP [5].

Figure 5.2 shows the elongation at break of PP and LDDPE. We discover that
the elongation at break of PP is 12.40% while the elongation at break of LLDPE is
658.20%. Elongation at break of LLDPE is higher than PP which difference is 645.80%.
Due to LLDPE is a linear polymer which has short chain branching, it has high
flexibility so that LLDPE need more loads to elongate. Behavior properties necking can
related to the break elongation. Based on the Figure 5.5, we can notice that the necking
occurs around 8.2% in PP whereas the necking in Figure 5.6 is around 570% in LLDPE,
it means that LLDPE showed ductile properties. That’s why the break elongation of
LLDPE is higher than the PP. Necking occurs on the initial elongation of the specimen,
homogeneous deformation occurs and the conventional load, extension curve shows a
steady increase in load with increasing elongation. Strain is directly proportional to
elongation. When the strain increases, the elongation of LLDPE increases. Ductility is
measured by the amount of elongation that can be applied to the material before the
failure occurs. The most dramatic consequence of yield is seen in a tensile test when a
neck occurs with the plastic deformation concentrated either entirely or primarily in a
small region of the specimen. Necking also affected by their arrangement of
thermoplastic. The polymer chains of LLDPE have a large number of short branches.
Thus it allows the chains to easily slide against each other under stress without
becoming entangled.

Figure 5.3 shows the modulus of elasticity of PP and LLDPE. We notice that
the modulus of elasticity is 4234.61MPa whereas the elastic modulus of elasticity of
LLDPE is 108.10MPa. The difference between PP and LLDPE is 4126.51 MPa. The
elastic modulus is a material property that describes its stiffness and is therefore one of
the most important properties of solid materials. Stiffness is how a component resists
elastic deformation when a load is applied. A high tensile modulus means that the
material is rigid and stiff so more stress is required to produce a given amount of strain.
PP is stiffer and it needs more stress to bend it compared to LLDPE due to PP have a
rigid shortly methyl group attached to every second carbon atom of the polymer main
chain.

As shown by the stress-strain curve obtained during the experiment we can

notice that both polymers have a different patterned graph. In order to understand the
properties of these polymers we have to examine the pattern of the graph. From the
Figure 5.5 and Figure 5.6, it is noticeable that the stress-strain curve of linear low-
density polyethylene (LLDPE) have the general shape of a ductile polymer stress-strain
curve while the stress-strain curve of polypropylene (PP) have a similar general shape
of a brittle polymer stress-strain curve. Properties and curve shown by LLDPE and PP
can be related to the glass transition temperature and also the strain rate. But in our
experiment strain rate is fixed to be the same between both LLDPE and PP thus strain
rate would not be considered as a factor that leads to both polymers exhibiting different
mechanical property [6].

On the other hand, glass transition temperature would affect both LLDPE and
PP to shows different mechanical property. If the fracture of a polymer takes place
below the glass transition temperature, then its fracture mode will be primarily brittle,
whereas if the fracture takes place above the glass transition temperature, its fracture
mode will be ductile. The ductile fracture shown by LLDPE are mostly due to the
presents of the molecular linear chain. When force is applied in a direction, the
molecular chains in LLDPE would tends to uncoil and slip past one another and slowly
align closer together towards the direction of the force. If the force applied is too high,
the covalent bond of the main molecular chains in LLDPE would eventually break and
thus causing a fracture. As for PP, it has a brittle fracture which is due the distorted
localized regions, crazes form before fracture occurs. A craze is form by applying high
stress at a certain region of the polymer and consists of an alignment of molecular
chains combined with a high density of interspersed voids. Thus, such fracture would
require a lot more energy compared to a ductile fracture. This can also be seen in both
of the stress-strain curve as it takes approximately 13MPa to cause fracture at LLDPE
and approximately 180MPa to cause fracture at PP [6].

As LLDPE deforms, we can see that it forms an opaque deformed part, such
phenomenon is known as crazing. This occurs as a localized deformation that leads to
the creation of voids and alignment of the molecular chains. Any area affected by
crazing has undergone permanent deformation and will not move back to its original
position when the load is released. The result is a highly strained area that permanently
appears white. So that, the light can pass through.
6.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, polypropylene(PP) has higher mechanical properties than linear

low density polyethylene(LLDPE). PP has a higher tensile strength,153.787MPa, lower
elongation at break,12.4% and higher modulus of elasticity,4234.61MPa whereas
LLDPE has a lower tensile strength,14.449MPa, higher elongation at break,658.2% and
lower modulus of elasticity,108.10MPa. LLDPE exhibits ductile fracture whereas PP
exhibits brittle fracture when the load is applied.

7.0 REFERENCES

[1] J. R. Davis, “Chapter 1: Introduction to Tensile Testing” in Tensile Testing, 2nd

edition, pg 1-2, United Stated of America, ASM Internationals, 2004

[2] Vishu Shah, Handbook of Plastics Testing Technology, 2nd edition, pg, New York,
John Wiley &Sons Inc, 1998

[3] R. F. Lawerence E.Nielsen, Mechanical Properties Of Polymers And Composites,

United Stated, Marcel Dekker, Inc, 1994

[4] "ASTM D638-14. Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics," 2014

[4] R.Lake, “Viscoelastic Materials”, New York, 1995

[5] L. K. Ajay Gawali, "Strength Improvement Of PP & LLDPE Blend," International
Journal of Advance Research in Science and Engineering, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 21-27,
February 2016

[6] C. Painter & M. Coleman, “Polymer Technology Dictionary”, Pg 424, London, UK,
1994