First Technical Session

Monday morning, 5 June, 1950

Mr L. F. Cooling, MSG., in the Chair
The following Paper was introduced by the Authors and submitted for discussion. On the
motion of the Chairman, the thanks of the Conference were accorded to the Authors.

THE MEASUREMENT OF THE SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

A. W. SKEMPTON, DSc., and A. W. BISHOP, M.A.

SYNOPSIS

Tests are described for determining the shear
strength parameters c and + of the principal soil
types under controlled conditions of pore pressure
dissipation. The significance of the results is dis-
cussed in terms of their application in stability
analyses.
The presentation is necessarily a personal one,
but the Authors believe that the Paper is not
unrepresentative of the views and of the practice
of other soil laboratories in Great Britain.
Des essais sont d&its pour la determination des
parametres c et 4 de r&stance au cisaillement des
types principaux des sols dans des conditions
contrWes de dispersion de la pression poreuse. La
signification de ces resultats est discutee en fonction
de leur application dans les analyses de stabilit&
La prtkntation en est n&ssairement person-
nelle, mais les auteurs sont d’avis que l’article
represente dans une certaine mesure les vues et la
pratique des a&es laboratoires d’analyse de sol en
Grande Bretagne.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
EFFECTIVE STRESS

The fundamental principle underlying all work on the shear strength of soils is that the
mechanical properties are controlled by the intergranular forces. If odenotes the total normal
stress acting on any plane in a soil and if ti the pressure in the pore space, then, to a close
approximation, the effective stress d is given by the equation
a’=o--u . . . . . . . . . * (1).
In this expression u’ is the sum of the intergranular forces resolved normal to the plane,
per unit area of the plane.
An examination of this equation is given in a recent paper by Bishop and Eldin (1950),
but here it is necessary only to note that equation (1) has been substantiated experimentally
by Terzaghi (1936) for sand clay and concrete, by Rendulic (1937) and Taylor (1944) for
clays, and by Bishop and Eldin for sands. There is, therefore, no reason to doubt the general
validity of the principle of effective stress.

TRUE COHESIOX AND INTERNAL FRICTION

In 1773 Coulomb suggested that the shear strength characteristics of a soil could be
represented by the expression
s=c+otan+ . . . . . . . . . (2),
90
 MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 91

where, in modern nomenclature,

s denotes shear strength
C ,, apparent cohesion
04 ,> total pressure normal to shear plane
4 J) angle of shearing resistance
In Coulomb’s equation c and + are empirical constants the values of which, for any given
soil, depend upon the conditions of test or the conditions under which the soil is stressed in
the field ; in particular, whether or not the soil is allowed to drain during the shearing process.
In a more fundamental form, first put forward by Hvorslev in 1937, Coulomb’s equation
is rewritten
s=c@+(u-~)tan#~ . . . . . . . . (3),
where c, denotes true cohesion
+c true angle of internal friction.
The cohesion and internal f&ion will, in general, depend upon the void ratio of the soil at
the instant of shear failure.
For purposes of simplicity the rate of strain is taken as an independent variable and its
effect on the shear strength will be considered separately. Existing data do not justify
any more elaborate treatment, and, so far as the authors are aware, no serious error is thereby
introduced.
In any isotropic soil the cohesion is a non-directional property and it may be regarded
as the resultant of the physico-chemical forces acting between the particles. In clean sands
these forces are negligibly small, whilst in clays they are important. Indeed, there is evidence
to suggest that in bentonite the shear strength is composed almost wholly of true cohesion
(Skempton, 194&z).
Internal friction is derived principally from the actual friction of grain on grain. It is,
however, also taken as including the resistance to shear developed as a result of the work
which has to be done when the soil changes volume during shear. Internal friction is not
itself a directional property, but in the general case of an element under unequal principal
stresses the shear resistance along different planes will vary in accordance with the variation
in u, and hence the internal friction imparts directional properties to the soil.
Whether or not this view of the physics of shear strength is wholly acceptable, the Coulomb-
Hvorslev equation has been confirmed experimentally, at least as a first approximation, by
Hvorslev (LX. tit), Peynircioglu (1939) and recent research at Imperial College. In the
Authors’ opinion it must form the basis of any fundamental consideration of shear strength.

ANGLE OF SHEARING RESISTANCE

The measurement of c, and +, is, however, a matter of some difficulty in many soils and,
moreover, an analysis of stability based on these basic properties is likely to be rather elaborate
in practical use. Ultimately such analyses will be carried out, as has been done already in
a provisional way for certain relatively simple cases by Skempton (19483) and Hansen and
Gibson (1949). But at the present time the usual method of procedure is :
(i) To determine the values of c and + in Coulomb’s equation under definite conditions
of water-content change during shear ; namely, no water-content change (un-
drained test), or full water-content change (drained test).
(ii) To use these values of c and 4 as if they denoted the cohesion and internal friction of
the soil : where practical conditions approximate to zero water-content change
the undrained test parameters are used, with respect to total stresses : where
practical conditions approximate to full water-content change the drained test
parameters are used, with respect to effective stresses : where practical conditions
cannot be even approximately represented by either drained or undrained tests,
92 A. W. SKEMPTON AND A. W. BISHOP

both tests+ should be made and the appropriate strength deduced from a
knowledge of the degree of consolidation under field conditions.
This procedure is semi-empirical ; its justification must be judged by three criteria :
(a) simplicity ;
(b) reliability in practice ;
(c) small errors as compared with a more rigorous analysis based on c, and 4, and a
knowledge of the pore pressure u.
Of these (u) is undoubted, and there is some evidence for (b) ; but principally from that
type of problem which has been shown by Skempton and by Hansen and Gibson to conform
also to (c)-namely those problems where a saturated clay is stressed without any change
in water content and 4 = 0 with respect to applied stresses. One of the most urgent needs
in the subject at the present time is thus for a theoretical examination, and practical results,
concerning the reliability of the present procedure in those cases where a water content
change precedes the stage for which it is desired to calculate the factor of safety (typical
cases include the foundation stability of slowly constructed earth dams, rapid draw-down,
and the stability of roads and runways).
But even in the absence of such results the present conventional procedure will probably
continue to be used ; and the purpose of the more advanced theoretical examination will be
to provide information on the corrections which must be applied in the conventional analyses.
Consequently the Authors will consider the various tests by which the values of c, the apparent
cohesion, and 4, the angle of shearing resistance, can be measured on samples of the principal
soil types.

SAMPLING

No matter how correct a theory of shear strength may be, and no matter how carefully
the laboratory tests are carried out, the results will be misleading unless samples have been
taken which are closely representative of the soil as it exists in Nature. Consequently it is
of the utmost importance to obtain undisturbed samples, or in the case of fills and sub-
grades to predict with reasonable accuracy the state of the soil during and after construction.
Unless this is possible, the testing programme is likely to yield results of very limited
value. For example, it appears that it is difficult, or even impossible, to obtain undisturbed
samples of sensitive silty clays from depths of more than about 50 feet (Carlson, 1948 ;
Skempton, 1948~). For such cases the vane test has been developed (see Section VI) and it
would be inadvisable to carry out any elaborate laboratory shear tests to determine the in-situ
strength. As a second example, the problem of predicting the moisture contents in a clay
subgrade some years after construction is still a matter of practical difficulty, although recent
work (Croney, Lewis, and Coleman, 1950) at the Road Research Laboratory shows great
promise in this direction. In highway and airfield work, this is a far more important matter
than any refinements of testing technique or stability analysis.
Nevertheless there is a wide range of practical problems where the conditions are known
with sufficient accuracy and adequate samples can be obtained.. It is with these cases that this
Paper is mainly concerned. The techniques of sampling lie outside the scope of the present
discussion.

PRINCIPAL SOIL TYPES

From the point of view of studying shear strength, soils may be classified into five principal
types. Any one of these types may be either frilly or partially saturated ; and its properties
have to be considered in either the undisturbed or remoulded states.

l Or a series of undrained teats can be carried out in which the pore pressures are measured. Such tests
are, however, not easily made and can hardly be regarded as part of a normal laboratory routine.
 YEASUREYENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 93

Broadly speaking, undisturbed soils beneath ground-water level are fully saturated ; and
partiahy saturated when above water level. Soils used in the construction of dams, embank-
ments, or subgrades are generally remoulded and, at least initially, only partially saturated.
Sun& and gravels;-In this type of soil only a small percentage of the particles are smaller
than O@ millimetre. The true cohesion is negligible and the permeability is relatively great.
Most sands and gravels, unless in a loose state of packing, exhibit positive dilatancy during
shear.
Clay-gravels.-This type of soil contains sufficient silt and clay fractions to impart appre-
ciable cohesion, but not so much of these finer fractions as seriously to reduce the angle of
shearing resistance under normal conditions. Hoggin forms a familiar example. But in
many boulder clays, the clay content is so high as to place the soil in the class of “ clays.”
S&s.-In its most characteristic form this type of soil has a liquid limit of less than 35
and contains not more than about 15 per cent. clay fraction (less than 040!2 millimetre).
Unless very soft, silts exhibit positive dilatancy.
Non-jissured cluys.-This class of soil is plastic and smooth to the touch, with a liquid
limit typically greater than 35, and without any obvious macro-structure. The clay fraction
is usually in excess of 15 per cent. Unless highly over-consolidated most clays exhibit negative
dilatancy.
Fissrcred-clays.-This type of soil is identical with that described above, except for the
presence of a network of fissures. These lissures can be readily seen if a sample is broken
apart. They are of greatest significance in over-consolidated clays, and require special con-
sideration in predicting the effects of softening.

THE BASIC SHEAR TESTS

GENERAL
The outstanding importance of the drainage conditions during shear has been recognised
since 1932, when Terzaghi published the results of two series of t&xial tests on a saturated
clay. In the first of these no drainage was allowed and the angle of shearing resistance 4 was
found to be approximately zero ; whilst in the second series the clay was allowed to consolidate
during the test, when the value of 4 was found to be 23 degrees.
At the present time the tests normally carried out may be classified as follows (after
Casagrande 1941) : l
No drainage during shear-
Undraiued (Quick) Test : the samples are placed in the testing apparatus in any
given state (undisturbed, compacted to a specified density, etc.), subjected to an applied
cell pressure under conditions of no drainage and then sheared, also under conditions
of no drainage. At least three samples must be used, each being tested under a different
cell pressure.
Consolidated-undrained (Cons-Quick) Tests : several (not fewer than three) samples
are allowed to consolidate, or soften, under a defined pressure t and are then subjected
to undrained tests ; each sample being under a different cell pressure.$ The procedure

* The nomenclature given is that adopted in the Civil Engineering Code of F’ractice No 1 (1990) “ Site
Investigation,” shortly to be issued by the Institution of Civil Engineers on behalf of the Civil Engineering
2,“; ~fAPractice Joint Committee. The nomenclature given in parentheses is also used ; particularly in
. . .
t The shear strength will depend on whether the sample is consolidated under an isotropic cell pressure
(as is usual in trbmial testing procedure) or under an anisotropic stress system (which is generally more
representative of the conditions in the ground) (Hansen and Gibson, 1949).
$ For saturated clays, in which 4 = 0 in undrained tests, it is sufficient to test the sample only under
its consolidation pressure ; thus only one sample need be set up under any given consolidation pressure.
,334 A. W. SKEMPTON AND A. W. BISHOP

is then repeated on further sets of samples, each set being consolidated under different
pressures.
F&Z drainage duritcg shear-
Drained (Slow) Test : the samples are allowed to consolidate, or soften, under a
defined pressure and are then sheared under conditions of no excess pressure in the
pore space, the cell pressure (or vertical pressure in the shear box) being held constant.

RATE OF STRAIN

Recent research by Casagrande and co-workers has shown that the strength of a sand is
virtually uninfluenced by the rate of strain but that, on the other hand, the strength of a clay
depends to an appreciable extent on this factor.
Undrained tests are usually completed within a period ranging from 5 minutes to 30
minutes. But in the subgrade of a road or runway, for example, the shear stresses are applied
at a rate of the order of 1,000 or even 10,000 times greater than that used in the laboratory
test. With special equipment Casagrande and Shannon (1943) have carried out shear strength
measurements under such ‘transient rates of loading and they find that the results may be
30 to 60 per cent., or in extreme cases 100 per cent. greater than those obtained in the normal
tests. Clearly some allowance for this effect should logically be made in subgrade design.
In contrast, the rate of loading in most constructional operations is measured in terms
of weeks or months : a rate of the order of 10,000 times smaller than that in the routine tests.
Taylor (1943) and Casagrande and Wilson (1949), have investigated the influence of very low
rates o’f strain on clays and it appears that the shear strength typically falls to values about
15 to 30 per cent. lower than that normally measured. Here again some allowance for this
effect should be made in an analysis which attempts to be thoroughgoing. From the theoreti-
cal considerations put forward by Hansen and Gibson (1949), it is probable, however, that
the 4 = 0 analysis contains an implicit factor of safety of the same order as the decrease in
strength due to slow rates of loading. It may well be that the two effects tend to balance
out and there is, at any rate, a considerable body of evidence pointing to the reasonable
accuracy of the simple 4 = 0 analysis, as shown by Skempton and Goider (1948) and Cadling
and Ode&tad (1950).
So far as laboratory practice is concerned the variation in rates of loading in undrained
tests are of little consequence. A considerable number of experiments in the Authors’ labora-
tory indicate that the differences in strength obtained in tests carried out 5 times faster or
5 times slower than the standard rate (about 10 minutes to failure) do not amount to more
than about 5 or, in extreme cases, 10 per cent ; even at water contents equal to the liquid
limit. But in drained tests on clays the time of loading varies from about 8 hours to 3 days ;
and consequently for research work it is necessary to apply corrections to those results before
comparing them with undrained tests.

LABORATORY TESTING PROCEDURES

GENERAL
The choice of apparatus for carrying out a shear test is primarily determined by the
conditions of drainage under which it is desired to carry out the test.
Table 1 indicates the procedure which is generally followed in testing the main soil types.
For example, the use of the small shear box for undrained and consolidated-undrained tests
is limited to clays of low permeability tested at a rapid rate of shear, owing to the relatively
short drainage paths in the apparatus.
Other factors also have to be considered, such as whether samples can be satisfactorily
prepared (in very soft, friable or coarse grained soils), and the degree of operational skill
required to carry out the test.
 MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 95
Tests are normally carried out under a controlled rate of strain, as the conditions at
failure are then completely specified.

TRIAXIAL APPARATUS

The triaxial compression test is carried out under a constant cell pressure on a sample 3
inches long x 14 inch in diameter in the apparatus shown diagrammatically in Figs 1 and 2
(for sand, silts and clays) or 9 inches long x 4 inches diameter (for gravelly soils). The cell
pressure is maintained constant in long duration tests * by the mercury control which, once it
has been set at the correct level, automatically compensates for any leakage of water out of the
triaxial apparatus. For short duration tests (normally about 10 to 20 minutes) the compressed
air in the cylinder is sufficient to maintain a constant pressure.

Table 1
ADDaratue wed for shear-Hren&h measurements in relation to main soil types
I
Test conditions

soil tvPe
__ I I
I Undrained
I
Consolidated-
undrained I
Sand .. .. .. - Triaxial Triaxia or shear box,
deep sounding in situ

Gravel .. .. - -

Clay-gravel .. .. Triaxial or large shear Large shear box or tri-

box (if of low perme- axial, depending on @-
ability) ing and permeability

Silt .. .. .. Triaxial vane in situ Trirudal

Triaxial or shear box

Triaxial or shear box

In an undrained test on a cohesive soil the specimen is simply placed between two solid
end pieces (of duralumin or “ Perspex “) and enclosed in a thin rubber membrane which is
sealed against the end pieces by rubber rings. The rubber membranes in general use in
Britain are about 0.2 millimetre in thickness, and it has been found that these given an apparent
increase in compression strength of about 0.8 lb. per square inch. At Imperial College, when
very soft clays are being tested, a membrane only about 0.1 millimetre in thickness is used ;
this being made in the laboratory from self-vulcanising latex. The correction is then about
O-3 lb. per square inch.
In the consolidated-undrained test, for any type of soil, the sample is placed on a porous
disc, which is connected through the base of the cell to a burette. This permits consolidation
to take place under the applied pressure. When consolidation is complete 7 the valve to the
burette is closed, and the sample is sheared under undrained conditions with any desired cell

+ The mercury control maintains a constant pressure without any difficulty’ for tests lasting a week or
more.
t I.e. when pore water ceases to be expelled from the sample into the burette.
 MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

sample are indicated by changes in

mercury level in the burette. This
procedure is, of course, applicable
only to drained tests.

SPECIAL CASES OF THE TRIAXIAL

TEST

Uncon.ined com2W.kn test.-

This is the limiting case of the un-
drained triaxial test, in which the
-Air -
lateral pressure is zero. The rubber
membrane and cell may be dispensed Ewttcr

with, and in this form it provides a

test which can be simply and rapidly
carried out either in the laboratory
or in the field (Cooling and Golder,
1940).
In the case of intact saturated
clays it provides all the information
required for a “ + 6 0 analysis,” but
the results may be misleading in the
case of fissured clays. In these the
unconfined compression strength
may be 30 per cent. below the value
as measured in an undrained triaxial
test under the overburden pressure.
The unconfined test is also misleading
in dilating or partly saturated soils,
in which the angle of shearing
resistance is not equal to zero.
(Bishop and Eldin, 1950).

Samples consolidated in the oedo-

meter.-In certain cases it is con- Layout of biaxial appmatum for lne~ volulne
changem in dry 8aad Mmplea
venient to consolidate the sample (or
allow it to swell) in the oedometer
before cutting from it a specimen for an undrained triaxial test (Bishop, 194%). This
approximates to a special case of the anisotropically-consolidated-undrained test and is useful
in certain practical foundation and runway problems where the corresponding test carried
out wholly in the triaxial apparatus is technically rather complicated.

SFEAR BOX

The shear-box test is normally carried out on samples 6 centimetres square x 2 centimetres
in thickness or 12 inches square x 6 inches in thickness. The 6-centimetre shear
box is illustrated in Fig. 3, and details of the large shear box have been given by Bishop
(194&z).
The use of the shear box is normally limited to drained tests, as, owing to the short drainage
paths, undrained and consolidated-undrained tests can only be carried out on clays of low
permeability at high testing rates. In any case the high stress gradients within the sample
make the test unsuitable for a study of rheological properties, as internal redistribution of the
pore water will take place even if drainage is prevented.
98 A. W. SKEMPTON AND A. W. BISHOP

For drained tests on clays, using the Gcentimetre box, the time of shearing should not
be less than about +l day. With. the limited data at present available it appears that
the results are in close agreement with those obtained from drained tests in the triaxial
apparatus.
The large shear box enables gravels with a particle size of up to 1 inch diameter to be
tested (or up to 14 inch diameter if well graded).
 MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 99
VANE TEST

The vane test as used in the laboratory l at Imperial College is illustrated in Fig. 4.
The torsion set up in the thin steel rod on which the vane is mounted, due to the relative
rotation of the sample and the vane, is measured optically. This gives a very sensitive
measurement of the shear strength mobilised on the cylindrical surface bounding the vane,
and is entirely free from frictional errors in the apparatus. Strengths as low as O-03 lb. per
square inch may be measured with reasonable accuracy.
Tests on seven different saturated non-fissured clays have shown good correlation between
unconfined compression strength and the strength as measured with the vane ; using the
expression
torque =,.*($h+;)

where d and h denote the diameter and height of the vane, and c denotes the shear strength of
the clay.
The test is primarily used as an undrained test on very soft undisturbed and remoulded
clays from which compression specimens are not readily prepared. It is of interest to note that
the value of c at the liquid limit is of the order of O-1to 02 lb. per square inch for most clays.

PENETRATION TESTS

The type of penetration test which has figured most widely in laboratory procedure is
the cone test, for use on cohesive soils where 4” = 0, as a measure of consistency or shear
strength.
As it appeared to have particular advantages in the case of very soft samples, a careful
study of its value as a measure of shear strength has been made at Imperial College. The
apparatus used for carrying out the test at controlled * is
__ _ rates or* .penetratron ’ mustratea
*.* . *m
.
Fig. 5.
The force required to cause penetration can be expressed as P = k . c . s tan2 B/2 . ps
where c denotes shear strength (= 4 unconfined compression strength)
B 1, cone angle (90 degrees in our tests)
penetration
kpis the cone factor
It was found, however, that the value of the conversion factor k varied with water content
for any given clay and varied kdely from one clay to another, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2

--------I
6.9-7-2
remoulded) .. .. .. ,, ,, 46-6-o
__,
‘alley
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
*.
..
..
..
..
..
.. I Iz
29
::
16
7-0-7.5
5-o-5*1
2.8-3.4

The cone test can thus be considered only as a very rough guide to the undrained shear
strength of a clay. Even as a measure of the sensitivity of any particular clay it may be
misleading, as the cone factor (which depends on the ratio of yonng’s Modulus to the shear
strength of the sample) will in general be different in the undisturbed and remoulded
states.
l The M description of a laboratory vane test is that by Evans and Sherratt (1948).
G
100 A. W. SKBYPTON AND A. W. BISHOP

Other penetration tests, such as the California Bearing Ratio test and the Proctor Needle
are empirical consistency tests and are not intended as measurements of shear strength.
They will therefore not be considered here.

IN-SITU TESTS
VANE TBST

The vane test was first used as a means of measming the undrained shear strength of
deep clay strata by Carlson (1948) l in Sweden. Another form has been developed in England
by the Authors to overcome the difficulty of penetrating hard layers and sand or gravel
strata overlying the clay ; and to permit undisturbed samples to be taken from the same
bore-hole (Skempton, 194&).
Two factors have been given particular consideration :-
(o) the location of the vane at a depth below the bore-hole casing where the clay is
free from any appreciable disturbance or change in stress ;
(b) the choice of the dimensions of the apparatus so that corrections due to adhesion
of the clay to the vane
spindle and due to friction
in thebearingsshallbeonly
a small proportion of the
total result.
The apparatus finds its main use in
deep beds of soft clay or silt, partic-
ularly when high sensitivity makes
undisturbed sampling diflicult or un-
reliable. In a simple hand-operated
form the vane also provides a con-
venient means of measuring shear
strength in the upper few feet of a soil
(Smith, 1945; Evans, 1950).

DEEP SOUNDING TEST

This test, which .was originally

developed in the Netherlands, is in
effect a field penetration test at a
controlled rate of penetration, in which
the end bearing pressure is measured
separately from the side friction. It
is useful qualitatively in locating the
boundaries of hard and soft strata, and
quantitatively in measuring the bear-
ing capacity of sand and gravel strata
(Vermeiden, 1948).
In problems relating to the design
of piled foundations, for which it has
been most widely used, the measured
ultimate bearing capacity of the cone
is taken to be that of the pile point.
This procedure has been confirmed by
full-scale loading tests (Plantema,

* A more recent form of the Swedish type of vane is d&bed by Cadling and Odenstad_(1950).
 MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 101
1948). Thetest~y,hoaever,be~asadrainedsheartestinthecaseofssmds,
and the angle of internal friction calculated, at least approximately. from bearing capacity
theory.

TYPICAL RESULTS AND THEIR PRACTICAL. SIGNIFICANCE

DBSCRIPTION OF SOILS

Before describii the results of shear tests and discussing their significance it may be
useful to outline the other results which, in the Authors’ opinion, are a minimum requirement
for the description df any soil.
In-situ Cohesionless Soils : Particle-size distribution, in-situ density and water content,
upper and lower porosity limits (Kolbuszewski, 1946). degree of saturation.
Compacted Cohesionless Soils : as above, but with Proctor density * and optimum water
content instead of the in-situ values.
In-situ Cohesive Soils : Natural water content, Atterberg limits, degree of saturation,
particle-size distribution, sensitivity to remoulding, pre-consolidation load.
Compacted Cohesive Soils : Atterberg limits, Proctor density 1 and optimum water content,
particle-size distribution, natural water content, and density of material in the borrow pits.

SENSITIVITY

Miny normally or lightly over-consolidated clays and silk show a marked drop in strength
on remoulding : Terzaghi (1944) defines the “ sensitivity ” as the ratio of the undisturbed
strength c to the remoulded strength c,, and a sensitivity of between 2 and 4 is commonly
encountered. In clays which may be class&d as “ sensitive ” this ratio lies between 4 and 8,
whilst in ” extra-sensitive ” clays the ratio is greater than 8 (Terzaghi and Peck 1948).
In some problems the fact that a clay may be sensitive or extra-sensitive is as important
as its undisturbed strength ; and for this reason a statement of the sensitivity is an essential
part of the description of a cohesive soil.
c - c,
The “ remoulding loss ” may be defined as 7 and, apart from extra-sensitive clays,

it is roughly equal to the liquidity index JLL-- ‘iL. Most clays which are heavily over-
consolidated show almost no remoulding loss ; for example, London Clay, boulder clays, etc.

UNDRAINBD TESTS

These tests
are married out with no water-content change. Consequently they can be
applied to those problems in which the soil is stressed at constant water content, and in which
the soil can be sampled, or formed into samples (in the case of compacted frus) that can be
tested immediately in the tr&ial apparatus, or by the vane.
The soils included within the scope of these tests are clays, silts, and clay-gravels t and
the problems include foundation of structures and dams, provided that consolidation during
construction is negligible, and the design of walls and cuttings where the factor of safety is
required for the condition immediately after construction.
Stability analyses are carried out with respect to total stresses and with the shear para-
meters c, and #,, defined as in Fig. 6. The results fall into two classes : (a) those in which
+,, is not zero and (b) those in which +@is zero.
The result +,, = 0 is obtained in all saturated clays and in some saturated silts. Golder

l The Authors consider the ” modified Proctor ” compaction test ta be applicable only in special work
and they deprecate its use as a standard teat.
t The vane cannot, of course, be used in clay-gravels.
102 A. W. SKEMPTON AND A. W. BISHOP
and Skempton (1948) have published data for twenty saturated clays in which & is either zero
or not greater than 1 degree and in which c,, varies from 14 lb. per square inch to 45 lb. per
square inch under cell pressures covering a range from zero (unconfined compression test l
) to
60 lb. per square inch. Many other similar results have been published. Characteristic
variations in c, with depth in a normally consolidated and in an overconsolidated clay are
shown in Figs 7. In the former case the strengths were used in a 4 = 0 analysis of, a steel

(a,) UNDRAINED TEST ,(TRIAXIAL) - GENERAL CASE (b) UNDRAINED TEST (TRIAXIAL) h-0’

(TVPICAL OF PARTLY SATURATSD OR DILATING SOW) (TYPeAL w &TlRATEo soks)

Typical results of undrained taste

sheet pile cofferdam 35 feet deep, 50 feet wide and 250 feet long, whilst in the latter case they
were used in a I$ = 0 analysis of the foundation stability of an earth dam 60 feet high. In both
examples consolidation during construction could be neglected without any appreciable error.
It is to be noted that it is this fact which provides the justification of the 4 = 0 assumption
(together with the 4” = 0 result in the tests), and that the # = 0 assumption in analysis is
wholly unaffected by the gain in strength with depth.
The angle of shearing resistance +,, is not zero in partially saturated clays, silts, and clay
gravels, and in some saturated (dilating) silts. Also it may be accepted as a definition of a
clay-gravel that, even when saturated, it has a value of 4, greater than zero ; if += does
equal zero the material should be classified as a gravelly clay. Many boulder clays fall into
this latter category, and they are essentially clays : the sand and gravel not being present
in sufficient proportion to impart any marked positive dilatancy. Clay shales and siltstones
(i.e. intensely over-compacted clays and silts) also fall into the class of soils with += not
equal to zero. In most soils in which & is not zero the Mohr envelope is slightly curved,
Fig. 6 (a), but it may be taken as linear over the range of pressure under investigation. Golder
and Skempton quote data on nine partially saturated clays, five saturated silts (LL less than
35) and seven clay shales or siltstones. The values of & typically lie between 15 and 30
degrees. In a saturated clay gravel, containing 65 per cent. by weight of particles retained on
the &inch sieve and 15 per cent. clay fraction, A was found to be 24 degrees.

CONSOLIDATED-UNDRAINED TESTS

In these tests the soil is allowed to soften or consolidate under a specified pressure, and
is then sheared under conditions of no water-content change. All soil types can be tested by
this procedure, but of the “ sands and gravels ” category only very fine silty sands are likely,

* Some of the saturated fissured clays have a slightly lower strength in unconfiued than in undrained
trkxial tests where o1 is equal to or greater than the overburden pressure (see Fig. 6b). The unconiined
test should not be used for fissured clays.
 MEASUREMENT OF SirEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 103
in practice, to involve shear at constant water content. The problems in which the test
results can be directly applied include the design of earth dams for the case of rapid draw-
down and the design of road and runway bases and subgrades.
In the former problem the samples are allowed to come to equilibrium under the effective
stresses existing in the dam before drawdown and-are then sheared under various cell pressures
under conditions of constant water content. In the latter problem the samples are brought
to the water content and density estimated as being those which will exist under the pavement,
and are then tested as mentioned above (or, frequently, in the C.B.R. apparatus). The stability
calculations are carried out with respect to changes in total stresses, using the shear parameters
obtained from the tests.
A similar procedure is adopted for determining the strength to be used in calculating the
initial stability of “ impervious ” rolled frIl in embankments and dams, since during the placing
of the layers appreciable softening can take place due to rain.

_-.
---_
_----
-r-
---

:bH
_=-_
--

lo
_T=.
_ZL
__r
-r-L
_-L-_
--
__-_

(a) RECENT ESTUARINE CLAY (b) HEAVILY OVERCONSOLIDAtED EOCENE CUY

(Mnt.lAuY cm4soLQATzDWLOW HFT)

Variation of &mxgth with depth for two t$picaI clays

 0 TOTAL ST_
p. (Cdl prcrrurr)

EFFECTWE
k PI CfflEOLIDATlON
PRESSURE

10) UND&TURBED SATURATED SAMPLE OF CLAY (b) COMPACTEO CLAY -GRAVEL

ewtcrs. c+ SAT”R*TED COMPIESSIBLE SMLS) [TYPlcAL c+ D,L*TINC m PARTLY s*ruutm saL.5)

Conmolldated-undrained testa

In all saturated clays 4 = 0, and in some cases even a clay which was partially saturated
initially will become fully or almost fully saturated after consolidation or swelling, and will
then show 4 = 0. In clay gravels and dilating silts 4 will not be zero. The results are most
conveniently plotted as shown in Figs 8. The values of c and + to be used in the analysis can
be read off the graph for any given consolidation pressure.
A considerable number of tests have been carried out on clays in which + = 0 after con-
solidation or softening, and a typical set of results has been published by Bishop (19486)
relating to undisturbed London Clay. Similarly, in the design of a runway subgrade, tests have
been made on samples of a silty clay which were compacted to a specified density and water
content and then allowed to soften under various pressures corresponding to different thick-
nesses of construction. When tested under undrained conditions it was found that 4 = 0
and a curve could readily be drawn relating shear strength to pressure.
The Authors have had only one occasion to carry out tests on a material which shows 4
not equal to zero after consolidation. This was a clay gravel (55 per cent. retained on the
i-inch sieve and 20 per cent. combined silt and clay fraction).
The design of cuttings and retaining walls in stiff fissured clays is still a matter of
 MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 105
uncertainty, but a provisional method has been suggested (Skempton, 194ti) based on a know-
ledge of the original unsoftened strength cr and the final fully softened strength co. The strength
cl is obtained from undrained tests on undisturbed samples, while co is the strength as measured
in undrained tests on samples which have been allowed to soften under zero pressure. These
samples are wrapped in filter paper, with solid end pieces, and immersed in water for several
days. This technique is mentioned since it seems to provide a possible method of tackling
the problem, but it is not considered to be any more than a tentative solution. In foundation
problems there is, of course, no need to allow the clay to soften before testing, since the
fissures cannot open in such cases.
In research, especially on saturated clays, the relation between undrained shear strength
and consolidation pressure is a useful parameter, and especially in the range of pressure

where the clay is normally consolidated. Here the ratio is written i n,asinFig.S(a).
0
Terzaghi and Peck (1948) * use the symbol & E n. It should be em-
where tan & =
0P
phasized that the ratio of c top measured by tests on undisturbed samples may be appreciably
greater than that obtained from field evidence in sensitive clays consolidated under their OWII
overburden pressure (Terzaghi, 1947). This is probably due to the lateral pressures in the
ground, in normally consolidated clays, being less than the vertical pressure : whereas in the
laboratory tests the sample is consolidated under an isotropic pressure (Hansen and Gibson,
1949).

DRAINED TESTS

These tests are carried out with full water content change (i.e. no excess pore pressures)
both in consolidation and in shear. Consequently the results can be applied directly to
those problems in which the soil is stressed at zero excess pore pressure.
All soil types can be tested under fully drained conditions, and the problems include all
stability analyses in sands and gravels, except the case of rapid drawdown or flow slides in
loose silty sands. In clays the drained test can be used directly in analysing the long-term
stability of cuttings, retaining walls and the downstream slope of earth dams. And the test
can be used in problems concerning partial dissipation of pore pressures.
Stability analyses are carried out with respect to effective stresses and with the shear
parameters cd and +d defined as in Figs 9. The results fall into two classes : (a) those in
which cd is zero and (b) those in which cd is not zero.
The result cd = 0 is obtained in all sands and gravels. Many test results have been pub-
lished giving values of +d for these soils, and these can be summarized approximately as in
Table 3.
Table 3

APPLY XiXIldO limit6 of +d in cohesionloom EOih

CPremurerange Ojtamper mquarefoot) ,

dd @x=4
SOi1

Loose 1 Dense

Uniform sands . . ..
Well-graded sands ..
Sandy gravels . . ..

l Casagmnde (1941) uses the symbol & in the sense :

106 A. W. SKEMPTON AND A. W. BISHOP

Since effective stresses must be used in stability calculations it is often necessary to construct
a flow net as the first step in an analysis in these soils.
The apparent cohesion cd is, in general, not zero in clay-gravels, silts, and clays, unless they
are normally consolidated. Not many results of drained tests on undisturbed samples of
cohesive soils have been published. TheVicksburg Triaxial Shear Report (U.S. War Depart-
ment, 1947) is the chief source of information.*

Figs S

(a) DRAINED TEST-GENERAL CASE

(b) DRAINED TEST - TRIAXIAL TEST RESULTS

(c) DRAINED TEST-SHEAR BOX RESULTS

PARTIALLY DRAINED CONDITION

In a clay stratum beneath an earth dam there may be appreciable, but not full,
consolidation during construction. No specific test corresponds to this condition, but in such
cases a conservative procedure is to take the values of shear strength as found from un-
drained tests on specimens consolidated to the vertical effective pressure in the clay as

* These tests were carried out at Harvard.

 MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 107
calculated from Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation. This method has been described in some
detail (Bishop, 194%).
In the Authors’ opinion an analysis more representative of the actual stress change in the
clay layer could be evolved using the drained as well as the consolidated-undrained test.
From these two tests it is possible to estimate the effect of dissipation of pore pressures set up
by shear stresses in addition to those due to the vertical pressures (weight of bank).

REFERENCES
BISHOP, A. W. (1948a). A large shear box for testing sands and gravels. Proc. Second Int. Conf. Soil Mech.
1 : 207-211.
BISHOP, A. W. (1948b). Some factors involved in the design of a large earth dam in the Thames Valley.
Proc. Second Int. Conf. Soil Mech. 2 : 13-18.
BISHOP, A. W., and ELDIN, G. (1950). Undrained triaxial tests on saturated sands and their significance
in the general theory of shear strength. Gbtechniq-ue. 2 : 13-32.
CADLING, L., and ODENSTAD. S. (1950). The vane borer. Proc. Roy. Swedish Geotechnical Inst. No. 2.
CASAGRANDE,A. (1941). Haward Triaxial Re@rt No. 3.
CASAGRANDE,_4., and SHANNON, W. L. (1948). Research on stress-deformation and strength character-
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CASAGRANDE,A., and WILSON, S. D. (1949). Final Report to U.S. Waterways Experiment Station on
investigation of effect of long-time loading on the strength of clays and shales at constant water con-
tent. Harvard University. 77 pp.
CARLSON, L. (1948). Determination in situ of the shear strength of undisturbed clay by means of a
rotating auger. Proc. Second Int. Conf. Soil Mech. 1 : 265-270.
COOLING, L. F., and GOLDER, H. Q. (1940). Portable apparatus for compression tests on clay soils.
Engineering. 149 : 57-58.
CRONEY, D., Lswm. W. A., and COLEMAN,J. D. (1950). Calculation of the moisture distribution beneath
structures. Civil Eng. (L.). 45 : 103-106.
EVANS, I. (1950). The measurement of the surface bearing-capacity of soils in the study of earth-crossing
machinery. Geotechnique. 2 : 46-57.
EVANS, I., and SHERRATT, G. G. (1948). A simple and convenient instrument for measuring the shearing
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GOLDER, H. Q., and SKEMPTON,A. W. (1948). The angle of shearing resistance in cohesive soils for tests
at constant water content. Proc. Second Int. Conf. Soil Mech. 1 : 185-192.
HANSEN. 1. B.. and GIBSON. R. E. (1949). Undrained shear strengths of anistropically _ - consolidated clays.
Geofeihnique. 1 : 189-204. ’ ’
HVORSLEV, M. H. (1937). Uber die Festigkeitseigenschaften gestoerter bindiger Boeden. (On the physical
properties of disturbed cohesive soils.) Ingeniowidenskabelige Skrifter A No. 45. 159 pp.
KOLBUSZEWSKI,J. J. (1948). An experimental study of the maximum and minimum porosities of sands.
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PEYNIRCIOGLU. H. (1939). Uber die Scherfestigkeit bindiger Boeden. (Shearing resistance of cohesive
soil.) Veroeflenilichungen des Instituts der Deutschen Forschungsgesellsckaft fuer Bodenmeckanik an der
Technischen Hockschule. Berlin. No. 7 : 28-52.
PLANTEMA, G. (1948). Results of a special loading-test on a reinforced concrete pile, a so-called pile
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 108 DISCUSSION ON MEASUREMENT OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

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DISCUSSION
The Chairman, in openingthe discussion, said that he felt that the Paper was repre-
sentative of views widely held in Great Britain at the present time. He emphasised the point
made by Dr Skempton that the usual procedure for the analysis of stability problems was to
use values of c and 4 in Coulomb’s equation which had been determined from samples
subjected to laboratory test-conditions compatible with the conditions under which the soil
would be stressed in the field. He felt that the fundamental work being carried out by
Dr Skempton on the shear strength of soils was of considerable importance. On the question
of silts, experience in Great Britain was not extensive and the present position was uncertain,
especially in relation to their behaviour under field conditions. Whilst it was possible to
obtain a value of 4 equal to zero with respect to total stresses in undrained triaxial tests, it
was doubtful whether silts ever behaved as (4 = 0) materials in the field. It was known.
that their true cohesion was very small and that their strength must therefore be derived
from the frictional quality. When it was possible in the practical case to measure pore-water
pressures, he thought that an analysis using c, and +#, based on effective pressures, would be
preferable. He congratulated the Authors on the ingenuity displayed in their development
of laboratory testing equipment.

Mr H. B. Sutherland said that he had received his introduction to soil mechanics from Mr
Cooling at the Building Research Station, having spent some time working at the laboratory
there. Subsequently he had been two years at Harvard University working under Professor
Arthur Casagrande. He had therefore had the interesting experience of acquiring his initial
knowledge of the shear strength of soils in Britain and had then come into contact with some
rather different ideas held in the United States during his stay there. The tests used in Great
Britain for the determination of shear strength values were modifications of the tests developed
and used in the United States, but whilst those tests were the same in principle there were some
differences in interpretation. From the point of view of practical application the shear
strength of the soil under any one particular condition was the most important factor. To
what extent c and 4 contributed to the shear strength was relatively unimportant : c and #
could vary with different drainage conditions for the same soil, and once that was fully
recognized many details of the interpretation of shear tests faded into insign%cance.
The work of Hvorslev had been preceded by the researches of A. Casagrande and Albert
(1930) into some of the most important aspects of the characteristics of the shear strength
of soils, particularly the effect of the time-rate of shear-load application upon the results of
shear tests.
He was of the opinion that the terms “ quick ” and “ slow ” tests should be retained as
the standard nomenclature in shear-strength testing. They had originally been suggested by
Casagrande, were widely used in America, and had been adopted by Rutledge in the Triaxial
Shear Research Review published in 1947. He thought that it would be a mistake to use the
terms “ undrained ” and I‘drained ” in the new British Code of Practice, as that would tend
to destroy uniformity in nomenclature.