8/24/2015

Angles and
directions

Units of Angle Measurements

DEGREES
The sexagesimal system is used in which the circumference of a circle is
divided into 360 parts or degrees. The basic unit is the degree, which is
further subdivided into 60 minutes, and the minute is subdivided into 60
seconds. The , ‘ and “ are used to denote degrees, minutes, and
seconds, respectively.

RADIANS
One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle
by an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle. One radian
equals 180 /  or approximately 57.2958 degrees.

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Units of Angle Measurements

GRAD
 Measure in the centesimal system
 The circumference id divided into 400 parts
 100 grads = 90°

MIL
 The circumference id divided into 6400 parts
 1600 mils = 90°
 Used in military operations as in fire directions of artillery

Degree and Radian

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DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS

 Map users are primarily concerned with the north point for the
determination of directions.

DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS

True North
– is the north point of the true meridian. In maps and sketches, it is
portrayed in the direction of the actual location of the earth’s north
geographic pole and is always shown along a vertical line. A star, an
asterisk, or the letters TN symbolizes it.

Magnetic North
– a north point that is established by means of a magnetized compass
needle when there are no local attractions affecting it. Magnetic north
may be located either east or west of true north. A half arrowhead or
the letters MN usually symbolizes the point.

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DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS

Grid North
– a north point, which is established by lines on a map, which are
parallel to a selected central meridian. It may coincide with lines
directed toward true north. A full arrowhead or the letters GN or Y may
symbolize grid north.

Assumed North
– is used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north point. It
may be symbolized by a small-blackened circle or the letters AN.

DIRECTION OF LINES

 The direction of a line is defined as the horizontal angle the line makes
with an established line of reference.

 There are various kinds of angles, which can be used to describe the
direction of lines. In surveying practice, directions may be defined by
means of:
 Interior Angles
 Exterior Angles
 Deflection Angles
 Angles to the Right
 Bearings
 Azimuths

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Interior Angles

Exterior Angles

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Deflection Angles

Angles to the Right

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Bearings and Azimuths

BEARINGS
 Acute angle between the reference meridian and the line
 May fall under the following quadrants: NE, SE, NW and SW
 Numbered from 0 to 90° from other the north and south end of the
meridian
AZIMUTH
 Angle between the meridian and the line measured in the clockwise
direction from other the north or the south branch of the meridian
 May range from 0 to 360°
 Note: Azimuths will be based either from the South or North going
clockwise.

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FORWARD AND BACK AZIMUTHS

 Any line established on the earth’s surface has two azimuths – a

forward azimuth and a back azimuth.
 These directions differ by 180° from each other since the back
azimuth is the exact reverse of the forward azimuth.

To determine the back azimuth when the forward azimuth is known,

the following rules are used:
Rule 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180°, subtract
180° to obtain the back azimuth.
Rule 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less than 180°, add 180°
to determine the back azimuth.

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LINE Obs. Azimuth from south Calc. azimuth from north

Forward Back Forward Back

AB 23000’ 5000’ 5000’ 23000’

BC 31400’ 13400’ 13400’ 31400’

CD 25500’ 7500’ 7500’ 25500’

DE 16500’ 34500’ 34500’ 16500’