COMMENSALISM

Commensalism, in biology, a relationship between individuals of two species in

which one species obtains food or other benefits from the other without either harming
or benefiting the latter.
The commensal—the species that benefits from the association—may
obtain nutrients, shelter, support, or locomotion from the host species, which is
unaffected. The commensal relation is often between a larger host and a smaller
commensal. The host organism is essentially unchanged by the interaction, whereas
the commensal species may show great morphological adaptation. This relationship can
be contrasted with mutualism, in which both species benefit.
One of the best-known examples of a commensal is the remora (family
Echineidae) that rides attached to sharks and other fishes. Remoras have evolved on
the top of their heads a flat oval sucking disk structure that adheres to the bodies of
their hosts. Both remoras and pilot fishes feed on the leftovers of their hosts’ meals.
Other examples of commensals include bird species, such as the great egret (Ardea
alba), that feed on insects turned up by grazing mammals or on soil organisms stirred
up by plowing. Various biting lice, fleas, and louse fliesare commensals in that they feed
harmlessly on the feathers of birds and on sloughed-off flakes of skin from mammals.

remora; shark
A remora (Echeneis naucrates) and its host, a zebra shark (Stegostoma fasciatum). By attaching itself to the shark,
the remora is carried along by the shark, allowing the remora to travel to different areas without having to expend its
own energy to swim. The shark is completely unaffected by the remora's presence.
MUTUALISM
Mutualism, association between organisms of two different species
in which each benefits. Mutualistic arrangements are most likely to develop
between organisms with widely different living requirements.
Several well-known examples of mutualistic arrangements exist. The
partnership between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and leguminous plants is one
example. In addition, cows possess rumen bacteria that live in the digestive
tract and help digest the plants the cow consumes. Associations between
tree roots and certain fungi are often mutualistic.
Intestinal flagellated protozoans and termites exhibit obligative
mutualism, a strict interdependency, in which the protozoans digest the
wood ingested by the termites; neither partner can survive under natural
conditions without the other.
Acacia ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) inhabit the bullhorn acacia
(or bullhorn wattle; Vachellia cornigera). The ants obtain food and shelter,
and the acacia depends on the antsfor protection from browsing animals,
which the ants drive away. Neither member can survive successfully
without the other, also exemplifying obligative mutualism.

mutualism: acacia ants

Mutualism between acacia ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) and the bullhorn acacia (Vachellia cornigera), or swollen
thorn acacia. The plant provides food and shelter to the ants, and the ants defend the plant against browsing animals.
PARASITISM
Parasitism, relationship between two species of plants or animals in
which one benefits at the expense of the other, sometimes without killing
the host organism. Parasites may be characterized as ectoparasites—
including ticks, fleas, leeches, and lice—which live on the body surface of
the host and do not themselves commonly cause disease in the host;
or endoparasites, which may be either intercellular (inhabiting spaces in the
host’s body) or intracellular (inhabiting cells in the host’s body). Intracellular
parasites—such as bacteria or viruses—often rely on a third organism,
known as the carrier, or vector, to transmit them to the host. Malaria, which
is caused by a protozoan of the genus Plasmodiumtransmitted to humans
by the bite of an anopheline mosquito, is an example of this interaction.
The plant ailment known as Dutch elm disease (caused by
the fungusCeratocystis ulmi) can be spread by the European elm bark
beetle.