Chapter 2 is missing if someone has pls post

Prologue + Chapter 1
I. Origin of Psychology
A. Father of Psychology = Wilhelm Wundt
B. Major Schools of Psychology
1. We made an acronym to remember: Stephen Fry Bought Chicken Ham Sandwich
a) Structuralism: ​ Edward Titchener
(1) Using ​ introspection​
to reveal immediate sensations, images, and feelings
b) Functionalism: ​ William James
(1) Explaining how mental and behavioral processes function and their
contribution to human development and survival
c) Behaviorism: ​ John B. Watson & B. F. Skinner
(1) Studied psychology in a more objective manner without integrating any
mental processes into the study
d) Cognitivism
(1) The study of the link between brain activity and cognition.
e) Humanism: ​ Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow
(1) Emphasized on the significance of one’s surrounding environment and the
fulfilment of one’s need for love and social acceptance.
f) Socio-Culturalism
(1) Stated the humans develop through important contributions from society,
which usually result from interactions between people.
C. Definition of Psychology
II. Modern Psychology
A. Nature-Nurture Issue
1. Do our human traits develop through experience or are we born with them?
B. Application of Natural Selection
1. Animals’ current behaviors resulted from a process of evolution and how one behavior was
more beneficial than another in terms of increasing one’s chance of survival and reproductive
success.
C. Psychology’s current perspectives all follow Psychology’s 3 Levels of Analysis
1. Biological Influences
a) natural selection of adaptive traits
b) genetic predisposition responsive to environment
c) brain mechanisms
d) hormonal influences
2. Psychological Influences
a) learned fears and expectations
b) emotional responses
c) cognitive processing and perceptual interpretation
3. Socio-cultural Influences
a) presence of others
b) cultural/societal/family/peer expectations
c) compelling models (social media)
Chapter 1
How can we best use psychology to understand why people think, feel, and act as they do?
- Thinking, memory, attitude operates on two levels: conscious and unconscious.
- trust our instincts/ or be more skeptical?
I. Why we can’t trust our intuition and common sense
A. Hindsight bias: I-Knew-It-All-Along phenomenon
B. Overconfidence
C. → leads us to overestimate our intuition. Thus scientific inquiry helps us sift reality from illusion

III. Brainstorming
A. Types of Research
1. Case Study
a) An observational research that is concentrated on studying a specific person. A case
study and its conclusions are hoped to be a universal principle that applies to other
people.
2. Experiment
a) A study where a variable is manipulated to study its effect on another variable.
3. Survey
a) A research method that is utilized for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of
a particular group through questioning.
b) In our study: We will be conducting a survey in the class by asking two simple
questions and asking students for their answers. The answers we expect will be
self-reported, meaning that the participants (or the classmates) have to seriously
think on their past behaviors in order to come up with their responses.
c) Random Sampling​ is the process of obtaining a random group of people within a
specific population. The group is called that the sample and the researcher will
retrieve responses from the group. A sample that is established through a process of
random sampling has to fairly represent the population. Therefore, there should be no
bias or discrimination in choosing.
(1) In our study: We will choose 5 random people using a random number
generator. We will provide each person with a number. People with the
generated number will be asked to take part in our survey. The sample
gathered will generally represent the entire population, which is the A1
Psychology period, because we did not include any factors that can
differentiate one student from another.
d) Population vs. Sample
(1) Population = A group of people that the survey conclusion will be applied to.
(2) Sample = A specific group of people from the population that the study will
focus on. The researchers will obtain data from the sample.
IV. Brainstorming
A. Theory
1. An explanation of observations, behaviors, or events using integrated set of principles.
B. Hypotheses
1. A testable prediction that is often implied by a theory.
2. In our study: Our hypothesis is: if people earn more allowances, then they will spend more
money at school.
C. Operational Definition
1. A statement of procedures that are used to define variables.
 2. In our study: Allowance is the amount of money received from either parents that a student
has complete control over. And the amount spent in school is the amount of money that a
student used in school grounds.
D. Independent Variable
1. A factor that is manipulated in order to test out its effects
E. Dependent Variable
1. The outcome factor that is being observed as a result of the manipulated variable.
V. Wording Effect
A. An effect resulted from a slight change in order or wording of questions. This can drastically affect the
data in a survey as the researcher can manipulate the sample’s answers by hinting certain ideas.
1. “How often do you forbid your child to watch TV” is different than “How often do you not
allow your child to watch TV”
a) Forbid is a more strong diction than not allow, causing the sample (parents) to be
more dishonest in their answer to avoid being labeled as a horrible sample (parent).
2. In our study: We have made sure that the questions are formed in a way that would not
affect the sample. We used more common diction and diction with neutral or unbiased
connotations.
VI. Results: ​
Explain EVERYTHING in relations to our study
A. Mean
1. Average
a) (sum of all values)/(number of values)
B. Median
1. The “middle” number.
2. If there is an even amount of numbers, take the average of the two middle numbers
C. Mode
1. The most occurring number
D. Range
1. Gap between the lowest and highest scores
E. Standard Deviation
1. Assembles information about how much individual scores deviate from the mean
F. Normal Curve
1. Bell shaped distribution. Most data fall near the mean and less fall towards the extreme
G. Correlation
1. Measure of how the two variables vary together
2. Measure of how well one predicts the other
VII. Correlation
A. Correlation Coefficient
1. Represented with “r”
2. -1 >= r >= 1
3. closer to -1 or 1 → strong
4. closer to 0 → weak
5. 0 → no correlation
B. Correlation vs Causation
1. Correlation indicates possibility of cause and effect relationship
2. Does not proves causation
C. Illusory Correlation
1. Perceived but nonexistent correlation
 2. When we notice random coincidences, we often forget that it’s random and see them as
correlated
VIII. Reliability
A. Not from memorable cases, but representative sample
B. Sample has to be the similar
C. Greater number of stuff

WILHELM WUNDT (1832 - 1920)

aka ​
THE FATHER OF PSYCHOLOGY
- Academic background in physiology
- Institute for Experimental Psychology (Univ. of Leipzig in Germany)
- First laboratory dedicated to the study of psychology
- This is where he studied the reaction times and sensory processes/attention
- Wundt calculated time gap between the two
- INTROSPECTION
- A subjective observation of one’s own experience
- Trained students to make observations that were biased by personal interpretation of
experience
- VOLUNTARISM
- Focused on the processing of organizing the mind
- EDWARD TITCHENER​
: Famous student
- Founded ​
STRUCTURALISM
- Well known for integrating a scientific experimental approach

Chapter 3
Consciousness- the fundamental question in psychology is “what is consciousness.” Psychologists defined
consciousness as ... but it is something we still do not understand.

We have different states of consciousness, altered states.

Scientists have narrowed down and stated that our consciousness is like an automatic program of a
computer. It gives us survival and reproductive advantages.

And cognitive neuroscience has revealed that observing our brain activity will reveal which part of the brain
is associated with consciousness. For instance, we found out that the upper brain stem is related to our
consciousness

We also have growing evidence that the brain works in two – folds.
Dual processing. What we readily perceive and what we automatically (naturally perceive) is distinguished.
We already knew from animal research that the eye sends information to different areas of the brain. Sure
Enough, this applies to us as well. There is a visual perception track and a visual action track that works
together to create a cohesive, conscious motion. The hollow face illusion, our mind is perceives that the
face is protruding, but when the person actually tries to touch the face, the hand realizes that the face is
actually hollow.

We believe that our intentions and deliberate choices dominate our lives, but this only true because we
have a low-track mind that supports our high-track counterpart.

We are able to operate effectively because of the multiple tracks that run simultaneously in our minds. But
it is not effective in problem solving compared to conscious processing.

But consciousness can only be in one place at a time. We direct our focus of consciousness when we
concentrate on something. This is known as selective attention / cocktail party affect. In the vast spectrum
of sensual stimuli that occurs at once around us, we can only focus on a tiny aspect at once.

Blindness to things other than where our consciousness is focused on is known as intentional blindness.
Although our brain is unconsciously receiving information of our surroundings, we are very much oblivious to
other things that occur around us.

The next concept is about sleep. Surprisingly we are more conscious than we think we are when we are
asleep. Recording devices have told us that we are not at all unconscious when we are asleep.

There are two cycles that we must remember for this unit the circadian rhythm and our 90-minute sleep
cycle. Our 24-hour cycle is determined by light. Depending on whether it is the day or night, our body
triggers hormones called melatonin, which causes people to drowse. The modern man adopts a 25-hour
cycle instead of a 24-hour cycle.

During our sleep, we pass through five different sleep stages every 90 minutes. The most interesting sleep is
the fifth stage known as the REM Sleep. Using the EEG machine, we discovered that sleep occurs initially
with alpha waves (relaxed) stage. Then during our deep sleep, slow delta waves stage. During REM Sleep,
our eyes move rapidly. Vivid dreams commonly occur during this stage. All of our muscles are relaxed but
the body systems are active. During REM Sleep, you are so relaxed that your body is nearly paralyzed.
REM Sleep and Stage four sleep are negatively correlated.

Then why do we sleep? Sleep is determined by culture, age, genetics (twin research). Sleep affects our
performance. Sleep debt causes depression and gloominess. We began to question why don’t we just stay
awake. What happens if we don’t sleep. The effects of sleep loss shows that sleep is not only a necessity in
life, but also for life. Sleep loss makes you inefficient, fatter, and lose a sense of satisfaction and well
being. Our immune system weakens. Chronic sleep debt also alters metabolic and hormonal functioning in
ways that mimic aging and are conducive to hypertension and memory impairment.

Five reasons we sleep:

1. Sleep protects.
2. Recuperates
3. Makes memories
4. Feeds creative thinking
5. Helps the growth process

There are evolutionary, biological, behavioral, etc... approaches to why we sleep.

Insomnia and Narcolepsy, including Sleep Apnea, and Night terror. are sleep disorders, etc...
Another concept that is closely associated with Sleeping is dreams. The manifest content, or the story line,
of the dream, are concocted by our previous experiences and / or sensory stimuli.

Dreams theorists have theorized, using multiple perspectives, few reasons people dream: To satisfy our own
wishes, to file away memories, to develop and preserve neural pathways, to make sense of neural static, to
reflect cognitive development.

Another thing we need to talk about when discussing consciousness are drugs. As seniors, we are now leaving
to the US, where drugs are extremely more prevalent than they are in Korea. I think it is important to be
well aware of what drugs are from an objective view. Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that change
perceptions and moods through their actions at the neural synapses. The more we use drugs; the brain grows
tolerance to the drug. As a result, we require larger and larger doses of drugs. There are also psychological
and physical dependence withdrawal symptoms. The drug user may feel extreme pain when discontinuing
the use of an addictive drug.

There are three major categories of psychoactive drugs : depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens. They
stimulate, inhibit, or mimic the activity of the brain’s own chemical messengers, the neurotransmitters.

Depressants are drugs such as alcohol, tranquilizers, and opiates that calm neural activity and slow body
functions. Alcohol is one of the most well known depressant. It slows the brain activity that controls
judgment and inhibition. Once our brain adapts to the excess level of neurotransmitters, such as endorphins,
our brain eventually stops creating its own endorphin. Painful withdrawal affect follows, and may even lead
to death.

Stimulants are drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Caffeine, nicotine, ecstasy,
cocaine, amphetamines, and methamphetamines are all stimulants. Stimulants increase heart and breathing
rates and cause pupils to dilate, appetite diminishes because blood sugar increases, and energy and self
confidence rises. Yet, there is a strong crash with stimulants.

And finally hallucinogens, which are drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence
of sensory stimuli. There are synthetic hallucinogens like LSD and MDMA (Ecstasy). Drugs such as marijuana
are natural substances. Hallucinogens mimic the affect of serotonin, causing the user to feel euphoric and
perceive an altered reality.

::near-death experience an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as
through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug induced hallucinations.

There are biological, psychological, and socio-cultural influences of drug use. Some people are genetically
predisposed to drugs. Alcoholism is usually passed down. Variations in the neurotransmitter systems also
affect us to become drug users. The lacking sense of purpose, significant stress, and psychological disorders,
such as depression, may also increase the possibility of drug use. In addition, if the environment and cultural
attitude toward drug use is more liberal or more easily accessible, drug use increases. Peer influence also
plays a major role in drug use.
Chapter 4 – Nature, Nurture and Human Diversity
Behavior Genetics 
→ Study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior 
Genes – codes of life 
Total of 46 chromosomes, which are coils of DNA 
genomes ​  instructions consisting of genes 
Twins ​­ 
● Identical 
○ single egg splits into two 
○ same placenta 
○ genetically identical 
● Fraternal 
○ separate eggs 
○ different placentas 
Separated twin investigation ​ ­ i​
nvestigating similarities and differences between twins separated at young 
→ nature vs nurture 
Nature: “Jim Twins” 
Biological vs. Adoptive Relatives ­​ ​
 biological & adopted siblings and their similarities 
Temperament and Heredity 
temperament: a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity 
temperamental characteristics persist 
ex. quiet babies more likely to grow up as introverted individuals 
Heritability 
→ extent to which differences between people are attributable to genes 
ex. height, intelligence follows parental characteristics 
Group differences ­​  human population as a whole 
­  physical differences between people 100 years ago and now 
Gene ​ Environment Interaction 
interaction between people evoke gene activity 
→ nature vs nurture work in hand and hand 
ex. one child less predisposed to kindness meets a kind individual and becomes kind 
Molecular Genetics 
finding specific genes that affect certain behavior 
ex. “obesity gene” 
Future possibilities ­​ ​
genetically modifying genes in unborn children to predispose them to certain behavior 
 
Evolutionary Psychology 
→ focus on what makes humans so alike using Darwin’s ideas 
Natural Selection and Adaption 
natural selection: the principle that, of the variations existing in a population, those that are most successful for 
reproduction will most likely be passed on 
OVER TIME population “adapts” for a majority to have the particular traits 
mutations allow new traits to appear in the population 
→ allows human population to be similar overall 
Outdated Tendencies 
certain predispositions no longer fitting for the modern world 
ex. tendencies for sweet and fatty food was essential when food was scarce, not anymore 
 
Gender Differences in Sexuality​ An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality 
 
differences exist in overall sexual tendencies and preferences between man and woman 
ex. men more likely to crave sex than women 
Natural Selection and Mating Preferences 
universal similarities existed in mating preferences 
→ natural selection for the best qualities for reproduction 
ex. men tend to prefer younger looking women ​ ​
 young women were more likely to reproduce healthy 
offspring 
Critique on Evolutionary Perspective 
universal trends tend to change human behavior as a group or population 
ex. “ideal” woman in 1950 is very different from today 
 
Parents and Peers 
→ focus on “nurture” aspects 
Parents and Early Experiences 
from inside the womb, environmental factors play in 
rat experiment ​ ​
­­​
 rats in enriched environments and more developed and complex neurons 
early childhood learning 
time in which most development of brain occurs 
● Parental Influence 
goes both ways 
NATURE: separated twin case ​  opposite parent behavior, same twin personality 
NURTURE: violent parents, psychopathic children affects individual characteristics more 
● Peer Influence 
similar to parental 
*human tendency to seek groups 
affects group/cooperative characteristics more 
Cultural Influences 
culture: enduring behaviors and ideas shared by a group of people, transmitted from one generation to the 
next 
combination of factors of parent and peer influence 
Variation Across Cultures 
geographic factors 
creation of “norms” and “personal space” 
decreasing with globalization and time 
Culture and Self 
→ balance between prioritizing of individualism and collectivism 
individualism: personal goals and identity 
collectivism: goals of group and identification as a group 
different across cultures 
ex. Western cultures are more individualistic whereas Eastern cultures are more collectivist 
  
Developmental Similarities Across Groups 
for biological factors related to ethnic characteristics 
ex. White men more likely to get heart disease than black men, despite having lower salt consumption 
 
Gender Development 
gender ­​  biological identification of sexual orientation 
Gender Similarities and Differences 
● Physical 
○ men are taller, stronger, more muscular 
○ women reach puberty earlier 
● Aggression 
○ men more aggressive 
→ attribution to prehistoric warring and hunting behavior 
● Social Power 
○ men more likely to sustain power in society 
● Social Connectedness 
○ women more interdependent (with friends, not alone) and outward caring 
○ men less open to opinion 
○ women more emotionally dependent 
 
The Nature of Gender 
X and Y Chromosomes  
male: XY 
female: XX 
Hormonal differences 
male: testosterone 
female: estrogen 
→ biological factors that lead to behavioral differences still questionable theories 
 
The Nurture of Gender 
Gender of Roles 
societal expectations of individuals of certain gender 
identification as “hunter” or “child​
carer” leads to evolutionary roots 
Gender and Child Rearing 
gender ​ identity: sense of being male or female 
gender ​ typed: exhibition of traditional male or female characteristics 
→ Social learning theory 
states children learn gender​ typical traits through environment 
punished for showing non​  typical traits, praised for showing typical traits 

Chapter 5: Developing through the Lifespan

Developmental psychology: ​ examines how people are physically, cognitively, and socially developing from 
infancy to old age.  
● The ​ zygote​ embryo​
 is a fertilized egg, and it creates the ​  by attaching to the mother’s uterine wall. By 9 
weeks, the embryo is now a ​ fetus​, which is responsive to sound, mostly their mother’s muffled voice.  
○ Zygote (conception ­ 2 weeks) → embryo (2 weeks ­ 8 weeks) → fetus (9 weeks to birth)  
● Placenta​ : formed as the zygote’s outer cells attach to the uterine wall, transfers nutrients and oxygen 
from the mother to the fetus, and screens out harmful substances  
○ Teratogens​  (harmful agents like viruses and drugs) escape the placenta) Ex. a pregnant 
women who smokes also affects her baby 
■ alcohol when pregnant causes the ​ Fetal alcohol syndrome, m ​arked by a small, 
misproportioned head and brain abnormalities  
 
What are some newborn abilities and how do researchers explore infants’ mental abilities?  
● Researchers used a form of learning called ​ habituation​, decreasing responsiveness with repeated 
stimulation.  
○ Infants got less interested the more familiar they got with the visual stimulus 
● Novelty­preference procedure:​  used to ask 4 month olds how they recognize cats and dogs   
○ the animal they found most new after seeing just cats was a dog with a cat body → conclusion: 
newborns focus on the face 
● Our brain’s neural networks recognize the mother’s ​ smell​ first 
 
During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop? 
● Brain 
○ During ages 3 to 6, the most rapid growth was in the frontal lobes, which enable rational 
planning. The thinking, memory, and language are the last areas to develop.  
● Motor Development 
○ the developing brain enables physical coordination  
 ○ genes play a major role in motor development 
■ identical twins develop motor skills on the same day  
■ experience has little effect 
● Maturation and Infant Memory  
○ infantile amnesia: our earliest memories do not predate age of 3 
○ remembering classmates 
■ 10 year olds only recognized 1 in 5, but their physiological responses (measured as skin 
perspiration) were greater to their former classmates 
 
From the perspective of Piaget and of today’s researchers, how does a child’s mind develop? 
Cognition​: refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and 
communicating. 
● Piaget​  ​
became interested in the development of children when he made an intelligence test and found 
out that most same­aged children got the same answers wrong 
● Piaget's core idea is that the driving force behind our intellectual progression is a struggle to make 
sense of our experiences 
○ the mind develops ​ schemas, ​ concepts into which we pour our experiences (by adulthood we 
have developed countless of them like our concept of love)  
○ How do we adjust our schemas? 
■ Assimilation:​  we interpret new experiences in terms of our schemas (ex. a kid who 
knows about cows may think that all four legged animals are cows) 
■ Accommodation: ​ we adjust our schemas to incorporate information provided by new 
experiences (kid refines his initial broad description of a cow)  
 
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development SPCOFO (some pretty cool objects from Oregon) 
Age  Description   Developmental Phenomena 
Range 

Birth ­ 2   Sensorimotor  ­ Object permanence: ​ the awareness that 

Experiences world through  things continue to exist even when not 
senses and actions   seen 
­ Stranger Anxiety: a ​bility to evaluate 
people as unfamiliar and possibly 
threatening 

2 ­ 7   Preoperational  ­ Pretend play 

Represents things with  ­ Egocentrism: h ​ave difficulty in 
words and images; uses  perceiving things from another’s point of 
intuitive rather than logical  view 
reasoning  ­ Theory of Mind:​  people’s ideas about 
their own and other’s mental states ­­ 
about their feelings, perceptions and 
thoughts, and the behaviors these might 
predict 

7 ­ 11   Concrete Operational  ­ Conservation: ​principle that quantity 

Thinking logically about  remains the same despite changes in 
concrete events; grasping  shape 
analogies and doing math  ­ Mathematical transformations 
 11+  Formal operational  ­ Abstract logic 
abstract reasoning  ­ Potential for mature moral reasoning 
How do parent­infant attachment bonds form? 
● Attachment​  bond: showing attachment to those who are similar and familiar (those who satisfies their 
needs for nourishment) ← later proved wrong 
● Harlow Monkey experiment  
○ monkeys were separated from mothers shortly after birth with a blanket (when blanket was 
taken, they became distressed ← (contradicted that attachment derives from nourishment)  
○ they created two fake mothers (bare wire cylinder with attached feeding bottle and cylinder 
wrapped with cloth) 
■ when they were raised with both mothers, they preferred the comfy cloth mother, and 
clung to them when they were anxious 
● contact and familiarity are key to attachment  
○ attachments based on familiarity form during ​ critical period ​(an optimal period when certain 
events must take place to facilitate proper development) 
■  this attachment process is called ​ imprinting ​ (the process by which certain animals form 
attachments during a critical period early in life)  
● Experiment: Lonrenz placed himself as the first thing baby ducks saw. As a 
result, all they did was follow him around.  
■ children do not imprint, but they do become familiar to what is known such as reread the 
same books, and rewatch the same shows 
 
How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned? 
● Most infants display ​ secure attachment,​  ​
​they are happy in their mother’s presence, and are later able 
to endure short periods of separation. In ​ insecure attachment, i​ nfants are less likely to explore 
surroundings, and may even just cling to their mothers. 
○ sensitive and responsive parents have infants with secure attachment 
● Van Den Boom experiment: wanted to see if the initial tempers of children affected whether they 
would be securely or insecurely attached 
○ 100 initially difficult children to an experimental condition (mothers who received personal 
training in sensitive responding) or to a control situation         (mothers did not respond) 
○ After 3­6 months, 70% of experimental­condition infants were securely attached, but only 28% 
of the control­condition infants  
● Erikson 
○ thought that securely attached kids approach life with sense of ​ basic trust (​trust that the world 
is reliable and predictable) ← he attributed this trust to parenting 
○ hypothesized that infants with caring parents have lifelong attitude of trust 
 
Do parental neglect, family disruption, or day care affect children’s attachments? 
● Harlow monkeys were more distressed or aggressive without their parents 
● humans that were abused are more likely to abuse later in the future (children get depression, 
psychological problems, and stress through abuse) 
● however, when infants are moved from their bad environments into good ones, no visible effects of that 
abuse remain  
○ if they were adopted after age two, however, there were attachment problems 
● Day Care 
 ○ children that were in daycare for longer had slightly advanced thinking and language skills, but 
also had increased rate of aggressiveness 
○ but child’s temperament, parental sensitivity and family's economic and educational level 
mattered more than time spent in day care 
 
How do children’s self­concepts develop, and how are children’s traits related to parenting styles? 
● childhood’s major social achievement is a positive sense of self. Most children develop a ​ self­concept​
, 
an understanding and assessment of who they are 
○ paint on nose experiment: put paint on children’s noses, and at 15­18 months, they notice the 
paint in the mirror 
● children compare themselves with other children 
○ experiment (will our self esteem be lower if adopted?): found no difference 
● Parenting Styles 
○ Authoritarian​ : impose rules and expect obedience  
■ children have less social skill and self esteem 
○ Permissive: ​ submit to their children's desires. Make few demands and have little punishment.  
■ children are more immature and aggressive 
○ Authoritative: ​ both demanding and responsive. Exert control through rules, but also explain the 
reasons behind the rules.  
■ produce the children with the highest self­esteem, self­reliance, social competence 
 
What physical changes mark adolescence? 
● begins with ​puberty​  (the time we mature sexually), which follows with a surge of hormones 
○ during this growth spurt, ​ primary sex characteristics ​ (the reproductive organs) and the 
secondary sex characteristics ​ ​evelop dramatically 
(ex. boobs for girls, deep voices for boys) d
○ Puberty’s landmarks are the menstrual cycle called the ​ menarche​ , and the first ejaculation 
● sequence of physical changes in puberty are far more predictable than timing 
○ such variations may have psychological consequences 
○ boys: early maturation → stronger more athletic → more popular → more confident → earlier 
alcohol use, premature sexual activity  
○ girls: early maturation can be stressful  
● Brain 
○ until puberty, brain cells are increasing their connections. During adolescence, there is a 
selective cleaning of unused neurons and connections.  
○ frontal lobes develop. ​ Myelin​ , the fatty tissue that forms around axons, enables better 
communication with other brain regions → improved judgment, impulse control, and the ability 
to plan for the long term 
■ the maturation of the frontal lobe lags the maturation of the emotional limbic system. this 
explains teenage emotional storms, impulsiveness 
 
How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral 
development? 
● Kohlberg described the development of moral reasoning ­ our sense of right and wrong 
● Kohlberg provided moral dilemmas to subjects and used their moral reasoning to determine each stage 
● Three basic levels of moral thinking 
○ Preconventional morality​ : Before age 9, obey rules to avoid punishment or to avoid 
punishment 
 ○Conventional morality​ : Early adolescence, morality focuses on upholding laws b/c laws must 
be followed 
○ Postconventional morality​ : Not all people reach this stage, actions are “right” b/c of one’s 
self­defined principles 
● All humans have moral feeling ­ “social intuitionist” theory 
○ Idea that moral judgements are based on gut feeling  
 
What are social tasks and challenges of adolescence? 
● Erikson stated each stage of life has its own “crisis” 
● Adolescence: search for an ​ identity​
 ­ our sense of self 
○ Often identified by ​social identity​ ­ our group memberships 
○ After developing identity during this time, young adults develop capacity for ​
intimacy​
 ­ ability to 
form close, loving relationships 
 
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development 
Stage (Approx.  Issue  Description of Task 
Age) 

Infancy (~ 1 y/o)  Trust vs. mistrust  If needs are met, infants develop a 

sense of basic trust. 

Toddlerhood (1 ~  Autonomy vs. shame and  Learn to do things for themselves, or 

3 y/o)  doubt  doubt their abilities. 

Preschool (3 ~ 6  Initiative vs. guilt  Learn to initiate tasks and carry out 

y/o)  plans, or feel guilty. 

Elementary  Industry vs. inferiority  Learn the pleasure of applying 

School (6 y/o ~  themselves to tasks, or feel inferior. 
puberty) 

Adolescence  Identity vs. role confusion  Search for a sense of self by testing 

(teen years to  roles and integrate them to form a 
20s)  single identity, or become confused 
about who they are. 

Young adulthood  Intimacy vs. isolation  Struggle to form close relationships 

(20s to early 40s)  and to gain the capacity for intimate 
love, or feel socially isolated. 

Middle adulthood  Generativity vs. stagnation  Discover a sense of contributing to the 

(40s to 60s)  world, or may feel a lack of 
purpose. 

Late adulthood  Integrity vs. despair  Reflecting on his or her life, an older 

(late 60s ~)  adult 
may feel a sense of satisfaction or 
failure. 
 
What is emerging adulthood? 
● Rite of passage: marking the event of adulthood after sexual maturity  
 ● Modern western society: earlier sexual maturity and later social independence → stage called 
emerging adulthood​  ­ bridging the gap b/w adolescence and full independence 
 
What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood? 
● Physical decline accelerates, but condition has to do w/ personal habits 
● Gradual decline in fertility 
○ Women: ​ menopause​  ­ natural cessation of menstruation 
○ Men: gradual decline in sperm count and testosterone level, but no drastic changes 
● As we age, our chromosome tips wear out  
● Sensory abilities decline rapidly ­ visual, hearing, smell 
● Body’s immune system weakens → more susceptible to cancer but less susceptible to short­term 
illnesses b/c antibodies have accumulated 
● Neural processing becomes slow as well ­ can be slowed by physical exercise 
● Series of small strokes, a brain tumor, alcohol dependence damages brain and causes mental erosion 
called dementia → even Alzheimer’s disease 
 
How do memory and intelligence change with age? 
● early adulthood is a peak time for some types of learning and remembering  
● Recall/Recognize Experiment 
○ adults of all ages were given 24 names and said some to recall them and some to simply 
recognize them in a multiple choice test 
■ as age increase, the ability to recall words decreased, but the ability to recognize words 
was stable within every age 
● Prospective memory: remains strong when events help trigger memories (ex. walking by a store and 
remembering to buy milk) 
● teens and young adults surpass both young children and older adults are remembering  
○ older adults rely more on time management and reminder cues 
○ differences in memory between the most and least able 70 year olds become much greater than 
that between most and least able 50 yr olds 
● remembering also depends on the type of info we are trying to retrieve (meaningful vs. meaningless) 
● Cross­sectional Evidence for Intellectual Decline 
○ Cross Sectional: ​ researchers at one point in time test and compare people of various ages  
○ when giving out intelligence tests, researches find that older adults get fewer correct answers 
than younger  
○ conclusion: the decline of mental ability with age is part of the general aging process of the 
organism as a whole 
● Longitudinal Evidence for Intellectual Stability 
○ Longitudinal:​  retesting the same people over a period of years  
○ until late in life, intelligence remained stable, or even increased 
○ Problem​  with cross sectional: when that study compared 70 and 30 year olds, it compared 
people of different eras. It compared generally less­educated people with better­educated 
people, people growing up more wealthy, people born in large/small families etc.  
● Answers to our age­and­intelligence questions depend on what we assess and how we assess it 
○ crystallized intelligence:​  our accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and analogies 
tests ­­ increases up to old age 
○ fluid intelligence​ : our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, as when solving novel logic 
problems ­­ decreases slowly up to age 75 or so, then more rapidly 
○ terminal decline​ : the cognitive drop we experience near death 
 
What themes and influences mark our social journey from early adulthood to death? (216) 
● The forties is a transition to middle adulthood (they realize that life will soon be mostly behind them)  
● Midlife transition:​  a crisis, a time of great struggle, regret, or even feeling struck down by life  
○ Midlife crisis is not prompted by age, but by a major event 
● Social Clock:​  “the right time” to leave home, get a job, marry, have children, and retire ­­ varies from 
era to era and culture to culture  
● Chance events: ​ deflect us down one read rather than another (ex. romance)  
○ Romantic love is like ​ imprinting​
, with enough exposure to someone after childhood, you can 
form a bond with any person who has a similar background and level of attractiveness 
● Two basic aspects of our lives dominate adulthood: ​ intimacy (​forming relationships) and ​
generativity 
(being productive and supporting future generations)  
● People are more likely to stay together if they marry after 20 and are well­educated  
○ Western people are now better educated and marrying later  
■ But they are twice as likely to divorce 
● Divorce rate reflects women’s lessened economic dependence and men and women’s rising 
expectations 
● Those who had a “trial marriage” (cohabit: live together and have a sexual relationship without 
marriage) before marriage had ​ higher ​
rates of divorce and marital dysfunction 
○ children with cohabiting parents are 5x more likely to experience their parent’s separation 
because 
■ cohabitors are initially less committed to the ideal of enduring marriage 
■ they become even less marriage­supporting when cohabiting  
● But marriage generally makes people happier 
○ Success for marriage: 5 to 1 positive to negative interactions 
● Children  
○ when children begin to absorb time, money, and emotional energy, satisfaction with marriage 
declines 
○ but when they leave they get ​ empty nest syndrome ​ and are generally happier 
● Happiness is slightly higher among both young and older adults than among middle­aged 
○ older adults are less negative (amygdala, neural processing center for emotions, show 
diminishing activity)  

 
 
● Life satisfaction does not decline with age, but as death approaches 
● Feelings mellow as we age (ex. highs become less high, lows become less low) 
○ we are often less depressed because our average feeling is stable 
●  Emotional Terrain Experiment 
○ teenagers come down from elation within 1 hour 
○ adult moods are less extreme but more enduring  
● Death 
○ grief is especially severe when the death of a loved one comes before its expected time on the 
social clock 
○ Integrity: life itself can be affirmed even at death for people who review their lives with not 
despair but ​integrity​, a feeling that one’s life has been meaningful and worthwhile 
 
Is development gradual or a series of discrete stages?  
● researchers see experience and learning as a slow, continuous shaping process  
○ they see generally predisposed stages (although the progress may be quick or slow, everyone 
passes in the same order) 
● Not all of Piaget, Kohlberg and Erikson’s stages are accurate but they do show a developmental 
perspective on the whole lifespan 

 
Is development characterized more by stability over time or by change?  
● The first two years of life provide a poor basis for predicting a person’s personality. Older children and 
adolescents also change. Delinquent children have higher rates of later work problems, substance 
abuse, but troubled children also become mature adults.  
● As people grow older personality stabilizes. Temperament is more stable than social attitudes.  
● We all change with age. Shy toddlers begin opening up by 4. People become more stable and 
agreeable after adolescent years.  
 

Chapter 6: Sensation and Perception

Seeing the World: Some Basic Principles 
1) What are sensation and perception? What do we mean by bottom­up processing and top­down processing? 
∙ Sensation and perception continuously blend 
∙ Sensation: ​the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus 
energies from our environment 
∙ Perception​ : the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize 
meaningful objects and events 
∙ Bottom­up processing: ​ sensory analysis that starts at the entry level / analysis that begins with the sensory 
receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information 
∙ Top­down processing: ​ interpreting what our sense detect / information processing guided by higher­level 
mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations 
Thresholds​  ​
2) What are the absolute & difference thresholds, and do stimuli below the absolute threshold 
have any influence? 
∙ ​
Psychophysics​ : the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their 
intensity, and our psychological experience of them 
 
Absolute Thresholds 
∙ Absolute threshold: ​ the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time 
Signal Detection 
∙ Signal detection theory​ : a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus 
(signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that 
detection depends on a person’s experience, expectations, motivations, and level of fatigue. 
∙ Detecting a weak stimulus/signal depends on signal’s strength as well as our psychological state 
∙ People’s ability to catch a faint signal diminishes after 30 min. →  depends on task, time of day, amount of 
average exercise 
Subliminal Stimulation 
∙ We can sense ​ subliminal​  stimuli: below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness 
∙ We can be affected by stimuli so weak as to be unnoticed 
o   An invisible image or word can briefly ​ prime​ (the activation, often unconsciously, of certain 
associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response) one’s response to a later 
question 
●  What we see/feel before affects our mood/ opinion soon after, even if it’s irrelevant 
∙ Sometimes we feel what we do not know and cannot describe 
∙ A brief stimulus can trigger a weak response that can be detected by brain scanning 
∙ Much of our information processing occurs automatically, out of sight, unconsciously 
∙ Subliminal commercials = a placebo effect, nothing more (Greenwald’s self­esteem & memory experiment)  
Difference Thresholds 
∙ ​
Difference threshold:​  the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. 
We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (jnd) 
o   E.g Detectable difference increases with the size of the stimulus – adding 1lb to 10lb, difference will 
be detected, adding 1lb to 100lb, the difference would be almost unnoticeable 
∙ ​
Weber’s Law​ : the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum 
percentage or proportion (rather than constant amount)  
Sensory Adaptation ​ 3) What is the function of sensory adaptation?  
∙ Sensory adaptation:​  diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation 
o   After constant exposure to a stimulus, our nerve cells fire less frequently 
∙ Our eyes are always moving, so that stimulation on our eye receptors continually changes (that’s why objects 
don’t disappear) 
∙​Although sensory adaptation reduces sensitivity, it offers the freedom to focus on informative changes in our 
 ​

environment without being distracted by the constant chatter of uninformative background stimulation (we are 
able to focus on more important things) 
∙​“We perceive the world not exactly as it is, but as it is useful for us to perceive it” 
 ​

∙​Sensory thresholds & adaptations = 2 commonalities shared by our senses 
 ​
What is the rough distinction between sensation and perception? 
Sensation is the bottom­up process by which the physical sensory system receives and represents stimuli. 
Perception is the top­down mental process of organizing and interpreting sensory input. But in our everyday 
experiences, sensation and perception are different aspect of one continuous process 
Vision​ 4) What is the energy that we see as visible light? 
∙​Transduction​
 ​ : conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus 
energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret 
The Stimulus Input: Light Energy 
∙​Pulses of electromagnetic energy strikes our eyes, which our visual system then perceives as color 
 ​

∙Electromagnetic spectrum  
 
 
 
 
 
 
∙​2 physical properties 
 ​

o​ Light’s wavelength determines its hue 
   ​

o​ Intensity influences brightness 
   ​

∙​Wavelength​
 ​ : the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic 
wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission 
∙​Hue​
 ​ : the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names 
blue, green, and so forth 
∙​Intensity​
 ​ : the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as 
determined by the wave’s amplitude 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The Eye ​ 5) How does the eye transform light energy into neural messages? 
∙​Light enters the eye through the ​
 ​ cornea​ (protects the eye & bends light to provide focus) à pass through ​
pupil 
(the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters), which is surrounded by the ​ iris​
 (a 
ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the 
pupil opening 
∙​Iris dilates or constricts in response to light intensity and inner emotions 
 ​

o​ Each iris is distinctive, like a handprint 
   ​

∙​Lens​
 ​ : the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape/focuses incoming light rays to help focus 
images on the ​ retina​  (the light­sensitive inner surface of the eye that contains the receptor rods and cones 
plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information) 
 ∙Accommodation​ : the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape (by changing its curvature) to 
focus near or far objects on the retina 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
∙​Retinal images = upside­down & reversed 
 ​

The Retina 
∙​Retina’s buried receptor cells = rods & cones 
 ​

∙​Rods​
 ​ : retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when 
cones don’t respond 
∙​Cones​
 ​ : retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or 
in well­lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations 
∙​Light energy triggers chemical changes that would spark neural signals à active bipolar cells à activate 
 ​

ganglion cells à axons of ganglion cells converge (like rope) to form optic nerve (the nerve that carries neural 
impulses from the ye to the brain) – thalamus receives info; 1 million msgs through 1 million ganglion fibers 
∙​Blind spot:​
 ​  the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind’ spot because no receptor cells 
are located there 
∙​Where the optic nerve leaves the eye, there are no receptor cells, hence the blind spot 
 ​

∙​Fovea​
 ​ : the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster 
∙​Many cones have ‘hotlines’ to the brain – bipolar cells help send cone’s individual message to the visual 
 ​

cortex, which devotes a large area to input from the fovea à preserves cones’ precise information, enabling 
detection of fine detail 
∙​Rods have no direct line, share bipolar cells with other rods, sending combined messages 
 ​

∙​Cones help us perceive color & detail, rods (black & white vision) remain sensitive in dim light (rods will funnel 
 ​

their energy output onto a single bipolar cell) 
∙​Cones = 6 million, in the center of retina, high sensitivity in color & detail, low sensitivity in dim light 
 ​

∙​Rods = 120 million, in the periphery of retina, high sensitivity in dim light, low sensitivity to color & detail 
 ​

∙​Some nocturnal animals = retinas are only made up of rods (function well in dim light)  
 ​

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Visual Information Processing ​ 6) How does the brain process visual information? 
∙​Retina process information →  thalamus →  brain visual cortex 
 ​

∙​Retina’s neural layers pass along electrical impulses & help encode and analyze sensory information 
 ​

∙​Any given retinal area relays its information to a corresponding location in the visual cortex, in the occipital 
 ​

lobe 
∙​Pressure can trigger retinal cells (very responsive) 
 ​

∙​Left side = normal direction of light that activates the right side of the retina 
 ​

Feature Detection 
∙​Feature detector​
 ​ : nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, 
angle, or movement 
∙​Feature detectors in the visual cortex pass information to other cortical areas where teams of cells (supercell 
 ​

clusters) respond to more complex patterns 
∙​Monkey brains have a ‘vast visual encyclopedia’ – cells specialize in responding to one type of stimulus, eg. 
 ​

Posture, movement, specific gaze, etc.  
Parallel Processing 
∙​Parallel processing​
 ​ :  the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode 
of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step­by­step (serial) 
processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving 
∙​To recognize face, 30% of cortex power must be used, as brain integrates information that retina projects to 
 ​

several cortex areas, compares it to stored information, and enables us to notice someone 
∙​If brain’s face­processing areas were to be disrupted with magnetic pulses, people will be unable to recognize 
 ​

faces à however they can still recognize houses (brain’s face­perception differs from object­perception 
process) 
∙​Destroying or disabling the neural workstation for other visual subtasks produces different peculiar results 
 ​

∙​Damage to brain’s visual cortex could result in ​
 ​ blindsight,​
 a localized area of blindness in part of their field of 
vision 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Color Vision ​ 7) What theories help us understand color vision? 
∙​Our difference threshold for colors is extremely low 
 ​

∙​Everything with color = in fact all colors ​
 ​ but ​that specific color = reflect/rejects it 
∙​Color deficiency = usually in males; sex­linked 
 ​

∙​Any color can be created by combining the light waves of three primary colors – red, green, blue 
 ​

o ​ Young & von Helmholtz inferred that the eye must have 3 corresponding types of color receptors 
  ​

∙​Young­Helmholtz trichromatic (three­color) theory​
 ​ : the theory that the retina contains three different color 
receptors – one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue – which, when stimulated in combination, can 
produce the perception of any color 
∙​Color­deficient people = are not ‘colorblind’ à lack functioning red or green sensitive cones, or sometimes both 
 ​

o ​ To them, their vision seems normal – either monochromatic or dichromatic, instead of trichromatic 
  ​

● Makes it impossible to distinguish the red & green in the color­blind tests 
∙​Looking at a yellow & green flag, then looking at white paper = will see blue & red instead 
 ​

∙​Opponent­process theory​
 ​ : the theory that opposing retinal processes (red­green, yellow­blue, white­black) 
enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; other are 
stimulated by red and inhibited by green.  
Hearing 
∙​For humans, vision = the dominant/major sense 
 ​

∙​Audition​
 ​ : the sense or act of hearing 
The Stimulus Input: Sound waves ​ 8) What are the characteristics of air pressure waves that we hear as 
sounds? 
∙​Our ears detect brief air pressure changes + feel vibrations + hear by both air & bone conduction 
 ​

∙​Ears transform the vibrating air into nerve impulses, which our brain decodes as sounds 
 ​

∙​Strength/​
 ​ amplitude​  of sound waves determines ​ loudness 
∙​Waves vary in length, hence in ​
 ​ frequency​  (the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given 
time 
∙​Frequency determines the ​
 ​ pitch ​ (a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency) 
∙​Long waves = low frequency & low pitch, short waves = high frequency & high pitch 
 ​

∙​Measure sounds in ​
 ​ decibels 
∙​Normal convo = 60 decibels = 10,000 more intense than 20­decibel whisper, as every 10 decibels correspond 
 ​

to a tenfold increase in sound intensity 
The Ear ​ 9) How does the ear transform sound energy into neural messages? 
∙​Intricate mechanical chain reaction 
 ​

∙​Outer ear channels the sound waves through the auditory canal to the eardrum (a tight membrane that 
 ​

vibrates with the waves) →  ​ middle ear​  (the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny 

bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval 
window) transmits the eardrum’s vibrations to the ​ cochlea​  (a coiled, bony, fluid­filled tube in the inner ear 
through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses), a snail­shaped tube in the ​ inner ear​ (the innermost part 
of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs) 
∙​The vibrations cause cochlea’s membrane (oval window) to vibrate, jostling the fluid that fills the tube → 
 ​

cause ripples in the ​ basilar membrane​ , bending the hair cells lining its surface → hair cell movement triggers 

impulses in the adjacent nerve cells, whose axons converge to form the ​ auditory nerve ​ (sends neural 
messages via the thalamus to the temporal lobe’s auditory cortex) 
∙​Cochlea has 16,000 hair cells, eye = 130 million photoreceptors 
 ​

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
∙​Damage to hair cells accounts for most hearing loss 
 ​

∙​Ringing of ears = alerts us to possible hearing damage 
 ​

Perceiving Loudness 
∙​ number ​
Detecting loudness = not from intensity of hair cell’s response, but rather from the ​
 ​ of activated hair 
cells 
∙​Hair cell loses sensitivity to soft sounds, but may still respond to loud sounds 
 ​

∙​Between those with hearing loss & normal people = only difference is in their sensation of soft sounds 
 ​

∙​Hard­of­hearing people like sound ​
 ​ compressed​  – so that harder­to­hear sounds are amplified more than loud 
sounds 
  
Perceiving Pitch 
● place theory​ : the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is 
stimulated 
○ the cochlea vibrates in response to sound (high frequencies produced large vibrations near the 
beginning of the membrane, low near the end) 
○ problem: it can explain how we hear high­pitched sounds, but not how we hear low­pitched 
sounds (neural signals generated by low­ pitched sounds are not so neatly localized on the 
basilar membrane) 
● frequency theory:​  the theory that the rate of nerve impulses travelling up the auditory nerve matches 
the frequency of a tone, enabling us to sense its pitch 
○ problem: an individual neuron can’t fire faster than 1000 times per second. then how can we 
sense sounds with frequencies above 1000 waves per second!? 
*​ place theory best explains how we sense high pitches, frequency theory best explains how we sense low 
pitches.  
 
Hearing Loss + Deafness  
● conduction hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts 
sound waves to the cochlea 
● sensorineural hearing loss : hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the 
auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness 
● cochlear implant: device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve 
through electrodes threaded into the cochlea 
debate on cochlear implants:  
● most parents want their children to experience their world of sound and talk. if an implant is to be 
effective, they cannot delay the decision until their children reaches the age of consent.  
● on the other side are Deaf culture advocates who object to using implants on children who were deaf 
prelingually. 
○ they argue that deafness is not a disability because native signers are not linguistically disabled 
 
TOUCH 
 ● kinesthesis: the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts 
○ how does it feel without kinesthesis?  people feel as though their body is dead, not real,not 
theirs.  
● vestibular sense: the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance 
○ biological gyroscopes for this sense of equilibrium are in your inner ear 
■ semicircular canals (looks like rd pretzel) and the vestibular sas (connect canals with the 
cochlea) contain fluid that moves when your head rotates or tilts ­­> this movement 
stimulates hairlike receptors which send messages to the cerebellum ­­> enables you to 
sense body position  
PAIN 
gate­control theory: theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows 
them to pass on to the brain. the “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals travelling up small nerve fibers 
and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

 
 
● endorphins ​
we are distracted from pain and soothed by the release of ​ ( natural painkillers)  
● create​
brain can also ​  pain... < phantom limb sensation: when it misinterprets the spontaneous central 
nervous system activity that occurs in the absence of normal sensory input> 
 ● tinnitus:​
 phantom sounds­­ ringing in the ears sensation

 
 
 
SENSORY INTERACTION 
● sensory interaction: ​ principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food 
influences its taste 
○ influences what we hear 
 
SMELL 
● taste and smell is a chemical sense ­­>

 
● ability to identify scents peaks in early adulthood and gradually declines! 
­­­­­ 
 
Perceptual Organization 
 ● gestalt:​
 an organized whole. gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of 
information into meaningful wholes 
● figure­ground: ​ organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings  
● grouping:​ perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups 
○ proximity, similarity, continuity,connectedness, closure 
 
Depth Perception 
● depth perception: ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina 
are two dimensional; allows us to judge distance  
● visual cliff: a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals 
○ depth perception grows with age  
● binocular cues: depth cues, such as retinal disparity that depend on the use of two eyes 
● retinal disparity: binocular cue for perceiving depth : by comparing images from the retinas in the two 
eyes, the brain computes distance ­­ the greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the 
object 
● monocular cues: depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone 
○ horizontal­ vertical illusion: our perceiving vertical dimensions as longer than identical horizontal 
dimensions 
 
Motion Perception 
● phi phenomenon: illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in 
quick succession 
● perceptual constancy: perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, 
color) even as illumination and retinal images change 
○ lets us identify people and things in less time than it takes to draw a breath 
○ lightness constancy:​  we perceive an object as having a constant lightness even while its 
illumination varies 
■ depends on ​ relative luminance (​
amount of light an object reflects relative to its 
surroundings) 
○ color constancy: ​ color remains roughly constant as the lighting and wavelengths shirt 
 
Perceptual Adaptation 
● perceptual adaptation: the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field 
● perceptual set: mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another 
 
Perceptual Set 
● perceptual set​ : mental predisposition that greatly influences (top­down) what we perceive 
○ shaped by our experiences, assumptions, and expectations 
○ eg. people perceive an adult­child pair more alike when told they are parent and child 
● once we form a wrong idea about reality, we have difficulty seeing the truth 
○ eg. UFO and Loch Ness sightings 
● perceptual set can influence what we hear 
○ pilot hearing “cheer up” as “gear up” 
● influences taste preferences 
○ french fries better in a McDonald’s bag rather than a plain white bag 
● what determines our perceptual set? 
○ through schemas, or experience we form concepts, that organize and interpret unfamiliar 
information 
 ○ eg. our schemas for faces prime us to see facial patterns in random configurations 
● context effects 
○ a given stimulus may trigger radically different perceptions because of our differing set and ​
also 
immediate context 
■ eg. noise + “eel is on the wagon” => wheel is on the wagon 
■ eg. noise + “eel is on the orange” => peel is on the orange 
○ hearing a sad song vs. hearing a happy song: mourning vs. morning, die vs. dye, pain vs. pane 
○ shows how experience helps us construct perception 
● emotion and motivation 
○ perceptions are influenced, top­down, by our emotions 
○ eg. walking destinations look farther away to those who have been fatigued by prior exercise 
○ motives also matter 
■ students asked to view an ambiguous figure such as horse/seal but if rewards linked with 
seeing on category of stimulus, viewers tended instantly to perceive the hoped­for 
category 
● Is perception innate or learned? => both! 
○ perception is fed by sensation, cognition, emotion 
 
Perception and the Human Factor 
● human factors psychologists: a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact 
and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use 
○ help to design appliances, machines, work settings that fit our natural perceptions and 
inclinations 
○ work at designing safe and efficient environments 
○ eg. the easy use of remote control, iphone creates an environment where we can easily share 
apps 
○ eg. in the kitchen, items need to be close to their usage point and near eye level 
● understanding human factors allow us to prevent accidents and avoid disasters  
○ eg. a lot of landing accidents for commercial flights because city lights would project a larger 
retinal image if on a rising terrain => co­pilots must monitor the altimeter 
● In studying human factors issues, most powerful tool is theory­aided research 
● understanding human factors allow us to enhance assistive listening technologies 
● why aren’t designs that enable safe, easy, and effective interactions more common?  
○ curse of knowledge:​  when you know a thing, it’s hard to mentally simulate what it’s like not to 
know 
● *Designers and engineers should consider human abilities and behaviors by designing things to fit 
people, user­testing their inventions before production and distribution, and being mindful of the curse 
of knowledge 
 
IS THERE EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION? 
● extrasensory perception (ESP): the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory 
input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition 
● parapsychology: the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis 
○ do experiments that search for possible ESP and both paranormal phenomena 
● other skeptical that such phenomena exist 
● challenges understanding that we are creatures whose minds are tied to our physical brains and whose 
perceptual experiences of the world are built of sensations 
Claims of ESP 
 ● include astrological predictions, psychic healing, communication with the dead, and out­of­body 
experiences 
● most testable and most relevant: 
○ telepathy: mind­to­mind communication ­ one person sending thoughts to another or perceiving 
another’s thoughts 
○ clairvoyance: perceiving remote events, such as sensing that a friend’s house is on fire 
○ precognition: perceiving future events, such as a political leader’s death or a sporting event’s 
outcome 
● others included psychokinesis (eg. levitating) 
 
Premonitions or Pretensions? 
● none have really been accurate in predicting unexpected, important events 
● psychic visions are no more accurate than guesses made by others 
○ however, psychics working with the police do generate hundreds of predictions and this 
increases the odds of an occasional correct guess ⇒ psychics report to the media 
○ vague predictions also interpreted to match events 
● Do visions only seem to foretell the future because we are more likely to recall or reconstruct dreams 
that appear to have come true? 
○ tested when Charles Lindbergh’s baby son was kidnapped but before the body was discovered 
■ only 5% of 13000 visionaries who reported their dreams about the child reported the 
child dead => only 4 accurately represented the place the body was found 
● considering the billions of events in the world each day and the number of times we imagine many 
events, coincidences are sure to occur 
 
Putting ESP To Experimental Test 
● Test out ESP to see if they work 
○ this scientific attitude has led both believers and skeptics to agree that what parapsychology 
needs is a reproducible phenomenon and a theory to explain it 
● How do we test ESP claims in a controlled experiment? 
○ experiment differs from a staged demonstration 
○ in the lab, the experimenter controls what the psychic sees and hears 
○ on stage, the psychic controls what the audience sees and hears 
● so far, no effort has been given the scientific seal of approval 
 

Chapter 7 How Do We Learn?

What are some basic forms of learning? 
● learning: ​ a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience  
● We learn by ​ association​  ​learning: ​
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two 
stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)  
○ conditioning: ​ the process of learning associations  
■ classical​ : we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events (Ex. learn that 
a flash of lightning signals thunder, so when we see lightning we brace ourselves) 
■ operant​ : learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence and thus to 
repeat acts followed by good results (seal balancing ball gets food, continues to balance 
ball)   
● observational learning:​  learn from others’ experiences 
Classical Conditioning
What is classical conditioning, and how did Pavlov’s work influence behaviorism? 
● Pavlov’s work laid foundation for Watson’s ideas (said psychology should be an objective science 
based on observable behavior → called ​ behaviorism) 
○ both Pavlov and Watson believe that basic laws of learning are the same for all animals  
 
How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus?  
● Found out that putting food in a dog’s mouth caused it to salivate  
○ dog began to salivate not only to the taste of food, but also to sight of food or the dish or the 
person delivering food 
● To explore the phenomenon, they isolated dog in small room, secured it in a harness, and attached a 
device to divert its saliva to a measuring instrument  
○ paired neutral events (something the dog could see/hear but didn’t associate with food) with the 
food in the mouth  
○ found out that if a sight or sound regularly preceded the arrival of food, the dog would associate 
the sight or sound with food 
● Because ​ salivation in response to food ​ was unlearned it was an ​ unconditioned response 
● Food​  in the mouth automatically triggered a dog’s salivary reflex so it is an ​ unconditioned stimulus  
● Dog learned ​ salivation in response to tone​  through association between sound and food so it is a 
conditioned response  
● The neutral ​ tone​  that didn’t trigger the salivation before is the ​
conditioned stimulus 
○ conditioned = unlearned, unconditioned = unlearned 
 
Definitions (in case you need more detail)  
● unconditioned response: ​ in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the 
unconditioned stimulus such as salivation when food is in the mouth 
● unconditioned stimulus: ​ in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally ­ naturally and 
automatically ­ triggers a response 
● conditioned response: ​ in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now 
conditioned) stimulus  
● conditioned stimulus: ​ in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association 
with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response 
 
In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, 
generalization, and discrimination?   
 
Acquisition 
● To understand acquisition, Pavlov questioned how much time should elapse between presenting the 
neutral stimulus (the tone) and the unconditioned stimulus. 
○ acquisition: ​ in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an 
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. 
In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.  
● conditioning helps an animal survive and reproduce ­ by responding to cues that help it gain food, avoid 
dangers, locate mates, and produce offspring  
 
Higher­order conditioning 
 ● through higher­order conditioning, a new neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus. For this 
to happen, it has to become associated with a previously conditioned stimulus.  
○ higher­order conditioning: ​ a process in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning 
experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned 
stimulus.  
■ ex. an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light 
predicts the tone and begins responding to the light alone 
●  Associations can influence attitudes  
○ Andy Field showed children characters alongside ice cream or brussels sprouts → children 
came to like the ice cream associated characters 
 
 
Extinction 
● Pavlov discovered that when he sounded the tone again and again without food, the dogs salivated 
less and less. Their declining salivation is ​ extinction,  ​
the diminished responding the occurs with the 
conditioned stimulus (tone) no longer signals an unconditioned stimulus (food) 
 
Spontaneous Recovery 
● Spontaneous recovery, ​ the reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a pause, 
suggested to Pavlov that extinction was suppressing the conditioned response rather than eliminating  
○ Ex. Tirrell’s first girlfriend loved onions so Tirrell associated onions with kissing. After breaking 
up with her, he experienced extinction and recovery. The smell of onion breath no longer paired 
with kissing and gave him tingles. However, when he smelt it after not sensing it for a while, it 
awakened a small version of the emotional response he once felt.  
 
Generalization 
● Pavlov noticed that a dog conditioned to the sound of one tone also somewhat responded to the sound 
of the different tone that had never been paired with food. Also, a dog conditioned to salivate when 
rubbed also drooled a bit when scratched.  
○ The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus is ​ generalization 
 
Discrimination 
● Pavlov’s dogs also learned to respond to the sound of a particular tone and ​ not t​o other tones 
● Discrimination: ​ the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the 
unconditioned stimulus) and other irrelevant stimuli  
○ being able to recognize differences is adaptive  
 

Extending Pavlov’s Understanding

Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect classical conditioning?  
● Pavlov and Watson underestimated the importance of cognitive processes (thoughts, perceptions, 
expectations) and biological constraints on an organism’s learning capacity  
 
Cognitive Processes 
● It was shown that an animal can learn the ​ predictability ​
of an event.  
○ if shock always is preceded by a tone, and then may also be preceded by a light that 
accompanies the tone, a rat will react with fear to the tone but not to the light 
 ● The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response.  
● It’s as if the animal learns an expectancy, an awareness of how likely it is that the unconditioned 
stimulus will occur  
 
Biological Predispositions 
● each species’ predispositions prepare it to learn the associations that enhance its survival 
● while researching the effects of radiation on laboratory animals, Garcia noticed that rats began to avoid 
drinking water from the plastic bottles in radiation chambers 
○ Garcia gave rats a particular taste, sight, sound and then later gave them radiation or drugs that 
lead to nausea  
■ Results: 
● even if sickened as late as several hours after tasting a particular flavor, the rats 
afterwards avoided the flavor  
○ violates the notion that for conditioning to occur, the ​ unconditioned 
stimulus must directly follow the conditioned 
● the rats develop aversions to tastes but not to sights or sounds  
○ contradicted behaviorists’ idea that any stimulus could serve as a 
conditioned stimulus → makes adaptive sense for rats because for rats 
easiest way to identify food is to taste it 
● conditioning is speedier, stronger and more durable when the conditioned stimulus is ecologically 
relevant (something similar to stimuli associated with sexual activity in the natural environment)  
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
Why is Pavlov’s work so important? 
1. Many other responses to other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms (classical 
conditioning is one way that all organisms learn to adapt to their environment) 
2. showed us how a process such as learning can be studied objectively 
 
human emotions and behaviors are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses... 
● “​
Little Albert” ­­> he feared loud noises, but not white rats 
 ○ whenever he tried to touch it, a hammer was struck behind his head 
○ after, whenever he saw the rat, he burst into tears 
○ his fear was not learned fear quickly 
operant conditioning vs. classical conditioning 
● classical conditioning: forms associations between stimuli (a CS and the US it signals). 
○ involves ​ respondent behavior​ ­­ actions that are automatic responses to a stimulus (ex. 
salivating in response to meat powder and later in response to tone) 
● operant conditioning: organisms associate own actions with consequences 
○ type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if 
followed by a punisher 
○ actions followed by reinforcers increase ; those followed by punishers decrease 
○ operant behavior:​  behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences  
● Is the organism learning associations between events it does not control (classical conditioning)? Or is 
it learning associations between its behavior and resulting events (operant conditioning)?  
 
Skinner’s Experiments 
● law of effect:​  rewarded behavior is likely to recur 
○ developed ​ behavioral technology ­­> ​ revealed principles of ​
behavior control 
■ enabled him to teach pigeons such un­pigeon­like behaviors as walking 
● designed ​ operant chambers:​  known as ​ skinner box 
○ box has a key that an animal presses to release a reward of food or water 
○ explored the precise conditions that foster efficient and enduring learning 
● shaping:​  an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide  behavior toward closer and 
closer approximations of the desired behavior 
○ successive approximation: reward responses that are ever­closer to the final desired behavior, 
and you ignore all other responses 
○ by making rewards contingent on desired behaviors, trainers gradually shape complex 
behaviors 
○ can help understand what nonverbal organisms perceive 
 
Types of Reinforcers 
● reinforcer: ​ any event that strengthens (increases the frequency of) a preceding response. 
○ may be a tangible reward, such as food or money. may be praise or attention, being yelled 
at...may be an activity (taking a break after studying) 
○ although anything that serves to increase behavior is a reinforcer, reinforcers vary with 
circumstances 
■ what’s reinforcing to one person (rock concert tickets) may not be to another 
● positive reinforcement: increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.  
○ any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response 
○ ex. getting a hug; receiving a paycheck 
● negative reinforcement: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli (shock) 
○ when removed after a response, it strengthens the response (is not punishment... it rather 
removes a punishing event) 
○ ex. taking aspirin or pushing snooze button, fastening seatbelt to turn off beeping ­­> these 
welcome results provide negative reinforcement 
 
Primary vs. Conditioned Reinforcers 
 ● primary reinforces: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (ex. 
getting food when hungry or having a painful headache go away ­­ are unlearned, innately satisfying) 
● conditioned reinforcers/ secondary reinforcers: stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its 
association with a primary reinforcer  
○ ex. if a rat in skinner box learns that light reliably signals that food is coming, the rat will work to 
turn on the light 
● unlike rats, humans do respond to delayed reinforcers (ex. paycheck at the end of the week, good 
grades at the end of the semester) 
­ humans learn to delay gratification 
­ lab: 4 year olds show that they prefer having a big reward tomorrow to munching on a small one 
right now 
Reinforcement Schedules 
● continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs (learning occurs 
rapidly, which makes continuous reinforcement preferable until a behavior is mastered// extinction 
happens rapidly)  
● partial (intermittent reinforcement): responses are sometimes reinforced, sometimes not (results in 
slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous 
reinforcement) 
 
Skinner’s four schedules of partial reinforcement (in operant conditioning):  
fixed­ratio schedules  reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response 
(behavior after set number)  only after a specified number of responses 
 
ex. coffee shops reward us with a free drink after 
every 10 purchased 

variable­ ratio schedules  reinforces a response after an unpredictable number 
of responses 
 
ex. slot­machine players, fly­casting anglers, 
gambling, etc 

fixed­ interval schedules   reinforces a response only after a specified time has 
(response after the first response)  elapsed 
 
ex. people checking more frequently for the mail as 
the delivery time approaches/ checking to see if the 
jell­o has set 

variable­ interval schedules  reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at 
unpredictable time intervals  
 
ex. pop quizzes, dialing a friend on the phone and 
getting a busy signal, response to an email 
● animal behaviors differ, but Skinner contends that the reinforcement principles of operant conditioning 
are universal. it matters little what response, what reinforcer, or what species you use. the effect of a 
given reinforcement schedule is pretty much the same ­­> behavior shows similar properties! 
  fixed   variable 
 ratio  every so many; reinforcement  after an unpredictable number; 
after every nth behavior, such as  after a random number of 
buy 10 coffees, etc  behaviors, as when playing slot 
machines 

interval  ever so often: reinforcement for  unpredictable often: reinforcement 

behavior after a fixed time, such  for behavior after a random 
as tuesday discount prices  amount of time, as in checking for 
email 
 
Punishment 
● punishment: event that decreases the behavior that it follows  (reinforcement increases a behavior)  
punishment in relation to parenting practices // 4 drawbacks of physically punishing children:  
1. punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten 
● though temporary, this may (negatively) reinforce parents’ punishing behavior 
● ex. when child swears, the parent swats, the parents do not hear more swearing and feels that the 
punishment successfully stopped the behavior 
2. punishment teaches discrimination  
● was the punishment effective in putting an end to the swearing? or did the child simply learn that it’s not 
okay to swear around the house, but okay to swear elsewhere? 
3. punishment can teach fear 
● child may associate fear not only with the undesirable behavior but also with the person who delivered 
the punishment or the place it occurred.  
● children may fear a punishing teacher and try to avoid teacher 
4. physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope with 
problems  
● spanked children are at increased risk for aggression 
 
*an occasional single swat of misbehaving 2 to 6 year olds may be effective, esp if the swat is used only as a 
backup when milder disciplinary tactics fail... when swat is combined with a generous dose of reasoning and 
reinforcing 
***​
punishment tells you what not to do; reinforcement tells you what to do  
*punishment often teaches how to avoid something 
ways to decrease behavior:  
type of punisher   description  possible examples 

positive punishment: give sth bad  administer an aversive stimulus  spanking/ a parking ticket 

negative punishment  withdraw a desirable stimulus  time­out from privileges (such as 

:take away sth good   time with friends); revoked driver’s 
license 
 
Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning? 
● There is more to learning than associating a response with a consequence 
● Cognitive processes ­ thoughts, emotions, perceptions ­ play a role as well 
○ evidenced by a ​cognitive map​  ­ mental representation of the layout of one’s environment ­ after 
rats were placed in mazes 
 ○ rats seem to demonstrate ​ latent learning​
 ­ learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is 
an incentive to demonstrate 
● Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive 
○ ex) pigs can’t learn to wash their faces when incentivized with food, since the action isn’t 
naturally associated with food/hunger 
 
How might operant conditioning principles be applied at school, in sports, at work, and at home? 
● School: Skinner believed individualized instruction would better the learning environment 
○ paces the material according to each student’s rate of learning and provides prompt feedback 
w/ positive reinforcements 
○ Ideal way of teaching = using computers  
● Sports: idea of reinforcement ­ increasing distance from ball as mastery increases 
● Work: reward specific, achievable behaviors, not vaguely defined “merit.” 
○ important to reinforce ​immediately  
● Home: can use to achieve goals 
○ state your goal 
○ monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior 
○ reinforce the desired behavior 
○ reduce the rewards gradually. 

 
 
What is observational learning, and how is it enabled by mirror neurons? 
● Some animals can learn w/o direct experience, through ​ observational learning  
● We learn behaviors by observing and imitating models ­ ​ modeling  
● Mirror neurons​ : frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing 
another doing so 
○ may enable imitation and empathy ­​  “theory of mind”  
○ we grasp other’s emotional states by mental simulation 
○ → our brain’s mirror neurons show our intensely social nature 
● Bandura’s experiment w/ Bobo doll 
○ preschool child sees an adult demonstrating violent behavior 
 ○ child taken to another room and told the “good toys” were given to other children 
○ child demonstrates similar behavior to the adult 
 
What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling? 
● Prosocial​  ­ positive, helpful ­ models can have positive effects 
○ models are most effective when their actions and words are consistent. 
○ ex) parents, Martin Luther King, Gandhi  
● Observational learning may have antisocial effects 
○ television is a very powerful source of observational learning ­ strong correlation b/w violence in 
tv and violence in reality  
○ viewing cruelty prepare people, when irritated, to react more cruelly by imitation and 
desensitization of violence 
 

Chapter 8: Memory
● encode store and retrieve 
● proposed information processing model of memory: ​ connectionism (​ views memories as emerging 
from interconnected neural networks)  
● Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed we form memories in three stages  
○ record the information as a fleeting sensory memory 
○ we process information into a short term memory bin, where we encode it through rehearsal 
○ information moves into long term memory for later retrieval  
● modified process of three stage processing model of memory  
○ some information skips the first two stages and goes directly into long term memory without 
conscious awareness 
○ working memory: ​ concentrates on the active processing of information in this intermediate 
stage. We cannot focus on all the information bombarding our senses so we focus on certain 
important or new stimuli 

Encoding
● because of our brain’s capacity for parallel processing, we unconsciously ​ automatically process 
information like 
○ space: encode where certain info appears 
○ time: sequence 
○ frequency: keep track of how many times things happen 
○ well­learned info: you cannot help to recognize something in your native word 
● effortful processing​ : information that we remember with effort and attention 
○ boost our memory through rehearsal or repetition  
○ Ebbinghaus formed nonsense syllables by putting one vowel between consonants and then 
practiced these syllables. After a day, he could remember some of the syllables. The more he 
studied the first day, the fewer repetitions he had to relearn on day 2.  
■ the amount remembered depends on the time spent learning  
■ as rehearsal increases, relearning time decreases  
● spacing effect: ​ learning better when our rehearsal is distributed over time  
○ massed practice (cramming) can produce speedy short term learning and confidence  
○ distributed study time producers better long term recall  
○ Harry Bahrick practiced foreign language translations at intervals ranging from 14­56 days. The 
longer space between the practice sessions, the better their memory up to 5 years later  
 ● testing effect: ​repeated of previously studied material 
● serial position effect: ​
when you a lot of new people, you repeat all their names each time starting from 
the beginning and therefore spent more time rehearsing earlier names. The next day you will better 
recall the earlier names. Often remember the first and end better than they do those in the middle.  
○ people briefly recall last items in working memory ​ a recency effect 
○ after a delay, people better recall first items ​
primacy effect 
● Shallow Processing 
○ Visual encoding  
○ Acoustic encoding​ : ​
betters memory of rhyming aphorisms 
● Semantic encoding 
○ when reading the laundry paragraph with context, people remembered much more ­ semantic 
encoding produces better recognition  
○ suggests the benefits of rephrasing what we read and hear into meaningful terms 
○ the amount remembered depends both on the time spent learning and on your making it 
meaningful 
● self reference effect: ​
 ​ you remember the adjectives that describe you (have meaning to you) better 
than adjectives without meaning.  
 

Visual
● Earliest memories involve visual imagery ­­ we more easily remember words which have visual images 
than do abstract words 
● Recalling the high points while forgetting the mundane explains phenomenon of ​ rosy retrospection 
(people recall events like camping holiday better than they judged at the time)  
● imagery is at the heart of many ​ mnemonic ​ devices 
○ peg­word system, palace: r​ equires you to memorize a jingle ­­ associate the need to be 
remembered words with different images 
acronym (HOMES) 
Organizing Information for Encoding 
● chunking: ​ we more easily recall information when we can organize it into familiar manageable chunks 
● hierarchies: ​ people process information in hierarchies composed of a few broad concepts divided and 
subdivided into narrower concepts and facts 
 

Storage
Short Term 
● Sperling experiment with high medium low tones with three rows of letter but if Sperling delayed the 
tone, the image faded  
○ iconic memory​ : fleeting photographic memory 
○ echoic memory: ​ momentary memory of auditory stimuli 
● Peterson asked people to remember three consonant groups  
○ researchers asked them to count and after 3 seconds people recalled letters only half the time 
and after 12 almost not at all 
○ short term memory is limited in duration and capacity  
■ typically seven bits of information, four information chunks 
● we can consciously process only a very limited amount of information 
Long Term 
● Limitless  
 ● previously researchers believed that flashbacks indicated that our whole past is “in there” just waiting to 
be relived 
○ Loftus found out that flashbacks seemed to be invented not relived 
○ Lashley demonstrated that memories do not reside in specific spots, he taught rats how to go 
through a maze and when he changed their cortexes and placed it somewhere else they still 
had at least a partial memory of the maze 
 
Synaptic Changes 
● nerve cells must communicate through synapses  
○ study of synaptic meeting places where neurons communicate with one another via 
neurotransmitter messengers 
● sea slug releases more serotonin at certain synapses → these synapses then become more efficient at 
transmitting signals 
● increased synaptic efficiency → more efficient neural circuits (the sending neuron now needs less 
prompting to release its neurotransmitter)  
● long term potentiation: ​ prolonged strengthening of potential neural firing, provides a neural basis for 
learning and remembering associations  
○ drugs that block LTP interfere with learning 
○ rats given a drug that enhances LTP will learn a maze faster 
● developing drugs for Alzheimer's 
○ drugs that boost production of ​ CREB​  which can switch genes on and off. genes code the 
production of protein molecules and so boosting Creb production might lead to increased 
production of proteins that help reshape synapses and consolidate short term memory into long 
term  
○ drugs that boost glutamate (neurotransmitter that enhances synaptic communication)  
 
Emotions on Memory 
● when we are excited/stressed hormones make more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity  
○ amygdala boosts activity and proteins in the brain’s memory forming areas 
■ arousal can sear certain events into the brain, while disrupting memory for neutral events 
around the same time 
● weaker emotion = weaker memories  
● flashbulb memories: perceived clarity of memories of surprising significant events  
○ misinformation can seep into them 
● when stress is prolonged, it can shrink the hippocampus and corrode neural connections ­­ may block 
old memories  
Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories 
● memory enters cortex through sense → brain 
● amnesia has destroyed conscious recall but not unconscious capacity for learning 
○ they can learn how to do something (implicit memory) without conscious recall, in cerebellum → 
skills, classical conditioning 
○ but they may not know and declare that they now (explicit memory) with conscious recall, 
hippocampus → facts, personal events 
■ if they read a story once they will read faster (implicit memory) but they won’t recall that 
they have read it (explicit memory)  
 
Hippocampus 
● a temporal lobe that forms part of the brain’s limbic system  
 ● damage to it disrupts memory 
● birds can store food in places but if their hippocampus has been removed cannot return there (prevents 
long term memory formation, removal 48 hr does not) 
● Left​
: trouble remembering verbal, but no trouble with visual and location 
● Right​ : trouble remembering visual location, but not with verbal 
● regions: spatial, names with faces 
● the greater the hippocampus memory, the better the next day’s memory 
 
Cerebellum 
● key role in forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning 
○ couldn’t remember the physician but after he pricked her she wouldn’t shake his hand 
● dual explicit implicit memory helps explain infantile amnesia 
○ the implicit reactions and skills we learned during infancy reach far into the future but as adults 
we recall nothing of our first three years  
■ as adults our conscious memory of first 3 years is blank because we index so much of 
our explicit memory by words that nonspeaking children have not learned but also 
because the hippocampus is one of the last parts to mature 
 
Retrieval  
● memory is any sign that something learned has been retained (recognizing or quickly relearning 
indicates memory)  
● Memories are held in storage by a web of associations 
● when you encode into memory a piece of information you associate with it other bits of information 
about your surroundings, mood, seating position, and so one (retrieval cues) 
● The best retrieval cues come from associations we form at the time we encode a memory 
● priming: ​ “wakening of associations” often our associations are activated or primed without our 
awareness  
○ when we hear rabbit we think hare  
  
External Contexts 
● putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval 
● deja vu: being in a context similar to one we’ve been in before  
● reincarnation or precognition 
● Lampinen: a situation seems familiar when moderately similar to several events 
○ briefly meet dad and then son, think that you met the son before 
 
Moods and Memories 
● Events in the past may have aroused a specific emotion that later primes us to recall its associated 
events 
● state dependent memory: ​  what we learn in one state is more easily recalled when we are again in 
that state 
● emotions that accompany good or bad events become retrieval cues  
○ our memories are somewhat mood­congruent 
 
Forgetting 
● three sins of forgetting 
○ absent mindedness: inattention to details leads to encoding failure 
■ our mind is somewhere else as we set down the keys  
 ○ transience: storage decay over time 
■ after we part ways with classmates unused information fades 
○ blocking: inaccessibility of stored information 
■ seeing an actor in an old movie having the name at our tongue 
● three sins of distortion 
○ misattribution: confusing the source of information  
■ putting words in someone else’s mouth 
○ suggestibility: lingering effects of misinformation 
■ leading question: did mr.jones touch you? LOL 
○ bias: belief colored recollections 
■ bad feelings toward a friend may affect memories 
● intrusion 
○ persistence: unwanted memories  
■ haunted by images of a sexual assault  
● Ebbinghaus forgetting curve 
○ cause of forgetting initially rapid then levels off with time  
■ spanish vocabulary over time for people who studied long time ago 
○ gradual fading of the physical memory trace 
 
Interference 
● learning some items may interfere with retrieving others  
● proactive interference​ : occurs when something you learned earlier disrupts your recall of something 
you experience later: can’t take in new info  
○ you get one phone number and another one 
● retroactive interference: ​ occurs when new information makes it harder to recall something you 
learned earlier : can’t recall old info 
○ two people each learned some nonsense syllables then tried to recall them after sleeping/being 
awake and found out that forgetting occured more rapidly after being awake and involved in 
other activities 
● positive transfer: ​ old and new information compete with each other that interference occurs 
○ knowing Latin helps us learn French 
● people unknowingly revise their own histories  
○ cookie example 
○ Freud argued that our memory systems self­censored this information and that we repress 
painful memories to protect our self concept and minimize anxiety  
■ woman has unexplained fear of running water, aunt says I have never told and the 
woman remembers that she was trapped under waterfall 
 
● we construct our memories as we encode them and we may alter them as we withdraw them from our 
memory bank 
○ showed traffic accidents and then quizzed people about what they had seen 
■ different diction → different results  
○ misinformation effect: ​ after exposure to subtle misinformation, many people misremember 
“remembering” the nonexistent memory 
● even imagining nonexistent actions can create false memories  
○ imagination inflation occurs partly because visualizing something and actually perceiving it 
activate similar brain areas  
○ imagined events seem more familiar, and familiar things seem more real  
 ● Source amnesia​: we retain the memory of the event, but not of the context in which we acquired it 
○ “Mr Science” did experiments and parents read stories describing some things the children had 
experienced, 4/10 children recalled him doing things that only happened in the story 
● memories we derive from experience have more detail than memories we derive from imagination  
○ imagined are more related to the gist of the event ­­ associated meanings and feelings 
  
 
Chapter 9: Thinking and Language
370-372: Joyce
● Cognition​
: refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and 
communicating  
○ cognitive psychologists: study the logical ways in which we create concepts, solve problems, 
make decisions 
 
What are functions of concepts? 
● When we think, we form ​ concepts: ​ mental groupings of similar objects, events, and people   
○ ex. a chair is a concept, common features like seats and legs define the concept of the chair 
● We organize concepts by: 
○ category hierarchies (ex. cab drivers organize cities into geographical sectors → neighborhoods 
→ streets → blocks) 
○ definition (ex. triangle is shape with three sides, so all shapes with three sides are triangles) 
● Prototypes: ​ a mental image that incorporates all the features we associate with a category  
○ ex. (when we say bird we think of an image with feathers and wings: flamingo, kiwi, penguin) 
 
What strategies assist our problem solving, and what obstacles hinder it?  
● We use trial and error 
● We use ​ algorithms: ​ step by step procedures that guarantee a solution (but can be laborious and 
exasperating)  
○ Ex. when you’re looking for ice cream in a supermarket, instead of going straight to the frozen 
foods section where the ice cream would be, you systematically walk through every aisle  
● Simpler method of problem solving = ​ heuristics​: a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make 
judgments and some problems efficiently  
○ Ex. when you’re looking for ice cream, you go straight to the frozen foods section where the ice 
cream would be  
● Sometimes the answer comes with no strategy like ​ insight: ​
a sudden realization of the solution to a 
problem  
 
373-375: Jinney
● confirmation bias: ​ a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to 
ignore or distort contradictory evidence 
○ ex. imagine that a person holds a belief that left­handed people are more creative than 
right­handed people. Whenever this person encounters a person who is both left­handed and 
creative, they place greater importance on this “evidence” supporting their already existing 
belief. ­­> pointing to the behavior of individuals in order to support prejudicial beliefs toward 
entire groups.  
 ● Fixation​: the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set 
○ mental set:​  a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been 
successful in the past 
■ ex. problem #1: O­T­T­F­?­?­? (One, Two, Three, Four)  
■ when above is solved, helps to more easily solve Problem #2 : J­F­M­A­?­?­? (Jan, Feb, 
March, April) 
○ functional fixedness​ : the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an 
impediment to problem solving 
■ ex. the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions such as using a 
coin as a screwdriver would show a LAAAAACK of functional fixedness 
 
Using and Misusing Heuristics  
● Representativeness heuristic: ​ judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to 
represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information  
○ ex) person who is short, slim, and likes to read poetry. Is this person likely to be professor of 
classics at Ivy League or a truck driver?  
○ ex2) photo of a nerd, model ­­> who is more likely to be a Harvard graduate? obv the nerd, but 
acTUALLY THE MODEL IS HAHA 
● Availability heuristic​ : estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if 
instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are 
common 
○ ex) someone from particular ethnic group commits a terrorist act, our memory of the dramatic 
event may shape our impression of the whole group 
 
376-378: Joy Song
Overconfidence: ​ the tendency to be more confident than correct­ to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs 
and judgments.  
● can have serious consequences, but it does have adaptive value. Overconfident people live more 
happily, find it easier to make tough decisions, and seem more credible than those who lack 
self­confidence  
Belief perseverance: ​ clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been 
discredited 
● often fuels social conflict  
● remedy: consider the opposite; the more we appreciate why our beliefs might be true, the more tightly 
we cling on to them.  
Fear Factors 
● we fear what our ancestral history has prepared us to fear  
○ old brain prepares us to fear snakes, lizards, confinement, heights, flying 
● we fear what we cannot control  
○ driving we control, flying we don’t 
● we fear what is immediate  
○ threats in flying are in takeoff and landing, while dangers of driving are diffused  
● we fear what is most readily available in memory  
○ 9/11 is more impactful than car accidents  
Intuition​
: an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious 
reasoning  
 
379-381: Eunice
What do we fear? 
● What our ancestral history has prepared us to fear (ex. spiders) 
● What we cannot control (ex. flying) 
● What is immediate 
○ reason why we fear dying from a plane crash 
○ reason why smokers don’t fear death from lung cancer ­ death is not immediate 
● What is most readily available in our memory  
 
4: How do smart thinkers use intuition? 
Intuition​
: effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought 
● Intuition can lead to irrational thinking 
○ Important to check intuitions against reality 
● Intuitive reactions enable us to react quickly and usually adaptively 
○ Smart intuition is born of experience 
○ Intuition = analysis “frozen into habit” 
 

381-383: Justin
1. Framing: ​
The way that one can present an issue  
 a. 예: 10 out of 100 people who take Vicodin can suffer addiction vs. 90% of people who take 
Vicodin do not suffer addiction 
i. The first sounds more dire than the latter due to FRAMING 
ii. Mentioning “X out of Y” sounds more dire because it prompts people to imagine those X 
people who died/suffered side effects. 
b. 예: ​ Preferred portion size depends on framing:​   
i. regular vs small size meal 
1. people choose regular 
ii. large vs regular size meal (the regular size meal is the same size as the previous small 
meal and large = regular) 
1. people will choose regular here because of FRAMING 
2. Language:​  allows the transfer of meaning and ideas through sound and text.  
a. Allows us to transfer civilization’s accumulated language 
i. let’s us know what we haven’t seen 
3. Phonemes: ​ Set of basic sounds 
a. 예:  bat → 3 phonemes, ​ b ­ a ­ t 
b. 예: chat → 3 phonemes, ​ c ­ h ­ a ­ t 
c. consonants carry more information than vowels 
d. people who haven’t learned a set of phonemes can have trouble with another 
i. Koreans don’t know how to pronounce R, and Americans don’t know how to pronounce 
의 
e. Even sign languages have phonemes 
 
384-386: Celine
Morphemes 
● Morpheme: smallest unit of language that carries meaning 
○ Most morphemes are combinations of 2 or more phonemes 
Grammar 
● Grammar: system of rules (semantics + syntax) in a given language that enables us to communicate 
with and understand others 
○ Semantics: set of rules we use to derive meaning from morphemes, words & even sentences 
○ Syntax: rules we use to order words into sentences 
● Less­educated people simply speak a different dialect 
● Language becomes increasingly more complex as you move from one level to the next 
 
Language Development 
● We organize ourselves as we speak + adapt utterances to our social + cultural context 
 
When Do We Learn Language? 
Receptive Language 
● By 4 months of age, babies can discriminate speech sounds + read lips 
○ Marks development of receptive language (ability to comprehend speech) 
● At 7 months of age, babies start to segment spoken sounds into individual words 
○ Adeptness at this task predicts language abilities at ages 2 and 5 
Productive Language 
● Productive language (ability to produce words) matures after their receptive language 
 ● Around 3 months of age, babies enter babbling stage (in which they spontaneously utter a variety of 
sounds) 
○ Babbling includes sounds from various languages 
○ Deaf infants who observe Deaf parents begin to babble with their hands 
○ Many babbling sounds are consonant vowel pairs 
■ Formed by bunching tongue in front of mouth or opening & closing lips, both of which 
babies do for feeding 
● By 10 months of age, infants’ babbles can indicate the language of the household 
○ Without exposure to other languages, babies become functionally deaf to speech sounds 
outside their native language 
● One­word stage: stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a  child speaks 
mostly in single words to communicate meaning 
● By 18 months of age, children’s learning explodes from a word/week → a word/day 
● Two­word stage: beginning about age 2, stage in speech development during which a child speaks 
mostly two­word statements 
○ Contains mostly nouns and verbs 
○ Follows rules of syntax 
● If children get a late start on learning a particular language, their language development proceeds 
through same sequence, but at a faster pace 
● By elementary school, children understand complex sentences & double meanings 
 
Explaining Language Development 
*Attempts to explain how we acquire language have sparked intellectual controversy 
● Skinner: Operant Learning (nurture) 
○ We can explain language development with learning principles such as… 
■ Association of sights with sounds of words 
■ Imitation of words and syntax 
■ Reinforcement when child says something right 
○ “Verbal behavior came into existence when...the vocal musculature became susceptible to 
operant conditioning” 
● Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar (nature) 
○ We come pre­wired with a sort of switch box (language acquisition device in which switches are 
turned “on” or “off”) 
■ Children acquire untaught words & grammar at a rate too extraordinary to be explained 
solely by learning principles 
■ Children generate all sorts of sentences they have never heard, sometimes with errors 
 
387-389: Michelle
● universal grammar: all human languages have the same grammatical building blocks (nouns, verbs, 
negations, questions) ­ we can readily learn the specific grammar of a different language  
○ We start speaking in mostly nouns  
● Children have complex brain wiring that allows them to learn language. 
○ Skinner’s emphasis on ​ learning​ ­ “Infants acquire language through interaction” 
○ Chomsky’s emphasis on ​ built­in readiness​ : “humans have built in features that help them learn 
grammar rules so quickly.”  
Statistical Learning and Critical Periods 
● Our brains discern word breaks and analyzing which syllables most often go together.   
 ○ Jenny Saffran­ exposed 8 month old infants to computer voice speaking nonsense syllables. But 
they recognized 3 syllable sequences that appeared.  
○ 7 month old infants can detect syllable sequence (ABA or ABB) => proves that babies come 
with a built in readiness to learn grammar.  
● Childhood is the critical period for mastering certain aspects of language.  
○ Deaf children who gain cochlear implants at age 2 speak better than the ones who got the 
implants at age 4.  
○ Children that haven’t been exposed to language until age 7 lose their ability to master any 
language.  
● Conclusion​ : When young brain does not learn any language, its language learning capacity never fully 
develops. Same goes for sign language.  
○ Children can learn multiple languages without an accent and with good grammar if they are 
exposed to the language before puberty.  
○ Testing Korean and Chinese immigrants­ those who learned English early learned best.  
○ Late learners show less brain activity in right hemisphere than the natives. 
 
389-392: Andy
● Aphasia, an impaired use of language, can result from damage to any one of several cortical areas(ex­ 
Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area).  
● Broca’s area(left frontal lobe):1865, Paul Broca; controls language expression. Damage to this area 
results in a person struggling to speak words while still being able to sing familiar songs and 
comprehend speech. 
● Wernicke’s area(left temporal lobe):1874, Carl Wernicke; controls language reception. Damage to this 
area would result in a person speaking only meaningless words as the understanding is disrupted.  
After a century, Norman Geschwind amassed Broca’s and Wernicke’s findings to explain how we use 
language. 
 

 
Refer to the figure above. 
When you read aloud, the words (1) register in the visual area. Then they are relayed to the angular gyrus(2), 
which transforms the words into an auditory code that is received and understood in the nearby Wernicke’s 
area(3), and is sent back to Broca’s area(4), which controls the motor cortex(5) as it creates the pronounced 
word. ​Depending on which link or stage of this chain is damaged, a different form of aphasia occurs. 
● Today, we now know that more sites are involved than those portrayed in the figure above as 
neuroscience continues to enrich our understanding of language processing. Furthermore, fMRI scans 
reveal that different neural networks are activated by nouns and verbs, and by one’s native language 
and a second language learned later in life.    ex) adults who learned a second language early in life 
use the same patch of frontal lobe tissue to recount an event in either the native or the second 
language. 
● In information processing, the brain operates by dividing its mental functions  ­ speaking, perceiving 
thinking, remembering­ into subfunctions. 
● The two principles of specialization and integration of our specific neural networks and many brain 
areas → brain’s functioning 
● linguistic determinism hypothesis(Benjamin Lee Whorf 1936): different languages impose different 
conceptions of reality 
● Languages have different senses of self         ex)a bilingual person may show two different personality 
profiles when taking the same test in two different languages 
­Demonstrated in 2002, when Michael Ross, Elaine Xun, and Anne Wilson invited a China­born, 
bilingual University of Waterloo students to describe themselves in English or Chinese.­­> Responding in 
Chinese, students gave typically Chinese self­descriptions → language use shapes how the students thought 
of themselves 
● Words may not determine what we think, but they do influence our thinking 
ex) Piraha tribespeople have words for the numbers 1 and 2, but numbers above that are simply 
“many”. ­­­> Thus if shown 7 nuts, they find it very difficult to lay out the same number 
● Perceived differences grow when we assign different names to colors 

 
Because we classify the left side as green and the right side as blue, it is harder for us to differentiate the color 
difference of B than A. 
● Language helps thinking about or conceptualizing abstract ideas                                    ex)  to teach 
new ideas and new ways of thinking, this textbook introduces new terms 
● Bilingual Advantage: bilingual children are able to inhibit their attention to irrelevant information → 
demonstrates word power 
 
393-395: Kristen
● We often think in images  
○ for people who learned skills, even watching the activity will activate the brain’s internal 
simulation of it  
○ mental practice: standard part of training for athletes, academics  
○ proof that much of our information processing occurs outside of consciousness & beyond 
language  
● language influences our thinking but if thinking didn’t also affect language, there would never be any 
new words and without new words, we would never have new ideas  
○ the human mind is simultaneously capable of intellectual failures & power  
 ○ misjudgements are common so we must understand our capacity for error  
○ conclusion: our problem solving abilities & power of language makes humans “infinite in 
faculties”  
 
396-398: Jae
● Animals are smarter than we often realize 
○ Examples 
■ Baboon knows everyone’s voices within its 80­member troop 
■ Sheep can recognize individual faces 
● We are not the only creatures to display insight 
○ There is more to learning than conditioning for animal cognition 
■ Chimpanzees are natural tool users 
● They even select different tools for different purposes 
■ Animals also display a numerical ability 
● Example​ : The grey parrot, Alex, displayed a comprehension of numbers up to 6. 
○ Researchers found at least 39 local customs related to chimpanzee tool use 
■ There exists cultural diversity among chimpanzee groups  
■ Chimpanzees invent behaviors and transmit cultural patterns to their peers 
● Animals do communicate 
○ Monkeys have different alarm cries for different predators 
○ Whales communicate with clicks and wails 
○ Honeybees do a dance that informs other bees  
○ Rico (dog) knows and can fetch 200 items by name 
● The Case of the Apes 
○ Psychologist Gardner aroused interest when they taught sign language to the chimpanzee 
Washoe. 
■ Washoe could use 181 signs by age 32 
■ Washoe stringed signs together to form intelligible sentences 
○ Fascination with “talking apes” turned toward cynicism 
■ Apes gain their limited vocabularies only with great difficulty, unlike humans.  
 
399-401: Maggie (continued Case of the Apes)
● Case of the Apes Close­up: Talking Hands  
○ Just like humans Chimpanzees use sign language and​  Gestured Communication 
○ Gestures play a significant role in communication 
○  ex. gestures while talking on phone, teaching words through gestures for infants, when 
describing spatial content   
 
● Yet skeptics disagreed arguing that..  
○ Apes can only learn words after great difficulty unlikes humans who learn at a fast pace 
○ Their learning is nothing more than movements to gain rewards  
○ Chimps lack human syntax   
○ humans tend to see what they want/expect because of their ​ perceptual sets 
■ Interpreting chimpanzee signs as language because that’s what they want to interpret it 
as (착각)  
● Controversy in science stimulates Progress  
○ Ex. of further research include..   
 ■ Washoe taught her adopted son, Loulis, the gestures/signs she learned  
■ Loulis picked up 68 signs by observing Washoe 
○ Sue­Savage Rumbaugh Report 
■ Chimpanzees learned to comprehend syntax in English  
■ Like humans, chimpanzees must also have early exposure to speech and language 
● Animal researchers have so far proven that.. 
○ primates exhibit insight, show family loyalty, communicate with one another, display altruism, 
transmit cultural patterns across generations, and comprehend the syntax of human speech~ 
 
402-403: Kathleen (overall summary)
Thinking 
● Concepts 
○ Cognition: mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and 
communicating  
○ Concepts: mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, people 
■ Hierarchies: subdivisions 
● Strategies to assist our problem solving; hindering obstacles 
○ Algorithm: set of rules or procedures → guaranteed solution 
○ Heuristic: quick problem solving 
○ Insight: not strategy based; sudden flash of inspiration 
○ Confirmation bias: verify rather than challenge our hypotheses 
○ Fixation: mental, functional fixedness  
■ fresh perspective 
● Influence of heuristics, overconfidence, belief perseverance on decisions/judgments 
○ Representativeness heuristic → judge likelihood of things in terms of how they represent 
prototype 
○ Availability heuristic → judge likelihood of things based on how readily they come to mind  
○ Belief perseverance → consider how we might have explained an opposite result 
● Smart thinkers and their use of intuition 
○ human intuition: effortless, immediate, automatic 
● Framing 
○ way a question or statement is worded 
Language 
● Structural components of a language 
○ Phonemes: language basic units of sound 
○ Morphemes: elementary units of meaning 
○ Grammar: rules 
■ Semantic: meaning 
■ Syntax: structure 
● Milestones in language development 
○ timing varies from one child to another  
● Learning language 
○ B.F. Skinner: learn language by the familiar principles of association, imitation, and 
reinforcement 
● Brain areas: language processing 
○ integration of many specific neural networks performing specialized subtasks in many parts of 
the brain → language 
Thinking and Language 
● Relationship between language and thinking 
○ Linguistic determinism hypothesis: language determines thought 
○ Thinking in images can increase our skills → mental practice  
Animal Thinking and Language 
● Animal thinking 
○ concepts, insight, tools, numerical abilities, cultural innovations 
○ only humans can master verbal/signed expression of complex rules of syntax 
 

Chapter 10: Intelligence

405­406 (Up till the little paragraph on pg 407): ​ Judyyyy  
Intelligence test​ : a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing to them w/ those of 
others 
Intelligence​: ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations 
1: What argues for and against considering intelligence as one general mental ability? 
General intelligence (g)​ : a general intelligence factor that underlies specific mental abilities and measured by 
every task on an intelligence test 
● Concept developed by Spearman 
● Factor analysis​ : used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total 
score  
● One person that scores high in one area typically scores higher than average in other areas – 
Spearman and Thurstone 
 
407­409 (From “Theories of Multiple Intelligences” to the little paragraph on pg 410): ​ Joyce  
How do Garner’s and Sternberg’s theories of multiple intelligences differ?  
● Gardner’s Eight Intelligences   
○ Gardner views intelligence as multiple abilities that come in packages. He believes this because 
of people with diminished or exceptional abilities 
■ Ex. Brain damage leaves some abilities in tact and others gone  
■ Ex. People with ​ savant syndrome, ​ who often score low on intelligence tests but are 
amazing in other things (many people with savant syndrome also have autism) 
○ So Gardner argues that we have ​ multiple intelligences (​
8) 
■ Linguistic, Logical­mathematical, Musical, Spatial, Bodily­kinesthetic, Intrapersonal (self), 
Interpersonal (other people), Naturalist  
● LLMSBIIN: lee loves making some bread in icy night 
● Sternberg’s Three Intelligences 
○ Sternberg also agrees that there are multiple intelligences, but proposes three types 
■ Academic (problem­solving) intelligence:​  assessed by intelligence tests, where there 
is one right answer (can predict school grades and career success)  
■ Creative intelligence:​  demonstrated in reaction to new situations and ideas  
■ Practical intelligence​ : required for everyday tasks with multiple solutions  
● Ex. to be a manager, you don’t need academic success but more ability to 
manage oneself and other people 
● Sternberg measures this by skill at writing effective memos, motivating people, 
delegating tasks and responsibilities, reading people, etc 
 ■ Study​ : Sternberg teamed up with collegeboard and found new measures to test creative 
intelligence (thinking up caption for cartoon) and practical thinking (how to move a bed 
up the stairs)  

 
410­412 (From “Intelligence and Creativity”  to the little paragraph on pg 413): ​
Jinnay 
● creativity: ​the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable  
○ studies suggest that a certain level of aptitude (a standard intelligence test) does not determine 
one’s creativity 
○ two kinds of thinking (creativity, intelligence) engage different brain areas 
■ intelligence tests (demands a single correct answer) require ​ convergent thinking 
■ creativity tests require ​ divergent thinking 
● Sternberg’s five components of creativity:  
1. Expertise  ● well­developed base of knowledge, furnishes 
the ideas, images, and phrases we use as 
mental building blocks 
● more blocks we have ­> more changes we 
have to combine them in novel ways 
● Wiles’ well­ developed base of knowledge put 
the needed theorems and methods at his 
disposal 

      2.Imaginative thinking skills  ● provides the ability to see things in novel 
ways, to recognize patterns, and to make 
connections 
● Wiles’ imaginative solution combined two 
partial solutions 
● ex. Copernicus developed expertise 
regarding solar system and then creatively 
defined the system as revolving around the 
Sun, not the Earth 

      3. Adventuresome personality  ● seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity 
 and risk, and perseveres in overcoming 
obstacles 
● ex. Thomas Edison tried countless 
substances before finding the right one for his 
light bulb filament 
● Wiles labored in near­isolation from the 
mathematics community partly to stay 
focused and avoid distraction 
● venturing ­> different cultures ­> fosters 
creativity 

      4. Intrinsic motivation  ● being driven more by interest, satisfaction, 
and challenge than by external pressures 
● creative people focus less on extrinsic 
motivators (meeting deadlines, impressing 
people, making money) than on the pleasure 
and stimulation of the work itself 

      5. A creative environment  ● sparks, supports, refines creative ideas 
● those who are mentored, challenged, and 
supported by colleagues are found to be 
most eminent in the future  
● creativity­fostering environments often 
support contemplation 
 
● Emotional Intelligence 
○ the ability to perceive , understand, manage, and use emotions  
○ (four emotional intelligence components) abilities to:  
■ perceive ​ emotions (to recognize them in faces, music, stories) 
■ understand ​ emotions (to predict them and how they change and blend) 
■ manage ​ emotions (to know how to express them in varied situations) 
■ use​  emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking 
○ those scoring high on managing emotions enjoy higher­quality interactions with friends + 
avoid being hijacked by overwhelming depression, anxiety, or anger 
○ brain damage reports have provided extreme examples of the results of diminished 
emotional intelligence in people with high general intelligence 
 
413­415 (From “Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable?” to the top half of pg 415): ​Allison  
Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable? 
Brain Size and Complexity 
● Scientists studied brains of geniuses to see whether people with big brains are smarter 
● Discovered a correlation of +0.33 between brain size and intelligence score → moderate 
● As adults age, brain size and nonverbal intelligence test scores fall in concert 
● Study of Einstein’s brain 
○ not notably heavier or larger than other brains 
○ parietal lobe’s lower region is 15% larger → center of processing mathematical and spatial 
information 
○ Other areas were a little smaller than average 
○ Einstein was a great physicist but was slow to learn to talk 
 ● Intelligence moderately correlates with brain size → cause = genes, nutrition, envi stimulation etc 
● Highly intelligent people differ in their neural plasticity → ability during childhood and adolescence to 
adapt and grow neural connections in response to their environment 
● Brain scanning 307 children → most intelligent kids had thinner brain cortex which progressively 
thickened as they grew up 
 
Brain Function 
● As people contemplate questions like those found on intelligence tests → frontal lobe area becomes 
active  → information from other parts of the brain converge here  
● Verbal intelligence scores are predictable from the speed with which people retrieve info from memory 
○ quick­wittedness → scientists taking close look at speed or perception 
● Perceptual speed 
○ Moderate correlation between intelligence score and speed of taking a perceptual information 
○ Experiment: Flash incomplete stimulus then a masking image (overrides the lingering 
afterimage) → ask questions like where did the long side appear?

 
○ Those who perceive quickly → tend to score highly on intelligence test 
● Neurological speed 
○ Brain waves register a simple stimulus more quickly and with greater complexity 
○ Brain response is faster when people with high intelligence scores perform simple task 
● Controversy over the nature of intelligence 
 
416­417 (Start from “Assessing Intelligence” short paragraph on pg 415): ​ Michelle J 
Assessing​  ​
Intelligence 
The Origins of Intelligence Testing 
6: When and why were intelligence tests created? 
● Plato’s individualism­ people in western societies wondered why humans differ in mental ability 
● Francis Galton ­ tried to measure natural ability and encouraged those with high ability to mate with one 
another 
Alfred Binet: Predicting School Achievement 
● France passed law requiring that all children attend school, to minimize bias against different 
backgrounds, Binet was hired to study intelligence 
● Binet­”All children follow the same course of intellectual development, but some develop more rapidly” 
● Mental age​ : Measure of intelligence devised by Binet; age that corresponds to given level of 
performance 
● Binet believed that the environment affects the child’s mental age & his intelligence test did not 
measure inborn intelligence or aptitude 
 
Lewis Terman: The Innate IQ 
 ● Terman established new age norms to test teenagers­ superior adults 
● Stanford­Binet: American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test 
● William Stern created Intelligence Quotient (IQ): defined as the ratio of mental age to chronological age 
X 100 
IQ= (mental age/chronological age) x100 
● This formula worked well for children but not for adults 
● Most current intelligence test show the person’s performance relative to average performance of others 
the same ag 
● Terman tried to use this testing to encourage only the smart people to reproduce (eugenics) 
● US government developed new tests immigrants and WW1 army recruits 
● The results indicated that white men were superior due to bias in the questions 
 
418­420 (Finish the standardization paragraph that spills onto pg 221): ​ Elizabeth Huh 
● Modern Tests of Mental Abilities 
○ achievement tests​ : a test designed to assess what a person has learned 
■ eg. psychology chapter quizzes 
○ aptitude tests​ : test designed to predict a person’s future performance (aptitude is the capacity 
to learn)  
■ eg. a college entrance exam 
○ differences between the two types are not so clear => most tests asses both ability and 
development 
■ achieved vocab influences your score on aptitude tests 
■ your aptitudes for learning influence your grades on achievement tests 
○ Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales (WAIS) 
■ developed by David Wechsler 
■ versions for school age student and preschool children 
■ consists of 11 subtests broken into verbal and performance areas + yields both overall 
intelligence scores AND separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual 
organization, etc 
● differences amongst scores show clues to cognitive strengths or weaknesses 
that teachers or therapists can build upon 
● Principles of Test Construction 
○ (1) Standardization 
■ standardization​ : the process of defining meaningful scores by comparison with the 
performance of a pretested group 
■ number of questions mean nothing when you don’t have a basis for comparing it with 
others’ performance => get representative sample of people 
■ scores distributed into bell­shaped pattern that forms ​ normal curve​  (the symmetrical bell 
shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological 
attributes) 
● on intelligence tests, the midpoint is the average score (100) 
■ to keep average score near 100, Stanford­Binet and WEchsler scales are periodically 
restandardized 
■ Comparing performance of most recent standardization sample with 1930s sample, 
rising or declining test performance? 
● worldwide phenomenon called ​ Flynn effect​
: intelligence test performance has 
been improving 
● Flynn effect observed in 20 countries 
 ● Flynn effect still a mystery (from greater test sophistication? better nutrition?) 
● regardless, the phenomenon counters one concern that the higher 20th century 
birth rates among those with lower scores would shove human intelligence 
scores downward 

 
 
421­422 (From “Reliability” to top half of pg 422): ​ yuniiii  
Reliability 
● The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two 
halves of the test, or on retesting 
● If two scores on different tests agree; ​ or correlate,​ the test is reliable 
● Higher the correlation between the test­retest or split­half (dividing the test into odd­number and 
even­number questions) scores = higher the reliability of the test 
Validity 
● High reliability does not ensure a test’s validity 
● Validity:​  the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to do 
○ Content validity​ : the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest 
○ Predictive validity​ : the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; 
it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior 
■ Expected to be in intelligence tests 
● Predictive power of aptitude scores diminish as students grow older 
○ For children ages 6­12, academic aptitude tests are reasonably good predictors of their future 
achievements 
 
423­424 (From “The Dynamics of Intelligence” on pg 422 to top half of pg 424): ​ Michelle L 
Stability or Change? ​ How stable are intelligence scores over the lifespan? 
● there are few known effective/efficient methods to test infants’ intelligence before ​ age 3 
● by ​ age 4​, intelligence tests predict adolescent/adult scores 
○ ex. high­scoring adolescents tend to have been early readers 
● after ​ age 7​ , intelligence test scores tend to stabilize 
○ therefore, consistency of scores increase with age of child 
● 2004 Ian Deary and colleagues conducted a study in Scotland 
○ Children (ages of 10 ½ to 11 ½) born in 1921 were given an intelligence test 
○ Objective: identify working­class children who would benefit from further education 
○ Correlation between scores of the 11­year olds later as the same 80­year olds 
■ Strong: +0.66 
○ Those who scored higher on the Scottish intelligence test tended to live longer with less chance 
of developing disease 
 
425­426 (From “Extremes of Intelligence” on pg 424 to short paragraph on pg 427): ​ Jae 
● Extremes of Intelligence 
 ○ compare ​
One way to see the validity and significance of a test is to ​ the two extremes of the 
normal curve 
○ The Low Extreme 
■ One extreme of the normal curve contains people who have ​ mental retardation 
● A condition of limited mental ability 
● Must have a low test score  
● Difficulty adapting to the normal demands 
■ Mental retardation has a known physical cause 
● One example is ​ Down syndrome 
○ disorder caused by an extra chromosome in a genetic make up 
■ Compared to the past, people with mental retardation are treated better 
● Educated in less restrictive environments 
● Integrated into regular classrooms 
● Happier and more dignified life 
■ With the intelligence tests restandardized, individuals who scored near 70 suddenly lose 
about 6 IQ points 
● Number of people diagnosed with retardation suddenly jumped 
○ More eligible for special education 
○ More eligible for Social Security payments 

 
 
427­428 (From “Genetic and Environmental Influences of Intelligence” on pg 427): ​ Justin  
1. Genetic vs. Environmental intelligence 
a. If intelligence is genetic, then there could be class difference, while environmental promotes 
upward mobility 
b. Identical twins from different backgrounds do almost identically on tests, have similar gray 
matter volume 
c. There is evidence that intelligence is polygenetic, or decided by several genes 
d. Other evidence points to environment, like adoption enhances intelligence scores 
2. Decisive test 
a. compared Intelligence test scores of adopted children with those of their adoptive siblings and 
with those of their biological and adoptive parents. 
 b. Results: they start out similar to adoptive family, but the similarities disappear with age and life 
experience 
 
429­431 (From “Heritability on pg 429 to top half of pg 431): ​ Eunice 
Heritability​ : the variation in intelligence test scores attributable to genetic factors  
­ heredity = 50% of the variation in intelligence among ppl studied  
­ genes and environment work together  
­ Ex) someone w/ a natural aptitude for academics is more likely to stay in school, read more 
books, etc. 
 
Early Environmental Influences:  
­ J McVicker Hunt: among the poor, environmental conditions can override genetic differences, 
depressing cognitive development   
­ siblings from poor families have more similar intelligence scores, poor schools have less 
qualified teachers and lower achievement scores, malnutrition, sensory deprivation, social 
isolation retards normal brain development   
­ BUT enriched environment doesn’t guarantee superior intelligence  
­ no recipe for turning infant → genius but all babies should have sufficient exposure to sights, 
smells, speech         
­ Intelligence promotion:  
­ Mozart effect: classical music boosts cognitive ability (discounted) 
­ keyboard/vocal music training is beneficial  
­ targeted training of specific abilities trains mental muscles  
       
Schooling & Intelligence  
­ schooling & intelligence interact, both enhance future income  
­ quality programs that offer individual attention increase school readiness (decrease likelihood of 
repeating grade, special education)   
­ Hunt: believed education boosted children’s chances for success by developing cognitive abilities  
­ aptitude benefits = usually short term but are long term benefits:  
­ boost in emotional intelligence: create better attitudes towards learning, reducing school drop 
outs, criminality     
­ intelligence depends on your motivation & beliefs: if you believe that intelligence is changeable, you will 
focus more on learning & growing  
 
432­433 (From “Group DIfferences in Intelligence Test Scores” on pg 431): ​ Maaaaggie 
Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores 
● How and why do gender and racial groups differ in mental ability scores?  
Though men and women generally show similar intelligence scores, they show differences in their abilities for 
more specific skills..evidence suggests that environmental differences are largely, perhaps entirely responsible 
for these group differences. 
 
● Gender Similarities v Differences  
           ~Gender similarities > gender differences~but people have more interest in differences  
● Differences 
○ Spelling​ : females are better spellers 
○ Verbal Ability​ : females excel at verbal fluency and remembering words and facts 
 ■
 ex. German medical test showed that when told to remember certain medical facts, 
women remembered more than men  
○ Nonverbal memory​ : females > men in memory for picture associations, remembering and 
locating objects 
○ Sensation​ : females are more sensitive to touch, taste, and odor than men 
○ Emotion­detecting ability​ : Females>>>Males                                                                   ...this 
explains why women have greater responsiveness to emotions! 
○ Math/spatial aptitude​ : Male relatively = Female 
■ men are better at spatial ability tests/diagrams so they are better at chess and geometry 
problems.. 
● Ancestral Evidence 
○ Ancestral Fathers: helped track prey and find their way back home  
○ Ancestral Mothers: keen memory in remembering locations of edible plants  
● Evolutionary Psychologist Steven Pinker 
○ “biological/social influences affect gender life priorities, risk taking, math and spatial abilities” 
● Gender­Equal Cultures vs Gender Unequal Cultures  
○ Equal Cultures show less gender math/aptitude test detail gap 
■  ex. Iceland, Sweden 
○ Unequal cultures show greater gender math/aptitude test detail gap 
■ ex. Turkey and Korea (zzz..)  
● Greater male variability 
○ Males' mental ability scores show to vary more than females' 
Boys outnumber girls at both low/high extremes of scores..남자 천재도 더 많고 남자 바보도 더 많음 
 
434­436 (From “Ethnic Similarities and Differences” on pg 434 to short paragraph on pg 437): ​ Andy 
Disturbing but agreed­upon facts: 
1. Racial groups differ in their average intelligence scores 
­bell curve for American Blacks’ IQ is roughly around 85 
­from aptitude tests 
­however, Black­White difference has diminished somewhat 
    2. High­scoring people(and groups) are more likely to attain high levels of education and income 
● There are differences among other groups 
­New Zealanders of European descent outscore native Maori New Zealanders 
­Israeli Jews outscore Israeli Arabs 
­Japanese outscore the stigmatized Japanese minority, the Burakumin 
­Those who can hear outscore those born deaf 
● However, everyone agrees that group differences provide little basis for judging individuals 
­On average, women outlive men by six years 
­millions of Blacks have higher IQs than the average White 
● Although individual performance differences may be substantially genetic, the group difference is not 
­Giving different nutrients to each identical twin would result in the twins having different 
heights­​ environmental effect 
● Genetics research reveals that under the skin, the races are remarkably alike. Individual differences 
within a race are much greater than differences between races. 
­genetic differences between two Icelandic villagers or between two kenyans greatly exceeds the group 
difference between Icelanders and Kenyans 
● Looks can deceive 
 ­light­skinned Europeans and dark­skinned Africans are genetically closer than dark­skinned Africans 
and dark­skinned Aboriginal Australians 
● Race is not a neatly defined biological category, but behavioral traits may vary by race. 
­Medical risks, such as cancer or high blood pressure, vary by race 
­No runners of Asian or European descent has broken 10 seconds in the 100­meter dash, but dozens 
of runners of West African descent have done so 
● According to social scientists, race is seen as a social construction without well­defined physical 
boundaries as people with varying ancestry may categorize themselves in the same race. Also, with 
increasingly mixed ancestries, more and more people defy neat racial categorizations. 
● Asian students outperform North American students on math achievement and aptitude tests → reflects 
conscientousness more than competence 
­Asian students attend school 30 percent more days per year and spend much more time in and out of 
school studying math 
● White and Black infants have score equally well on an infant intelligence measure 
● When Blacks and Whites have or receive the same pertinent knowledge, they exhibit similar 
information­processing skill 
● In different eras, different ethnic groups have experienced golden ages­ periods of remarkable 
achievement 
­2500 years ago, GReeks and the Egyptians then the Romans; in the eighth and ninth centuries, genius 
seemed to reside in the Arab world; 500 years ago, the Aztec Indians and the peoples of Northern Europe; 
Today, people marvel at Asians’s technological genius → ​ Cultures rise and fall over centuries; genes do 
not. It is difficult to attribute a natural superiority to any race 
● From eighth grade through the early high school years, the average aptitude test score of the White 
students increased, while those of the Black students decreased creating a gap. However, during 
college, the Black students’ scores increased more than four times as much as those of their White 
counterparts → ​ educational environments’ effect 
 
437­439 (From “The Question of Bias):​ Kathleen 
The Question of Bias 
I. Race differences in intelligence (Earl Hunt, Jerry Carlson) 
A. There are genetically disposed race differences in intelligence. 
B. There are socially influenced race differences in intelligence. 
C. There are race differences in test scores, but the tests are inappropriate or biased. 
II. Two Meanings of Bias 
A. Biased test: detects innate + performance (caused by cultural experiences) differences in  
intelligence  
i. Defenders of aptitude testing: racial group differences are at least as great on nonverbal  
items 
B. Scientific meaning: whether the test predicts future behavior only for some groups of test­takers 
III. Test­Takers’ Expectations 
A. Expectations & attitude influence perceptions and behaviors 
B. Stereotype threat: a self­confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative  
stereotype 
C. Conclusion on aptitude tests and bias 
i. biased: sensitivity to performance differences caused by cultural experience 
ii. not biased: scientific sense of making valid statistical predictions for different groups 
D. Are tests discriminatory? 
i. yes: purpose is to discriminate/distinguish among individuals 
 ii. no: purpose is to reduce discrimination by reducing reliance on subjective criteria for  
school and job placement  
E. Goals for tests of mental abilities 
i. realize benefits 
ii. remain alert to possibility that intelligence test scores may be misinterpreted as literal  
measures of a person’s worth and potential 
iii. remember that the competence that general intelligence tests sample is important 
a. helps enable success in some life paths, but reflects only one aspect of personal  
competence 
 
Chapter 11: Motivation and Work 
(​
finish​
 “instincts and evolutionary psychology paragraph on pg 445) ​ Jinney 
● Motivation: ​ need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal 
Motivational Concepts 
● Four perspectives (I Dig Artsy Hair) are used to understand motivated behaviors  
○ Instinct theory (replaced by evolutionary perspective): focuses on genetically predisposed 
behaviors  
○ Drive­reduction theory: focuses on how our inner pushes and external pulls interact 
○ Arousal theory: focuses on finding the right level of stimulation 
○ Hierarchy of needs: describes how some of our needs take priority over others.. 
Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology  
● People are motivated by ​ instincts 
○ Instincts: ​ complex behavior that must have a fixed pattern throughout a species and be 
unlearned 
■ William James: instincts stem from innate tendencies 
■ People inherit ​ social behavioral ​ (love, sympathy, modesty, etc.) and ​
survival instincts 
(ex. child’s impulse for sucking from its mother’s breast) 
○ Charles Darwin: instincts are a product of ​ natural selection 
■ Natural Selection: instinctual behaviors that increase reproductive success become   
Joyce 
Drives and Incentives 
● When the original instinct theory of motivation collapsed, it was replaced by ​ drive reduction theory, 
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce the need 
○ when a physiological need increases, so does a psychological drive  
● The physiological aim of drive reduction is ​ homeostasis, ​ the maintenance of a steady internal state 
○ an example of homeostasis is the body’s temperature­regulation system 
● Not only are we pushed by our “need” to reduced drives, we are also pulled by ​ incentives, ​positive or 
negative stimuli that lure or repel us  
● When there is both a need and an incentive, we feel a strong drive. The food deprived person who 
smells baking bread feels a strong hunger drive. In the presence of that drive, the baking bread 
becomes an incentive.  
Optimum Arousal  
● Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal  
● Having all our biological needs satisfied, we feel driven to experience stimulation and we hunger for 
information  
A Hierarchy of Motives  
 ● Maslow’s hierarchy of needs → Physiological → Safety → Belongingness/love → Esteem → 
Self­Actualization → Self­Transcendence  
 

   
448­449(​
from​
 “hunger” on pg 447 ​
to​
 top talf of pg 449) ​
Michelle J 
Hunger  
● Ancel Keys fed volunteers just enough to maintain their initial weight and then cut the food level in half.   
○ They began to conserve energy­ became apathetic and their weight stabilized at 25% below 
their starting weight.  
○ Obsession with food­ talking & daydreaming about it, collected recipes and cookbooks.  
○ Because of the unfulfilled basic need, they lost interest in sex and social activities  
○ illustrate power of motives to hijack our consciousness. 
● People in a motivational hot state (hungry, thirsty, sexually aroused) become aware of having those 
feelings in the past and more sympathetic others with similar desire.  
● Children that are thirsty choose to have water instead of pretzels tomorrow, but children that are not 
thirsty choose pretzels.  
● Grocery shopping when you’re hungry makes you think that something is what you’ve always loved and 
will be wanting tomorrow.  
 
The Physiology of Hunger  
2: What physiological factors produce hunger?  
● Cannon & Washburn­ swallowed a balloon to monitor stomach contractions and pressed a key when he 
felt hungry.  
● Discovery: he had stomach contractions whenever he felt hungry  
● Researchers removed rat’s stomachs and attached esophagi to small intestines­ they continued to eat.  
 
449­451(​from​
 “body chemistry and the brain” on pg 449 ​ to​ the top half of pg 451) ​
Kristen 
● people automatically regulate their caloric intake to prevent energy deficits, maintain a stable body 
weight 
 ● When glucose (the form of sugar that circulates in the blood, provides major source of energy for body 
tissues) is low, we feel hunger  
○ increase in hormone insulin converts glucose into stored fat (diminishes it) → brain triggers 
hunger  
● 2 hypothalamic centers influence eating:  
○ lateral: brings on hunger by producing hormone orexin (stimulated= start eating, destroyed = no 
interest in food) 
○ ventromedial: depresses hunger (if stimulated an animal will stop eating, destroyed = really fat) 
○ also monitors levels of body’s other appetite hormones: ghrelin (hunger arousing hormone), 
obestatin (suppresses hunger), PYY & leptin (diminish rewarding pleasure of food) 
● experimental manipulation of appetite hormones → hopes for an appetite reducing medication that 
counteracts body’s hunger producing chemicals OR mimic/increase levels of hunger dampening 
chemicals  
● weight thermostat = body’s predisposition to maintaining itself at certain weight level  
○ set point​ : the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the 
body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to 
restore the lost weight.  
○ critics: slow sustained changes in body weight can alter one’s set point, psychological factors 
drive our feelings of hunger 
● bodies regulate food through: control of food intake, energy output,​  basal metabolic rate​ (body’s 
resting rate of energy expenditure) 
 
451­452(​from​ “the psychology of hunger” on pg 451 ​ to​
 short paragraph that spills over on pg 453) ​
Judy 
3: What psychological and cultural factors influence hunger? 
Taste preferences: biology and culture 
● Carbohydrates help boost levels of serotonin → calming effects 
● Preferences for sweet and salty tastes are genetic and universal 
● Culture influences taste 
● More likely to like things after being exposed to it multiple times – “neophobia” (dislike of unfamiliar 
things) 
The ecology of eating 
● Situations control our eating 
● People eat more when eating with others 
● Unit bias: people eat more when the units of food are bigger 
● For cultures to reduce obesity rates, standard portion sizes should be reduced 
 
453­454(​from​ “eating disorders” on pg 453 ​ to​
 short paragraph that spills over on pg 455) ​Michelle L 
● Sometimes, psychological influences overwhelm biological wisdom  
● Anorexia nervosa 
○ an eating disorder in which a person diets and loses significant weight and continues to starve 
thinking (she) is fat 
○ binge­purge­depression cycle 
● Bulimia Nervosa 
○ an eating disorder in which a person gorges on high­calorie foods in sessions followed by 
vomiting, taking laxatives, fasting, or overexercising  
● Binge­eating Disorder 
○ significant binge­eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without 
compensatory purging, fasting, or overexercising (which characterize bulimia) 
 ● Family environment can influence development of eating disorders 
○ Mothers who focus on their own weight and the appearance of their daughters  
○ Families that have high­incidence of childhood obesity and negative self­evaluation 
○ Families that are high­achieving, competitive, protective  
● People with anorexia nervosa: 
○ have low­self evaluations 
○ set perfectionist standards 
○ are scared of falling short of expectations 
○ are concerned with how others perceive them  
■ Factors predict some boys’ pursuit of unrealistic muscularity  
● Genetics may influences may affect susceptibility to eating disorders  
○ + culture and gender influences (body ideals vary across culture and time) 
■ ex. Africa: plumpness means prosperous and thinness means poverty 
● Men more likely to be overweight and women more likely to perceive themselves as overweight 
○ Most women would rather have a perfect body than a mate with a perfect body while men 
preferred the reverse 
● Those most vulnerable to eating disorders: 
○ idealize thinness 
○ have body dissatisfaction 
○ feel ashamed, depressed, and dissatisfied by their bodies 
● Weight­obsessed culture → pressures women to live at state of semistarvation 
○ Prevention programs will increase acceptance of one’s body  
■ Should be interactive and focus on girls over age of 15 
 
455­457(​ from​
 “obesity and weight control” on pg 455 ​ to​
 top half of pg 457) ​
Kathleen 
I. Obesity and Weight Control 
A. Fat = ideal form of stored energy (high calorie fuel reserve to carry the body through periods when  
food is scarce) 
B. Lots of obese people these days ­­ “global epidemic” of diabetes 
i. Risk: diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, cancer, shortened  
life expectancy, Alzheimer’s disease, brain tissue loss 
ii. pear­shaped people < apple­shaped people = greater risk 
C. BMI = (weight in kg / squared height in meters) 
 
457­458(​ from​
 “the social effects of obesity” on pg 457) ​
Eunice 
The Social Effects of Obesity 
● Obesity can be sexually toxic → affects how people are treated and how they feel about themselves 
● Weight bias esp. strong against women 
● Weight discrimination is greater than race/gender discrimination (justified by lower rate of being hired in 
businesses) 
● Obesity is associated with lower psychological well­being esp. among women, 25% increase in 
depression and anxiety 
 
The Physiology of Obesity 
● Fat Cells 
○ Typical adult has 30­40 billion fat cells → half of them near skin’s surface 
○ Fat cells can vary from empty to full 
 ○ In obese people, fat cells may swell 2­3 times normal size → then divide/trigger nearby 
immature fat cells ­ up to 75 billion fat cells 
○ As # of fat cells increases, it never decreases  
○ On a diet, fat cells may shrink but number doesn’t 
○ “Dieters will lose a pound for every 3500 calorie reduction in their diet” → FALSE 

 
 
459­460(​ finish up to​ “the genetic factor” on pg 460) ​
Maggie 
Set Point and Metabolism  
Fat has lower metabolic rate­> less food energy to maintain  
Classic month long experiment  
Obese test experiment daily intake reduced from 3500 cal to 450 cal only lost 6% of weight  
­> bodies acted as if starved, so metabolism dropped 15% ­> this is our body conserving energy 
­metabolism explains why people with same height, age, and activity can have the same weight  regardless of 
how much they eat 
 
The Genetic Factor 
­Our weights tend to resemble biological parents 
­Identical twins have similar weights even when reared apart ~ +0.74 correlation  
­Children of obese parents are more likely to be obese 
­YES~genes do predispose the size of our jeans~ 
 
460­462(​ from​ “the food and activity factors” on pg 460 ​
to​
 top half of pg 462) ​
Yuni 
The Food and Activity Factors 
● Those who lack sleep = more vulnerable to obesity 
● Sleep deprivation → levels of leptin (which reports body fat to the brain) falls & ghrelin (stomach 
hormone that stimulates appetite) increases 
● People more likely to become obese when a friend became obese (​ social influence) 
● People across the globe are getting fatter ​ (environmental influence) 
○ Changing food consumption & activity levels 
○ Inactivity compounded by food unit portions of high­calorie foods 
● WHO anti­obesity charter 
○ Beckons private sector to ‘substantially reduce’ its advertising of fatty, sugary foods to children 
& commits government to increasing the availability of healthy foods and roadways that promote 
cycling and walking 
● Some states are now setting nutritional standards for school­provided food & drink 
 
462­464(​ from​ “losing weight” on pg 462) ​ Jae 
● Losing Weight 
○ Having lost weight, formerly obese people look normal 
■ However,  
● Their fat cells may be too small 
 ● Their metabolism slowed 
● Their minds obsessed with food. 
○ Permanent weight loss is not easy 
■ Most who succeed on a weight­loss program regain the lost weight or more 
■ To prevent that, you have to modify your lifestyle and ongoing eating behavior 
○ When people try repeatedly to lose weight, more of them do succeed 
■ Failure rates recorded for weight­loss programs are based on single attempts at weight 
loss 
○ Other option for overweight people is to accept one’s weight 
■ Dieters are more likely to binge when under stress or after breaking their diets 
■ It is better to accept oneself as a bit heavy than to diet and binge and feel guilty 
 
465­466(​
finish up to​ top half of pg 466) ​ Alex  
Sexual Motivation ( WHY SEX?) 
The Physiology of Sex 
● The Sexual Response Cycle 
○ the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson ­ excitement, plateau, 
orgasm, and resolution  
○ excitement​  stage: the​ genital areas​  become engorged with blood (women ­ vagina expands 
and secretes lubricant, and breasts and nipples may enlarge) 
○ plateau​  stage: excitement peaks (breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates increase)  
■ penis becomes fully engorged and some fluid (...) containing sperm enable conception 
■ vaginal secretion continues to increase, clitoris retracts, orgasm feels imminent 
○ orgasm​  stage: muscle contractions all over the body 
■ positioning of the uterus to receive sperm, drawing sperm inward 
■ woman’s orgasm not only reinforces intercourse, but also increases retention of 
deposited sperm  
○ feeling of pleasure same for both men and women (same areas of brain stimulated) 
○ resolution​  stage: body returns to its unaroused state  
■ engorged genital blood vessels release their accumulated blood  
■ male enters ​ refractory period​ : a resting period after orgasm, during which a man 
cannot achieve another orgasm 
● refractory period longer for men than women  
■ sexual disorders​ : a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning 
● lack of sexual energy and arousability  
● for men, premature ejaculation and erectile dysfunction (inability to have or 
maintain an erection)  
● for women, orgasmic dysfunction (infrequently or never experiencing orgasm) 
○ relate sexual distress to emotional relationship, not physical aspects of 
the activity  
● can be helped by therapy! 
○ men to learn ways to control their urge to ejaculate  
○ women to be trained to bring themselves to orgasm  
 
466­467(​
finish​
 “hormones and sexual behavior” that starts on pg 466 and ends of 467)  
Hormones and Sexual Behavior 
● Sex hormones have two effects 
○ direct the physical development of male and female sex characters 
 ○ activate sexual behavior 
●  In most mammals, nature neatly synchronizes sex with fertility  
○ female becomes sexually receptive when secretion of the female hormones, the ​ estrogens 
peak during ovulation  
○ male hormone levels are more constant, and the researchers cannot so easily manipulate the 
sexual behavior of males with hormones 
■ Experiment: Male rats lost their testes, which manufacture the male sex hormone 
testosterone, and lost most of their interest in females  
● In humans, hormones more loosely influence sexual behavior 
○ Women 
■ For women, sexual desire is raised during ovulation  
■ Women are different from female mammals because they are more responsive to 
testosterone level than to estrogen levels   
● if a woman’s natural testosterone level drops, as happens with the removal of 
ovaries, her sexual interest may wane 
○ Men 
■ Normal fluctuations in testosterone levels have little effect on the sexual drive  
● however, fluctuations in male hormones are partly a response to sexual 
stimulation 
○ Experiment: 2 male college students spoke with either a male/female 
student. The men’s testosterone levels rose with the social arousal, but 
especially after talking to the female.  
○ Thus, sexual arousal can be a cause as well as a consequence of 
increased testosterone levels  
○ A person’s interest in dating and sex increases with the pubertal surge in sex hormones  
○ Sex drive typically falls as testosterone levels decline  
○ In later life, as sex hormone levels decline, the frequency of sexual fantasies and intercourse 
declines as well  
 
467­469(​from​ “the psychology of sex” on pg 467 ​
to​ “imagined” stimuli which spills over on pg 469) ​
Sara 
The Psychology of Sex  
● affected by internal physiological factors and external factors such as cultural expectations and 
imagined stimuli 
External Stimuli 
● women express just as much arousal when reading erotic material as men do  
○ men have more active amygdalas in fMRI scans 
● repeated exposure to erotic stimulus often lessens, or habituates 
● depictions of women enjoying sex lead to viewers falsely perceiving that women enjoy rape → male 
viewers willing to hurt and endanger women 
● men who view sexually attractive women in the media tend to view their partners as less attractive 
Imagined Stimuli 
● brain = most significant sex organ 
● imagination can influence sexual arousal and desire 
● dreams have the potential to be erotic ­­ genetic arousal during dreams 
● sexual fantasies are common 
 
469­471(​from​ “adolescent sexuality” on pg 469 ​
to​
 top half of pg 471) ​
Lauren  
Teen Pregnancy 
 ● American teens have a lower contraception use → more sexual activity & abortions  
○ ignorance:​  many teens are unaware about STI/STD (sexually transmitted infections/diseases), 
overestimate their peer’s sexual activity 
■ more education can lead to safer sex &/or delaying sexual intercourse 
○ lack of communication about birth control: ​ teens that talk more openly to their 
parents/peers/partner about using birth control tend to use contraceptives 
○ guilt:​
 many teenage girls say they regret having sex → can lower chances of having sex OR “in 
the moment” sex can reduce chances of using birth control  
○ alcohol: ​many sexually active teens tend to use alcohol → lower inhibits so more likely to not 
use contraceptives 
○ media:​  the more sexual media that teens are exposed to, they are more likely to engage in 
sexual acts/have sexual thoughts 
Sexually Transmitted Infections 
● teenage girls are especially vulnerable to STI/STD’s because their biological developments have not 
fully matured & do not have as many protective antibodies (immune system)  
● condoms do not prevent skin­to­skin transferred STIs  
○ but can prevent HIV (~80%)  
● more awareness about STI & abstinence  
○ higher intelligence:​  students with higher intelligence tend to delay sex because they are more 
aware of the negative consequences   
○ religious attachment:​  actively religious teens tend to wait until marriage before engaging in sex 
○ father presence:​  a father’s absence in a girl’s childhood → more likely to have sex before 16 yrs 
old & teen pregnancy 
○ participating in service learning programs:​  teens who volunteer in service projects, tutoring, 
teaching have lower teen pregnancy rates 
■ unsure exactly why → little opportunity? personal responsibility? more future oriented? 
● there has been a decline in teen pregnancies from 1991= more condom use/less sex  
○ different time periods/cultures have different values/opinions towards sex 
 
471­472(​from​ “sexual orientation” on pg 471 ​ to​ end of “sexual orientation statistics which spills onto 472) 
Elizabeth 
Sexual Orientation 
● we express direction of our sexual interest in our ​ sexual orientation​ ­ our enduring sexual attraction 
toward members of our own sex or the other sex 
○ cultures vary in their attitudes toward homosexuality 
● gay men and lesbians recall childhood play preferences like those of the other sex but X become aware 
of same­sex attraction until during or shortly after puberty 
Sexual Orientation Statistics 
● How many people are exclusively homosexual? 
○ according to surveys in early 1990s in Europe + US, 3­4 percent of men and 1­2 percent of 
women 
○ estimates from sex of unmarried partners suggest that 2.5% of population gay or lesbian 
■ large number of adults reported having had isolated homosexual experience 
● it feels suffocating to be a homosexual in a hetereosexual culture  
● sexual orientation ​ is not an indicator ​
of mental health 
○ same­sex civil unions provide emotional, social benefits similar to heterosexual unions 
● most of today’s psychologists view sexual orientation as neither willfully chosen or willfully changed 
● women’s sexual orientation tends to be less strongly felt and more fluid 
 ○ in women, a high sex drive is associated with increased attraction to ​ both​ men and women 
○ in men, high sex drive is associated with increased attraction to women ​ or​ men 
○ Baumeister calls this phenomenon (women respond more nonspecifically to depictions of sexual 
activity involving males or females) the gender difference in ​
erotic plasticity 
 
473­475 (​from​ “origins of sexual orientation” on pg 473 ​
to​
 end of “the brain and sexual orientation” on 475) 
Allison 
Origins of Sexual Orientation 
● Homosexuals are no more likely than heterosexuals to have been smothered by maternal love, 
neglected by their father, or sexually abused 
● Homosexuals appear more often in certain populations 
○ Many are poets, fiction writers, artists & musicians 
● Gay men = express interest in occupation that attract many women 
○ ex. detective, florist flight attendant 
● Men with older brothers are somewhat more likely to be gay 
○ ⅓ more likely for each older brother 
○ Fraternal birth­order effect​  → reason unknown 
● Sexual orientation is unaffected by adoptive brothers 
● Birth­order effect is not found among women with older sisters  
● Theory: People develop same­sex erotic attachments if segregated by gender at the time their sex 
drive matures 
○ Homosexual behavior doesn’t always indicate homosexual orientation 
● Do not know what exact environmental factors influence sexual orientation 
 
Same­Sex Attraction in Animals 
● Biologist Bruce Bagemihl identified several hundred species in which at least occasional same­sex 
relations have been observed 
● Some degree of homosexuality seems to be a natural part of the animal world 
 
The Brain and Sexual Orientation 
● Simon LeVay = studied sections of the hypothalamus taken from deceased heterosexual and 
homosexual people 
○ Wanted to do something connected with his gay identity 
○ blind study → one cell cluster was larger in heterosexual men than in women and homosexual 
men 
○ Brains differ with sexual orientation 
■ gay men and straight women have similar right hemisphere size / lesbian women and 
straight men have larger right hemispheres 
● LeVay → hypothalamic center = important part of the neural pathway engaged in sexual behavior 
○ Brain anatomy influences sexual orientation 
● Hormone­derived sexual scents → brain difference 
○ Straight women given a whiff of a scent derived from men’s sweat → hypothalamus lights up in 
area governing sexual arousal 
■ Gay men’s brains respond similarly 
○ Straight men’s brains show arousal response only to female hormone derivative 
 
475­477(​from​ “genes and sexual orientation” on pg 475 ​ to​
 most of pg 477, don’t do “sex and human values”) 
Amelie 
∙​ Genes and Sexual Orientation 
       ​

o ​ Homosexuality does appear to run in families 
  ​

o ​ Twins studies have established that genes play substantial role 
  ​

o ​ Genetic manipulation –create female fruit flies to act like male 
  ​

o ​ How are “gay genes” passed on? 
  ​

§​ Kin selection: our genes also reside in our biological relatives 
  ​

§​ Homosexual men have more homosexual relatives on mother­side 
  ​

∙​ Prenatal Hormones and Sexual Orientation 
       ​

o ​ Prenatal environment may play a role 
  ​

o ​ Abnormal hormone condition altered a fetus’s sexual orientation 
  ​

§​ Exposure to flood of testosterone female rat became a lesbian 
  ​

o ​ Middle of second & fifth months after conceptions 
  ​

o ​ Gays & Lesbian have physical traits in the middle of straight male & female 
  ​

§​ Eg) 90% male have clockwise hair whorl while 20+% of gay men have counterclockwise 
  ​

hair whorls 
o ​ Gay men’s spatial abilities resemble those typical of straight women 
  ​

o ​ Skeptics 
  ​

§​ Biological factors may predispose temperament rather than sexual orientation 
  ​

∙​ Consistency of brain, genetic & prenatal findings ­­> biological explanation of sexual orientation 
       ​

∙​ People who believe sexual orientation are biological tend to accept homosexuality more 
       ​

∙​ Downside 
       ​

o ​ If “gay genes” exist, they can be simply identified and removed 
  ​

 
477­479(​from​  “sex and humans values” on pg 477) ​ Amy 
Sex and Human Values 
● The scientific research on sexual motivation does not aim to define the personal meaning of sex in our 
own lives. 
● Sexual intimacy: expression of our profoundly social nature 
  
The Need to Belong 
● Aiding Survival 
○ Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rate → attachment served as a powerful survival 
impulse 
○ Survival was enhanced by cooperation → Those who felt a need to belong survived and 
reproduced most successfully, and their genes now predominate 
● Wanting to Belong 
○ Need to belong colors our thoughts & emotions 
○ When our need for relatedness is satisfied in balance with two other basic psychological 
needs­­autonomy and competence­­the result is a deep sense of well­being. 
○ Self­esteem: a gauge of how valued and accepted we feel 
○ The need to belong feeds both deep attachments and menacing threats. 
 
480­481(​finish​  until top half of pg 481, don’t do “motivation at work”) ​
Jay 
Sustaining Relationships 
● Familiarity breeds liking, not contempt 
● People tend to reject breaking bonds 
○ Instead, we promise to call, write, or visit 
● We feel distress when we part with people we bonded with 
 ● When the fear of being alone outweighs bad relationships, people decide to stay in them 
○ Physical or mental abuse 
● After separation, people feel anger or sadness, no matter how bad the relationship was 
● Separated or divorced people have been half as likely as married people to say they were “very happy” 
● Children who felt loneliness (moving foster houses) have difficulty forming deep attachments with 
others. 
● Children locked in institutions or in their own houses become withdrawn, frightened, and speechless 
● Those who have broken bonds think life is empty and there is nothing to it 
● US policies encourage chain migrations to discourage separation 
 
The Pain of Ostracism 
● Sometimes, the need to belong is denied to you 
○ Left out of groups, ignored, shunned, etc. 
● Social psychologist Kipling Williams (2007) studied cases of ostracism both in laboratory and natural 
settings 
● Humans control behavior through ostracism 
○ imprisonment, exile, solitary confinement, time­outs(for children), etc. 
● When asked about something GOOD in their lives, people tend to recall a personal achievement. On 
the other hand, when asked about something BAD in their lives, 4 out of 5 people recall a relationship 
problem. 
● People tend to respond to social ostracism with depressed moods, then initial attempts to regain 
acceptance, then withdrawal 
● Social ostracism is like feeling real pain 
● Kipling Williams discovered ostracism elicits increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, which 
also activates when feeling physical pain 
● Pain, whether it be physical or mental, tends to motivate corrective action 
● Jean Twenge → told a group of people that no one wants them around and they will end up alone later 
in life. Told another group of people that they will be successful and everyone loves them. 
○ Those who received the prediction of ostracism engaged in self­defeating activities, 
underscored on aptitude tests. Interfered with feelings of empathy for others and became 
aggressive 
 
481­483(​
from​  “motivation at work” on pg 481 ​
to​
 top half of pg 483) ​
Dustin 
Motivation at Work:  
­ Work often defines who we are, and the more we’re satisfied with our work, the more satisfied we 
become with ourselves.  
­ According to Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, there’s a zone between completely overwhelming and 
underwhelming work, where we experience ​ Flow 
­ Flow not only makes us productive, but also boosts our self­confidence 
­ I/O (Industrial Organizational) Psychology: ​ applies psychological concept to industry setting 
­ Personnel Psychology: uses psychology for worker evaluation  
­ organizational Psychology: analyzes organizational structure  
 
 
483­485(​
from​  “personnel psychology” on pg 483 ​ to​
 end of “the interviewer illusion” on pg 485) ​
Celine 
Harnessing Strengths 
● Personal selection techniques aim to match people’s strengths with work that enables them and their 
organization to flourish 
 ● Gallup researches Marcus Buckingham and Donald Clifton have argued that the 1st step to a stronger 
organization is institution a strengths­based selection system 
○ As a manager, you would identify a group of the most effective people in any role and compare 
their strengths with those of a group of the least effective people in that role 
 
Do Interviews Predict Performance? 
● Whether predicting job/graduate school success, interviewers’ judgments are weak predictors 
● From 85 years of research, I/O psychologists Frank Schmidt & John Hunter concluded that for all but 
less­skilled jobs, general mental ability best predicts on­the­job performance 
● Importance: aptitude tests, work samples, job knowledge tests & past job performance > subjective 
evaluations from interviews > handwriting analysis (worthless) 
○ Should distrust our gut  
 
The Interview Illusion 
● Interviewer Illusion: interviewers’ tendency to overrate their discernment 
● Interviews disclose the interviewee’s good intentions, which are less revealing than habitual behaviors 
● Interviewers more often follow the successful careers of those they have hired than the successful 
careers of those they have rejected and lost track of 
● Interviewers presume that people are what they really seem to be in the interview situation 
● Interviewers’ preconceptions and moods color how they perceive interviewee’s responses 
● Traditional unstructured interviews provide a sense of someone’s personality, but this information 
reveals less about the person’s behavior toward others in different situations than most suppose 
● Personnel psychologists have also put people in simulated work situations, scoured sources for info on 
past performance, aggregated evaluations from multiple interviews, administered tests & developed 
job­specific interviews 
 
485­487(​from​ “structured interviews” on pg 485 ​ to​
 top half of pg 487) ​
Thomas  
● Structured Interview­​  interview process that asks the same job­relevant questions for all applicants, 
each of whom is rated on established scales. 
○ pinpoint strengths(attitudes, behaviors, knowledge and skills) that distinguish high performers in 
a particular line of work. 
○ To reduce memory distortion and bias, interviewer takes notes and makes ratings as the 
interview proceeds and not ask irrelevant follow up questions. 
○ had double the predictive accuracy of unstructured interviews. 
● Appraising Performance­ ​ serves as an organizational purpose to decide who to retain, reward, pay 
and harness employee strengths.  
● Performance Appraisal Method 
○ Checklist­ supervisors check behaviors that describe the workers 
○ Graphic rating scales­ point scale in which the supervisor checks for how much a worker is 
dependable, productive and etc.. 
○ Behavior rating scales­ supervisor checks scaled behaviors that describes the workers 
performance, such as “follows procedures”, “takes shortcuts”, “follows established procedures” 
○ Downfalls 
■ vulnerable to bias 
■ halo errors occur on the overall evaluation of an 
employee, friendliness biases the rating of their specific 
work behavior 
 ■ leniency and severity error­ evaluators tendency to be to harsh or lenient 
■ recency error­ raters only remember the recent behavior not all in one 
● 360 Degree Feedback​­­­­­­> 
○ checked by colleagues, customers, manager and self grading 
 
487­488(from “organizational psychology:motivating achievement” on pg 487) ​  이거 진짜 내일까지야? 
Justin​
1. Organizational Psychology 
a. Achievement Motivation:​  a person’s desire for significant accomplishment, mastering skills or 
ideas, and for rapidly attaining a high standard 
i. 적극적인(?) 경쟁력(부산놈아 영어써­ tc) 
b. Studies show that kids with more achievement motivation, along with discipline, do better in life 
i. 10 Year rule:​ World­class experts invested at least 10 years of hard work 
c. Grit​ : passionate dedication to an ambitious long­term goal 
d. Intelligence is distributed on a bell curve, while achievement is not, which means that hard work 
alone can result in success 
2. Satisfaction 
a. Satisfaction is a big part of life 
i. Work satisfaction leads to life satisfaction 
ii. Also leads to increased performance, because it reflects the self­esteem of the 
employees 
 
489­491(​
finish up to​  “setting specific challenging goals” on pg 491) ​ Kidown much progress  
1. Employee Engagement: ​ The extent of workers’ involvement, enthusiasm, and identification with their 
organizations.  
a. Engaged workers are much more likely to have high expectations of themselves in contrast to 
those who are just working and putting in slight effort (Greater fulfillment, Increased optimism to 
thrive and expand their knowledge) 
b. Three Types of Employees (Crabtree 2005) 
i. Engaged: Working with passion and feeling a profound connection to their company or 
organization. 
ii. Not­Engaged: Putting in the time, but investing little passion or energy into their work. 
iii. Actively Disengaged: Unhappy workers who undermine what their colleagues 
accomplish. 
c. The Gallup Workplace Audit 
i. Point scale to determine the level of satisfaction for a worker residing in an extensive 
workplace (5­point scale) 
2. Effective Management 
a. What are some methods and ways to cope and manage work satisfaction? 
i. Harnessing Job­Relevant Strengths 
 ii. Discerning the employee’s natural talents and readjusting the workplace to suit their 
talents → development of the employee’s talents into strengths 
iii. What do all great managers have in common? 
● Start by helping people identify and measure their talents 
● Match tasks to talents and then give people freedom to do what they do best 
● Care how their people feel about their work 
● Reinforce positive behaviors through recognition and reward 
● More focus on educating people their strengths rather than focusing on 
weaknesses/training seminars 
● Celebration of engaged and productive employees 
 
491­493(​
from ​
“choosing an appropriate leadership style” on pg 491) ​ Andy  
1. Leadership 
a. Effective leaders work with people to define explicit goals, subgoals, and implementation plans, 
and then provide feedback on progress → motivate high productivity 
b. There is no best style of leadership but different leaders are suited to different styles: 
­​
Task leadership​ : setting standards, organizing work, and focusing attention on goals.  
● Task leaders are goal oriented making them good at keeping a group focused on its 
mission. 
­​
Social leadership​ : explaining decisions, meditating conflicts, and building high­achieving 
teams.   
● Social leaders often have a democratic style. 
● social leadership = good morale 
● subordinates are motivated and perform better when they participate in decision making 
● effective leadership  styles vary with situations & person → undermines ​ Great Person Theory of 
Leadership ​  which states that all great leaders share certain traits 
● A leader’s personality affects a team’s efficiency: 
○ Effective leaders tend to be neither extremely assertive nor unassertive. 
○ An effective leader’s charisma blends a goal­based vision, clear communication, and optimism 
that inspires others to follow  
○ Transformational leaders, those who ​ articulate a vision of the future, intellectually 
stimulates subordinates, and motivates them to use their imagination to raise the 
organization to a new level, are usually natural extraverts. 
○ Women more than men tend to exhibit transformational leadership qualities → maybe 
explains why companies with women in top management have recently tended to enjoy 
superior financial results 
● voice effect​ : If given a chance to voice their opinion during a decision­making process, people 
will respond more positively to the decision → supports the benefits of democracy in social 
leadership 
 

Chapter 12: Emotions, Stress, and Health

497-499: ​
Eunice
Theories of Emotion
● Emotions: ​ mix of (1) physiological arousal (heart pounding), (2) expressive behaviors (quickened pace)
and (3) consciously experienced thoughts and feelings
● Two​ controversies over the interplay of our physiology, expressions, and experience in emotions:
○ 1) Chicken-and-egg debate (Which comes first...physiological arousal or emotional experience?)
○ 2) Concerns the interaction b/w thinking and feeling (Does cognition always precede emotion?)
● James-Lange theory:​ First comes ​
​ physiological ​
response, then comes our experienced emotion
○ Ex. Your car skids on pavement → Heart races/starts shaking → Fright
● Cannon-Bard theory:​ ​
Physiological stimulus and our emotional experience occur simultaneously (does
not cause the other)
○ Emotion-triggering stimulus is routed simultaneously to brain’s cortex causing subjective
awareness of emotion; and to sympathetic nervous system causing body’s arousal
○ Ex. Heart begins to pound as you experience fear
● Two-factor (Schachter-Singer) theory: ​ Our physiology and our cognitions (perceptions, memories, and
interpretations) ​
together create emotion
○ Emotions have physical arousal and a cognitive label
○ An emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of the arousal

500-502: ​
Jinney
● autonomic nervous system​ : mobilizes your body for action and calms it when the crisis passes
● sympathetic division ​(of ANS): directs adrenal glands to release the stress hormones epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
○ to provide energy, liver pours extra sugar into bloodstream.
○ to help burn the sugar, respiration increases to supply needed oxygen
○ heart rate, blood pressure increase
 ○ digestion slows, diverting blood from internal organs to muscles
○ pupils dilate, letting in more light
○ to cool your stirred-up body, you perspire. If wounded, blood clots more quickly
● parasympathetic division ​ (of ANS): calms your body
○ neural centers inhibit further release of stress hormones, but those already in your
bloodstream will linger awhile. Arousal diminishes gradually.
● Arousal is adaptive​
- too little arousal (sleepiness) can be disruptive, and prolonged high arousal can tax
the body

● Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks, and at high levels for easy or
well-learned tasks
○ high anxiety may disrupt performance. Relaxing can enable better performance

Physiological Differences Among Specific Emotions

● Amygdala:​ emotional control center in the brain’s limbic system
○ also offers a shortcut for some of our emotional response
● emotions activate different areas of the brain’s cortex
○ negative emotions are linked to right hemisphere (ex. disgust/ depression)
○ positive emotions are linked to the left
■ people with positive personalities (enthusiastic, energized, etc.) show more activity in
the left frontal lobe than the front
■ brain injury can tilt activity to the left
● varied emotions involve similar general autonomic arousal (similar heart rate).
○ there are still subtle physiological and brain differences
● experienced emotions involve cognition (emotions depend on how we interpret one’s actions)
○ James and Lange- our body’s reactions are an important ingredient of emotion
○ Cannon and Bard- there is more to the experience of emotion than reading our body’s
responses

503-504: ​
Joyce
To experience emotions, must we consciously interpret and label them?
Cognition Can Define Emotion
● Sometimes our arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event, the
spillover effect. (Ex. When you just failed a test and then found out you didn’t get into the school play
your emotion of sadness would be greater)
○ Experiment: ​ Schachter and Singer aroused college men with injections of epinephrine (makes
you more aroused). They went into the same room as someone (an actor) who was either
happy or irritated. As they observed this person, the men then felt their hearts race, bodies
flush, and breathing quicken.
■ The men who were told to expect these injection results said they felt little emotion
because they attributed arousal to the drug.
■ Discovery: ​ A stirred up state can be experienced as one emotion or a completely
different one.

Cognition Does Not Always Precede Emotion

● Zajonc has said that we actually have many emotional reactions apart from, or before, our
interpretations of a situation.
○ You learn that you hurt someone’s feelings and as the ongoing conversation distracts you, you
lose awareness of the bad news and its just the feelings that still lingers. The arousal lingers, but
without a label.
● We have an sensitive automatic radar for emotionally significant information
○ Experiment:​ Researched flashed positive/negative word (kiss/dead), and people more readily
identified it when they saw a common neutral word like “fact”.
○ A subliminally flashed stimulus, like a smiling or mad face, can also prime a mood or emotion
■ Experiment: ​ Thirsty people were given a drink after viewing a subliminally flashed face.
Those exposed to a happy face drank 50% more than those exposed to a netural face,
those exposed to a sad face drank less

505-507 (stop at “Expressed Emotion” on pg 507):

● Some emotions take the “low road” via neural pathways that bypass the cortex
○ One “low road” runs from the eye or ear via thalamus to the amygdala, bypassing the cortex →
this shortcut enables our greased-lightning emotional response before our intellect intervenes
○ We may be unaware of what’s transpired because the amygdala reaction is so quick
● The amygdala sends more neural projections up to the cortex than it receives back → easier for our
feelings to hijack our thinking than for our thinking to rule our feelings
● Emotion research Richard Lazarus said our brains process and react to vast amounts of information
w/o conscious awareness + some emotional responses do not require ​ conscious ​
thinking
○ Much of our emotional life operates via the automatic, effortless, speedy low road
○ BUT said even instantaneously felt emotions require some sort of cognitive appraisal of
situation b/c how would we ​ know ​what we are reacting to?
■ Appraisal may be effortless but it is still a mental function
● Some emotional responses involve no conscious thinking (esp. likes, dislikes, and fears)
● Emotional brain influences people’s political decisions, too (voting someone you like, not someone
with a political position like your own)
 ○ But like other emotions (depression, hatred, guilt, happiness), our feelings about politics are
influenced by our memories, expectations, and interpretations
○ Although emotional low road functions automatically, the thinking high road allows us to retake
some control over emotional life
● A dramatic testimony to the interplay of emotion and cognition comes from the brain-damaged,
seemingly emotional patients
○ Antonio Damasio devised a simple card game → people could win/lose money → w/o brain
damage, most people make money as emotions generated by unconscious brain figure things
out ahead of conscious reasoning; however, w/ brain damage, feelings don’t inform their
thinking → typically lose money
○ Our two-track minds include a smart unconsciousness
■ Automatic emotion and conscious thinking work together

508-509 (start at “Expressed Emotion” on pg 507 end before “Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior):
Kathleen
● Expressed Emotion → Detecting Emotion
○ Experience sensitizes us to certain emotions
○ Feigned/genuine emotions (time of duration and abruptness of on/off switch vary)
○ Eye and mouth = most revealing of emotion
■ fear and anger = eyes; happiness = mouth
○ Introverts = excel at reading others’ emotions; extraverts = easier to read
○ Written communication (ex. email) = confusing/limiting
■ Absence of facial emotion, although emoticons do exist.

510-511 (start at “Gender, Emotion, and…” on pg 509 end before “Culture and Emotional Expression” on pg
511): ​
Kristen
● Women have the tendency to notice nonverbal cues. Women’s nonverbal sensitivity also gives them an
edge in spotting lies
○ nonverbal sensitivity helps explain greater emotional literacy
○ this skill also contributes to women’s greater emotional responsiveness in both positive and
negative situations
○ exception: anger strikes most people as a more masculine emotion. People are quicker to see
anger on men’s faces.
● More women describe themselves as emphatic
○ empathy: identify with others and imagine what if must like to walk in their shoes
○ physiological measures of empathy reveal a smaller gender gap
○ females are more likely to ​ express ​
empathy
○ women experience emotional events more deeply -- more brain activation in areas sensitive to
emotion
511-513 (start at “Culture and Emotional Expression” on pg 511 end before “The Effects of Facial Expressions”
on pg 513)​
: Elizabeth
Culture and Emotional Expression
● the meaning of gestures varies with the culture
○ eg. a thumbs up and an OK sign can be insults in other culture
● But do facial expressions have different meanings in different cultures?
○ When investigative teams showed photographs of various facial expressions to people in
different parts of the world, everyone did well
○ Is it because of shared experiences (eg. watching American movies)?
■ no b/c Ekman’s team asked isolated people in New Guinea to display emotions => got
similar facial expressions
● Facial expressions do contain nonverbal accents that provide clues to one’s culture but ​ expressions of
emotions generally cross cultures
○ same emotional display rules (eg. expressing more emotion to group members than to
outsiders)
● even for children + the blind
● Charles Darwin thought universality of facial muscles => w/o words, our ancestor’s ability to convey
threats or submission w/ facial expressions helped them survive
○ also physiologically helpful (eg. scared => widen eye => take in more info)
● smiles are also social phenomena
● adaptive for us to interpret faces in particular contexts (eg. see fearful face in painful situation as
pained)
● cultures differ in how much emotion they express
○ individualist vs. collectivist cultures
● cultural differences exist within nations
● emotion is a biological and cognitive ​ and ​
socio-cultural phenomenon

513-515 (start from “the effects of facial expressions” on pg 513 finish up to short paragraph that spills onto
pg 516): ​
Judy
7: Do our facial expressions influence our feelings?
● Expressions communicate, amplify, and regulate emotions
○ James Laird induced students to frown → students reported to feel angry
● “Facial feedback effect” is subtle but detectable
 ○ Tiffany Ito induced happiness in subjects by making them smile while showing them pictures of
faces - if they had viewed black people, they would associate the good feelings with them and
exhibited lower racial bias
○ Another experiment paralyzed frowning muscles of depressed patients by Botox - two months
later, 9/10 of the patients were not depressed anymore
Scientists isolated 10 basic emotions (joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt,
fear, shame, and guilt) - this list is somewhat controversial
Emotions have dimensions - arousal and valence

516-517: ​
Allison
Fear
● What is the function of fear, and how do we learn fears?
○ Fear can be poisonous & contagious
■ Chicago’s Iroqouis Theater fire → most people died bc they were trampled or
smothered in a stampede
○ Fear is adaptive → allows us to prepare for danger
■ fear of enemies binds ppl together, protects us from harm
■ fear of punishment restrains our harming one another
■ improves peripheral vision and speed eye movements → boost sensory input
● Learning Fear
○ People can be afraid of anything
○ fear is conditioned → naturally painful and frightening events can multiply into long lists of
human fears
○ Susan Mineka → explain why nearly all monkeys reared in the wild fear snakes, yet lab-reared
monkeys do not
■ 6 monkeys reared in wild (strongly fear snake) and their lab-reared offspring (virtually
mpm feared snakes)
■ After parents displayed fear of snakes → younger monkeys developed similar fear
■ Learned fear persisted
○ Humans also learn fears → learn from parents and friends
● The Biology of Fear
○ Learn some fears more quickly than others
■ Monkeys learn to fear snakes through watching videos
○ Fear probably helped ancestors survive
○ Key to fear = amygdala
■ Amygdala associates various emotions with certain situations
■ Damaged amygdala = remember the conditional but can’t show emotional reaction
■ if people suffered damage to the hippocampus → still show emotional reaction
○ Phobia = intense fears of specific objects or situations that disrupt their ability to cope
○ Experience & genes help shape fearfulness or fearlessness
■ identical twins → one twin’s level of fearfulness is similar to the others even though
they have been reared separately
○ Gene that influences the amygdala’s response to frightening situations
 ■ short version of gene = less of a protein that speeds the reuptake of neurotransmitter
serotonin

518-519 (end before “Happiness” on pg 519)​ : Sara

Anger
● Causes & Consequences
○ natural response to injustice / daily annoyances and hassles
○ chronic hostility is linked to heart disease
● Ways to deal with anger
○ boys > girls: report exercising to relieve anger
○ boys < girls: report talking with a friend or listening to music to relieve anger
○ different cultures encourage different ways of dealing with anger
■ individualistic cultures: venting their rage is typical
■ interdependence cultures: people internalize their anger and make it unnoticed
○ “vent your anger”: catharsis, or emotional release - strongly encouraged in more Western
cultures
■ effective only when…
● counterattack is directed against the provoker
● retaliation seems justifiable
● target is not intimidating
■ anger can be temporarily calming if it does not leave us feeling guilty or anxious
■ catharsis usually fails and oftentimes may breed more anger
■ hitting a punch bag may seem to be cathartic but it is actually the opposite → exhibit
more cruelty and rage
○ Suggestions (2) that experts offer:
■ Patience: waiting is effective in naturally bringing down the level of physiological arousal
of anger
● “what goes up must come down”
■ Deal with anger in a way that does not involve being either chronically angry or sulking
and grieving constantly
● long-term thinking is unhelpful and only increases initial anger
● calm yourself through exercise, playing an instrument, etc.
● Anger does not communicate strength and competence
○ Benefits to a relationship: anger can be used as a means of reconciliation, not retaliation
○ controlled expressions of anger are more effective and adaptive than hostile outbursts and
sudden rants
○ non-accusing statements of feeling are most effective in reconciliation
● What if someone else’s behavior really hurts you and makes you angry?
○ Forgiveness → releases anger and calms the body
■ students mentally rehearsed forgiveness → physiological signs of anger (perspiration,
high blood pressure, facial tension) relaxed and decreased

520-521 (start from “Happiness” on pg 519)​

: Dustin
Happiness: What are the causes and consequences of happiness?
● People who are happy perceive the world as safer, feel more confident, make decisions more easily,
rate job applicants more favorably, are more cooperative and tolerant, and live healthier and more
satisfied lives
● Positive emotions fuel upward spirals
○ helps explain why college students’ happiness helps predict their life course
■ in one study, women who smiled happily in 1950s college yearbook photos were more
likely to be married
■ in another study, college students who were happy had gone on to earn more money
than less happy peers
● When we are happy we more often help others
○ Feel good, do-good phenomenon: ​ a mood boosting experience has made people more likely to
do good deeds
● Despite the significance of happiness, psychology throughout history has focused more on negative
emotions
● But researchers are becoming increasingly interested in ​subjective well-being,​assessed by feelings of
happiness (sometimes defined as a high ratio of positive to negative feelings) or as a sense of
satisfaction with life)

The Short Life of Emotional Ups and Downs

● When studying people’s hour by hour moods, Watson found out that positive emotion rises over the
early to middle part of most days. Stressful events trigger bad moods but by the next day, the gloom
nearly always lifts.
○ People actually tend to rebound from bad days to ​ better​than usual good mood the following
day
■ over the long run, our emotional ups and downs tend to balance
● Apart from prolonged grief over the loss of a loved one or lingering anxiety after a trauma, even
tragedy is not permanently depressing
○ Ex. If you are a paraplegic, you will gradually start thinking of other things and the more time
you spend thinking of other things the less miserable you are going to be
■ a major disability often leaves people less happy than average, yet happier than
able-bodied people with depression
○ Ex. Faculty members up for tenure think their lives will be bad if they don’t get tenure but those
who didn’t 5-10 years later are not less happy than those who were awarded tenure
● The surprising reality: we overestimate the duration of our emotions and underestimate our capacity
to adapt
● Positive emotions are also hard to sustain
○ Ex. Scientists followed a 21 year old student with a disease. After he learned that the treatment
was effective, he was happy but even though the rest of the month also had relatively good
news, his emotions soon returned to their previous level

522-523​
: Michelle Jang
Wealth and Well-Being
 ● People now choose to be financially successful than to develop a meaningful life philosophy.
● Wealth correlates with well-being to some point.
○ Individuals with lots of money are typically happier than those who struggle to afford basic
needs.
○ People in rich countries are somewhat happier.
○ Those who have experienced a recent win from lottery or inheritance feel elation.
● But once you have enough money, it starts to matter less and less.
○ The second dessert satisfy you less than the first one- diminishing return phenomenon.
○ The power of more money to increase happiness is significant at low incomes & diminishes as
of income rises.
○ Raising low incomes will do more to increase well being than raise high incomes.
● John Cacioppo- “Today’s happiness predicted tomorrow’s income better than today’s income
predicted tomorrow’s happiness.”
● US- although the average personal income increased over time, the percentage of people describing
themselves as very happy remained very low.
● Richard Ryan & Tim Kasser- “Those who strive for intimacy, personal growth, and contribution
experience higher quality of life than those who strive hardest for wealth.”
● Bhutan- “Gross national happiness is more important that gross national product.”
○ 4 pillars of progress toward national happiness:
1) equitable and sustainable socio economic development
2) preservation and promotion of cultural values
3) conservation of natural environment
4) establishment of good governance
● Diener- “Government should focus on subjective well being for the benefits for the society.”

524-526: ​
Alex Ryu
Two Psychological Phenomena: Adaptation and Comparison
● adaptation-level phenomenon​ : our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, lights, income) relative to
a neutral level defined by our prior experience
○ we notice and react to variations up & down from our neutral levels
○ ex) if our income increases, we feel an initial surge of pleasure ​but​as time passes, we adapt to
this new level of achievement and consider it to be normal and require more for another surge
of happiness
○ Donald Campbell believes we can ​ never​ reach a permanent social paradise
○ **satisfaction/success/failure: all ​relative​to our recent experience

● relative deprivation​
: the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares
oneself
○ happiness is also relative to our comparisons with others
○ ex) middle- and upper-income people who compare themselves to the relatively poor tend to
be more satisfied with their lives
○ comparing yourself to those who are better off creates envy
HOW TO BE HAPPIER!
1. Realize that enduring happiness may not come from financial success
2. Take control of your time
3. Act happy
4. Seek work and leisure that engage your skills
5. Join the “movement” movement - aerobic exercise to relieve mild depression and anxiety
6. Give your body the sleep it wants
7. Give priority to close relationships
8. Focus beyond oneself
9. Count your blessings and record your gratitude
10. Nurture your spiritual self

Predictors of Happiness
A. High self-esteem (not related to age)
B. Optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable (not related to gender)
C. Have close friendships or a satisfying marriage (not related to parenthood)
D. Have work and leisure that engage their skills (not related to physical attractiveness)
E. Have a meaningful religious faith
F. Sleep well and exercise

527-530 (end before “Stressful Life Events” pn pg 530: ​

Celine
Stress and Health
● ¾ experience stress “sometimes” or “frequently”
● Stress can cause (in those of us who are physiologically predisposed) skin rashes, asthma attacks, or
high blood pressure (hypertension) → increase risk for illness & death
● Behavioral medicine: interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral & medical knowledge and applies
that knowledge to health & disease
● Health psychology: subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral
medicine
○ How do our emotions & personality influence our risk of disease?
○ What attitudes & behaviors help prevent illness and promote well-being?
○ How do our perceptions of a situation determine the stress we feel?
○ How can we reduce or control stress?

Stress and Illness

● Truck driver accidentally traveled at 50 mph with a passenger (Ben) in a wheelchair hooked in his grille
○ Stressor: dangerous truck ride
○ Stress reaction: Ben’s physical & emotional responses
○ Stress: process by which he related to the threat
● Stress: ​process by which we perceive & respond to certain events that we appraise as threatening or
challenging (stressors)
○ Stress arises more from how we appraise events & less from events themselves
● A momentary stress can mobilize the immune system for fending off infections & healing wounds
 ● Stress also arouses & motivates us to conquer problems
● Children’s physiological responses to severe child abuse put them at risk of chronic disease
● Those who had post-traumatic stress reactions to heavy combat in the Vietnam War suffered elevated
rates of circulatory, digestive, respiratory & infectious diseases

The Stress Reaction System

● Walter Cannon observed that extreme cold, lack of oxygen & emotion-arousing incidents all trigger an
outpouring of the stress hormones epinephrine & norepinephrine from the central core of the adrenal
glands
● When alerted by any brain pathways, the sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate and
respiration, diverts blood from digestion to the skeletal muscles, dulls pain, and releases sugar & fat
from the body’s stores to prepare the body for “fight or flight”
● On orders from the cerebral cortex (via the hypothalamus & pituitary gland), the outer part of the
adrenal glands secrete glucocorticoid stress hormones such as cortisol
● The two stress hormone systems work at different speeds
○ Epinephrine is the one handing out guns
○ Glucocorticoids are the ones drawing up blueprints for new aircraft carriers
● Alternatives to fight-or-flight include…
○ Withdrawal (more common among men)
○ Seeking and giving support (more common among women)
■ Attributed partly to oxytocin, a stress-moderating hormone associated with
pair-bonding in animals
● General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)​ : Hans Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress
in three states (alarm → resistance → exhaustion)
○ Prolonged stress can lead to physical deterioration

530-531 (start from “Stressful Life Events” on pg 530)

3 types of stressors: catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles
● Catastrophes
○ Unpredictable large-scale events (wars, natural disasters)
■ 3 weeks after 9/11 terrorist attacks, ⅔of Americans said to be having trouble
concentrating and sleeping
■ In disaster’s wake, rates of psychological disorders (depression, anxiety, etc) rose
average 17%
■ Suicide rates go up
● Significant Life Changes
○ Death of loved one, loss of a job, leaving home, marriage, divorce, etc
○ Often keenly felt during young adulthood
○ Psychologists study health effects of life changes by seeing if such events precede illnesses
■ Ex. Study of 96,000 widowed people → risk of death doubled in the week following
partner’s death
● Daily Hassles
○ Positive hassles: a hoped-for medical result, a perfect exam score, gratifying email, etc
 ○ Negative hassles: rush-hour traffic, aggravating housemates, long lines at stores
○ Little stressors can add up and take a toll on our health/well-being
○ Hypertension rates are high among residents in impoverished areas (unemployed, solo
parenting, overcrowding, etc → least satisfied
○ Racism → concerned about other people judging you → many African Americans have high
blood pressure levels

532-533:
Stress and the Heart
Why are some of us more prone to others than coronary heart disease?
● coronary heart disease​ , the closing of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle
○ America’s leading cause of death
● In addition to hypertension and a family history, physical inactivity, elevated cholesterol, high fat diet,
and the psychological factors of stress and personality all increase/play a big role in heart disease
○ Experiment: ​ Friedman tested the idea that stress increased exposure to heart disease. They
measured the blood cholesterol level and clotting speed of 40 US tax accountants. They found
that from Jan-March, both of these levels were normal. Then as the accountants began to
scramble to meet the April 15 filing deadline, their cholesterol/clotting measures rose to
dangerous levels → stress predicted heart attack risk
■ They then studied 3000+ men between 35-59. They interviewed them and labeled the
more impatient, competitive, verbally aggressive, easy angered the Type A, and the
more easy going the Type B. They found out that 69% of the men who eventually
suffered heart attacks were from Type A.
● Type A’s danger is negative emotions and anger. When someone is angry, blood
flow goes away from the liver which removes cholesterol and fat from the blood.
It also causes altered heart rhythms that can cause sudden death.
● The effect of an anger-prone personality appears most noticeably in studies in which interviewers
assess verbal assertiveness and emotional intensity
○ Study: ​ study of young/middle aged adults found that those who react with anger over little
things are most coronary-prone, and suppressing negative emotions only heightens the risk
■ Another study followed 13,000 middle aged people for 5 years. Among those with
normal blood pressure, people who had scored high on anger were 3x more likely to
have had heart attacks
■ Another study followed male medical students over 36 years and those who were angry
were 5x more likely to have a heart attack by 55
● Pessimists are 2x more likely than optimists to develop heart disease
● Depression also increases risk of death
○ Study: ​ around 7000 women 67+. 7% of those with no depression died within 6 years and 24% of
those with depression died within 6 years.
○ In the years following a heart attack, people with depression are 4x more likely to develop
further heart problems
● Heart disease and depression may both result when chronic stress triggers persistent inflammation
 ○ stress disrupts body’s disease fighting immune system → leads to inflammation →
inflammation can lead to asthma or clogged arteries (heart disease) and depression
534-535:
Stress and Susceptibility to Disease
Psychophysiological illnesses: ​ literally “mind-body” illness; any stress-related physical illness like hypertension
and headaches
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)​ : the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together
affect the immune system and resulting health
● Immune system - complex surveillance system that defends your body by isolating and destroying
bacteria, viruses, foreign substances
● Includes 2 times of white blood cells called ​ lymphocytes
○ B lymphocytes ​ form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that can fight bacterial
infections
○ T lymphocytes ​ form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses,
and foreign substances (even “good” ones like transplanted organs)
● Immune system also includes:
○ Macrophage (“big eater”) ​ which identifies, pursues, and ingests harmful invaders and worn-out
cells
○ Natural killer cells (NK cells)​ which pursue diseased cells (such as those infected by vicuses or
cancer)
● Age, nutrition, genetics, body temperature, and stress influence immune system
● Immune system can err in two directions
○ Responding too strongly → may attack body’s own tissues, causing arthritis or an allergic
reaction
○ Underreacting → may allow dormant herpes virus to erupt or cancer cells to multiply
○ Women are immunologically stronger than men → less susceptible to infections BUT may also
make them more susceptible to self-attacking diseases
● Brain regulates the secretion of stress hormones → lessens the disease-fighting lymphocytes
○ When animals are physically restrained, given unavoidable electric shocks, or subjected to
noise, crowding, cold water, etc → immune system becomes less active
● Stress also depresses the immune system
○ It takes energy to fight infections and maintain fevers
○ When diseased, our bodies reduce muscular energy output by inactivity and increase sleep
○ BUT stress creates competing energy need
○ It triggers an aroused fight-or-flight response → diverts energy from the disease-fighting
immune system to the muscles and brain → we become more vulnerable to disease
● Stress does not MAKE us sick, but it does alter immune functioning → makes us less able to resist
infections and more prone to heart disease

536-537:
Stress and AIDS
● AIDS: an acquired immune deficiency syndrome caused by HIV, which is spread by the exchange of
bodily fluids, primarily semen and blood
 ● If a disease spreads slowly (like AIDS) it can be more dangerous because those who carry the virus have
time to spread it, without realizing that they are infected
● Because stress restrains the immune system’s response to infections, it could also exacerbate the
course of AIDS
● Stress and negative emotions do correlate with
○ a progression from HIV infection to AIDS
○ the speed of decline in those infected
● HIV infected men faced with stress exhibit a greater immune suppression and faster disease
progression
● Educational initiatives, support groups, therapy, relaxation training, and exercise programs that reduce
stress have all had positive influences
● Preventing HIV (the ABCs):
○ A: abstinence
○ B: being faithful
○ C: Condoms
Stress and Cancer
● stress and negative emotions have been linked to cancer’s rate of progression
● experimenters have tried placing tumor cells into rodents and exposing them to uncontrollable stress
(such as shocks) → these rodents were more prone to cancer
○ with immune systems weakened by stress, tumors grew faster
● some investigators think people are at increased risk for cancer within a year after experiencing
depression, helplessness
○ Study: ​ people with a history of workplace stress had 5.5x greater risk of colon cancer than those
who reported no problems
○ However, other studies show no link between stress and cancer
■ Ex. concentration camp survivors don’t have elevated cancer rates
● Danger in attributing attitudes and cancer
○ some patients may blame themselves for their illness
○ “wellness macho” among the healthy, who take credit for their “healthy character” and guilt
trip the ill
● Emerging view seems to be that stress does NOT create cancer cells
○ at worst it may affect their growth by weakening the body’s natural defenses
● We can view the stress effect on our disease resistance as a price we pay for the benefits of stress
○ Benefits of stress
■ invigorates our lives by arousing/motivating us
■ pays to spend our resources in fighting/fleeing an external threat

538-540 (end before “Social Support” on pg 540): ​ Jay

Coping with Stress
What factors affect our ability to cope with stress?
● We need to ​ cope​
with the stress in our lives.
● We address some stressors directly, with ​ problem-focused coping​ . (Ex. if our impatience leads to a
family fight, we may go directly to that person to work things out)
 ● emotion-focused coping: ​reaching out to friends to help address our own emotional needs
● we used problem focused strategies when we feel control over a situation and think we can change the
circumstances/ we use emotion-focused strategies when we cannot or think we can’t change a
situation
○ emotion-focused can be bad though
■ emotion-focused would be to go out and play after the student is worried about not
keeping up with reading to get it off his mind but a problem-focused strategy would be
to catch up with the reading → more effective

Coping with stress can be affected by perceived control, outlook on life, and supportive connections.
Perceived Control
● uncontrollable threats trigger the strongest stress responses
○ Ex. bacterial infection often combines with uncontrollable stress to create the most severe
ulcers. to cure the ulcer, you must kill the bacteria and control the stomach
● perceiving a loss of control, we become more vulnerable to bad health
○ people in nursing homes who have little perceived control over what they do tend to decline
and die faster than those with more control
○ workers given control over their work also experience less stress (the more control workers
have, the longer they live)
● control may help explain a link between economic status and longevity
○ Study:​ 843 grave markers. Those with most expensive, highest pillars lived the longest
○ high economic status predicts a lower risk of heart disease
○ with higher economic status comes reduced risks of infant mortality, low birth weight, smoking,
violence
● researchers are debating the explanation for the income-health correlation because poor health can
lower income and because intelligence scores also correlate with both income and health
○ poverty and diminished control entail physiologically measurable stress
● losing control provokes an outpouring of stress hormones. when humans cannot control their
environment, stress hormones rise, blood pressure increases, and immune responses drop.
○ Ex. crowding that occurs in high density neighborhoods, prisons → diminished feelings of
control → increased stress

Optimism and Health

● another influence on our ability to cope with stress is whether we are optimistic/pessimistic
● optimists perceive more control, cope better with stressful events, and enjoy better health
○ during the first few stressful weeks of law school, optimistic students enjoy better moods and
stronger immune systems, they also respond to stress with lower increases in blood pressure
● Some experiments
○ finnish researchers followed 2428 men for a decade, the number of deaths among pessimists
was 2x more than optimists
○ asked 795 americans 64-79 if they were hopeful about the future. 5 years later, 29% who said
no died, more than double the 11% of deaths in those who said yes
 ○ among 54,000 adult norwegians, those scoring most optimistic were 35% more likely to be alive
5 years later
● some studies suggest that humor may defuse stress and strengthen immune activity
● people who laugh a lot (which arouses, massages, and relaxes) also have lower incidence of heart
disease
○ one time, laughter caused the blood vessels’ inner lining to respond with improved tone and
increased blood flow

540-542 (start from “Social Support” on pg 540 end before “Managing Stress” on pg 542): ​ Andy
Social support helps with coping with stress
● James Coan and his colleagues discovered that, in an experiment in which happily married women had
their ankles shocked while lying in an fMRI machine, those who held their husband’s hand experienced
less activity in threat-responsive areas → soothing benefit in highest-quality marriages
● Survey done by Peter Warr and Roy Payne to British adults → shows that families emotionally strain
them the day before, but also prompt pleasure
● Close relationships predict health → People are less likely to die prematurely if supported by close
relationships with friends, family, fellow workers, members of a faith community, or other support
groups
● Married people live longer, healthier lives than the unmarried, but ​ marital functioning​ matters → only
positive, happy and supportive marriages are healthy.
● Middle-aged and older adults who live alone are more likely to smoke, be obese, and have
high-cholesterol, and to have a doubled risk of heart attacks.
● People with supportive friends and marriage partners eat better, exercise more, sleep better, and
smoke less → cope with stress more effectively
● Supportive friends help buffer immediate threats
● Companionable pets can also provide source of stress-buffering comfort
● Social ties and positive sociability confer resistance to cold viruses →in an experiment, in which the
subject’s age, race, sex, smoking, and habits were equal, those with more social ties were least likely to
catch a cold; more than 50 studies further reveal that social support calms the cardiovascular system,
lowering blood pressure and stress hormones
● Close relationships give us an opportunity to confide painful feelings → health psychologists James
Pennebaker and Robin O’Heeron contacted the surviving spouses of people who had committed
suicide or died in car accidents → those who bore their grief alone had more health problems than
those who could express it openly
● Suppressing emotions can be detrimental to physical health→ Pennebaker surveyed more than 700
undergraduate women. 1/12 had traumatic sexual experience in childhood→ Compared with those
who had experience nonsexual traumas, such as parental death or divorce, the sexually abused women
who kept their secret to themselves reported more headaches and stomach ailments
● Writing about personal traumas in a diary can help
● Talking about a stressful event temporarily arouses people, but in the long run it calms them, by
calming limbic system activity → Pennebaker and his colleagues invited 33 Holocaust survivors to recall
their experiences → in the weeks following, most self-disclosing had the most improved health
543-544 (end before “Biofeedback, Relaxation, and Meditation” on pg 544):
Aerobic Exercise : ​
sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitnesses.
Exercise and Mood
● Aerobic exercise can reduce stress, depression, and anxiety
○ 3/10 American and Canadians, and 2/10 British people who exercise at least three times a week
also manage stressful events better, have more self-confidence, feel more vigor, feel depressed
and fatigued less than those who do not exercise
○ non-exercisers were 2x as likely to be “not too happy”

● Experiment​ : randomly assigned stressed, depressed, or anxious people either to aerobic exercise or to
other treatments. They assigned ⅓of a group of mildly depressed female college students to a program
of aerobic exercise, ⅓to treatment of relaxation, and ⅓to no treatment. 10 weeks later the women in
the exercise program reported greatest decrease in depression.
○ exercise provides an immediate mood boost
○ exercise can be as useful as antidepressant drugs and psychotherapy, and some research
suggests it better prevents symptom recurrence
● Why exercise alleviates negative emotions
○ orders up mood-boosting chemicals from our body’s internal pharmacy - neurotransmitters
such as serotonin and the endorphins
○ side effect of increased warmth and body arousal
○ muscle relaxation and sounder sleep after exercise
○ sense of accomplishment and improved physique

Exercise and Health

● exercise also
○ strengthens the heart
○ increases blood flow
○ keeps blood vessels open
○ lowers blood pressure and blood pressure reaction to stress
● people who exercise suffer half as many heart attacks compared to inactive adults
● studies show that occasional exercise lower death risk by 29% and daily exercise lower death risk by
43%
● in later life, exercise also predicts better cognitive functioning and reduced risk of dementia and
Alzheimer’s disease
● muscle cells, when activated by exercise, respond by producing proteins
○ in the modern inactive person, these genes produce lower quantities of proteins and leave us
susceptible to 20+ chronic diseases
● our less physical lifestyles nowadays contributes to today’s high rate of depression
○ less exercise → less brain activity in areas necessary for reward, motivation, and effective
coping
● more exercise has beneficial effects similar to those of antidepressant drugs
○ Ex. In mice, exercise causes their brains to produce a molecule that acts as a natural
antidepressant by stimulating the production of new neurons
 ● moderate exercise allows for more energy and better mood

544-547 (start from “Biofeedback, Relaxation, and Meditation” on pg 544 end before “Spirituality and Faith
Communities” on pg 547): ​ Amelie
·​
  ​ Two healing traditions: religion and medicine
     ​

·​ Faith & health

       ​

o ​ Strong protective effect –not explained by age or economic difference

  ​

o ​ Uncontrolled factor: Women are more religiously active= women live longer
  ​

·​ Controlling age, sex, race, region à Non-attenders were 1.87 times more likely to die
       ​

o ​ Correlational finding = predictor

  ​

o ​ However, Correlation=/= causation

  ​

·​ Causation
       ​

o ​ Religiously active people tend to have healthier life-styles

  ​

o ​ Social support = communal experience

  ​

o ​ Sense of hope for the long-term future

  ​

547-549 (start from “Spirituality and Faith Communities” on pg 547)

● Religion and medicine often worked together in the past but as medicine science matured, healing and
religion diverged
○ People were able to vaccinate smallpox instead of asking God
● But recently, religion and healing are converging again
○ More schools offering spirituality and health courses, and more articles on “religion” and/or
“spirituality”
○ More than a thousand studies correlate ​ faith factor ​
with health and healing
■ In a study, religious community members were ½ as likely to have died as were their
nonreligious counterparts
● Skeptical of results b/c many factors were uncontrolled (ex. women are more
religiously active than men, and women outlive men)
● Several new studies find correlation between religious involvement and life expectancy among just
men (and even more strongly among women)
○ After controlling for age, gender, ethnicity, and education, frequent religious attenders were
36% less likely to have died in any year
○ This is a ​predictor ​of health and longevity
○ What variables might account for such correlation?
■ 1) Religiously active people tend to have healthier lifestyles
● Smoke/drink less
■ 2) Social support
● Faith is a communal experience that helps satisfy the need to belong
■ 3) Marriage
● Religion encourages marriage → health and longevity
○ Variables like gender, unhealthy behaviors, social ties, preexisting health problems + stress
protection, enhanced well-being associated with coherent worldview, sense of hope for
 long-term future, feelings of acceptance, relaxed meditation → help explain the longer survival,
healthier immune functioning, fewer stress hormones of those who are religiously active
 

Chapter 13: Personality

553­554 (up till before “Personality Structure” on pg 555)​ Maggie 
● Free association  
○ method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to 
mind no matter how trivial or embarrassing..allowed freud to retrace a line following chain of 
thoughts  
● Psychoanalysis 
○ freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts/actions to unconscious motives/conflicts  
○ FOCUS is to expose and interpret unconscious tensions  
● Unconscious mind   
○ a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories..that influence our 
actions and behaviors a lot (Freud) 
○  information processing of which we are unaware (current psychologists definition) 
○ Freud viewed jokes/expressions as repressed sexual tendencies 
● Dreams 
○ considered the "royal road to the unconscious"  
○ manifest content: the part of the dream that is remembered was the censored expression for 
dreamer's unconscious wishes­> the forgotten part of the dream=latent content  
○ used dreams to search for patient's inner conflicts 
● Freud's beliefs on personality 
○ Conflict between impulse and restraint: biological urges vs internal social controls over these 
urges 
○ Efforts to solve this conflict created our personality 
○ 3 interacting systems  
 
555­556 (from “Personality Structure”)​  Michelle Jang  
Personality Structure  
● Freud­ “Human personality, emotions, and strivings arise from a conflict between impulse and restraint”  
● id: ​ strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives (operates on pleasure principle)  
○ infants and people with no future perspective (frequent use of alcohol, drugs)  
● ego: ​ mediates among the demands of id, superego, and reality & brings long term pleasure (reality 
principle)  
● superego: ​ represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment and for future 
aspirations (moral principle)  
○ Age 4 or 5­ child recognizes superego 
Personality Development  
● Freud­ “Personality forms during life’s first few years”  
● Psychosexual stages: ​ childhood stages of development during id’s pleasure seeking energies focus 
on distinct erogenous zones.  
● Fixation: ​ Lingering focus of pleasure seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, which 
conflicts were unresolved 
a. Oral Stage ​ (0­18 months) 
■ Pleasure seeking is centered on the mouth  
 ■ If fixation happens at this stage, adult continue to engage in oral activities (smoking, gum 
chewing)  
b. Anal Stage ​ (18­ 36 months)  
■ Centered on anus and its functions of elimination  
■ fixation­ engage in activities of retention or elimination (either really neat or messy)  
c. Phallic Stage​  (3­6 years)  
■ centered on genitals  
■ important for personality development because of Oedipus complex  
■ Oedipus Complex: ​ boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and jealousy for his father.  
■ Girls develop ​ penis envy (lol)­​
 develop sexual desires for her father  
■ Fixation­​  a guy would try to prove his toughness, girl feel inferior to men 
■ Identification: ​ children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos  
d. Latency Stage​  (6 to puberty)  
■ Represses sexual thoughts and engages in nonsexual activities. This ends when 
puberty hits.  
e. Genital Stage​  (Puberty to Adulthood)  
■ Renewed sexual desires that are fulfilled through relationships with other people.  
■ If you do not develop any fixation in previous stages, you are more likely to engage in 
healthy and mature personality  
 
557­560: ​
Kathleen 
Defense Mechanisms 
● Definition: tactics that reduce or redirect anxiety by distorting reality. 
● Anxiety → price we pay for civilization 
● 7 Examples 
○ Repression: banishes anxiety/arouse wishes from consciousness 
■ underlies all the other defense mechanisms  
■ often incomplete  
○ Regression: allows us to retreat to an earlier, more infantile stage of development 
○ Reaction formation: ego unconsciously makes unacceptable impulses look like their opposites 
○ Projection: disguises threatening impulses by attributing them to others 
○ Rationalization: unconscious generation of self­justifying explanations to hide from ourselves the 
real reasons for our actions (excuses) 
○ Displacement: diverts sexual or aggressive impulses toward an object or person that is 
psychologically more acceptable than the one that aroused the feelings 
○ Denial: protects the person from real events that are painful to accept (reject fact or its 
seriousness) 
The Neo­Freudian and Psychodynamic Theorists 
● Freud’s writings = controversial → but attracted followers (young, ambitious physicians) ­­ 
“neo­Freudians” 
○ accepted: personality structures of id, ego, superego / importance of unconscious / shaping of 
personality in childhood / dynamics of anxiety and defense mechanisms 
○ disagreed: They placed more emphasis on the conscious mind’s role in interpreting experience 
and coping w/environment / doubted that sex and aggression were all­consuming motivations 
● Alfred Adler & Karen Horney: agree that childhood is important 
○ social, not sexual tensions = important for personality formation 
○ Alder 
■ idea of inferiority complex 
 ■ behavior is driven by efforts to conquer childhood feelings of inferiority 
○ Horney 
■ childhood anxiety (trigger = helplessness) triggers desire for love and security 
■ counter Freud assumption of “penis envy”  
● Carl Jung (Freud’s disciple → dissenter) 
○ place less emphasis on social factors 
○ unconscious = important  
○ collective unconscious: common reservoir of images derived from our species’ universal 
experiences 
■ explanation for spiritual concerns/shared myths and images in different cultures (ex. 
earth = mother, nurture)  
● Psychodynamic theory 
○ much of our mental life is unconscious  
Assessing Unconscious Processes 
● Projective tests: a personality test (Rorschach/TAT) that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger 
projection of one’s inner dynamics 
○ Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): people express inner feelings and interests through the 
stories they make up about ambiguous scenes (The thing Mr. Loveday talked about with an 
image of the person sprawled across the bed) 
■ Introduced by Henry Murray 
○ Rorschach Inkblot Test: most widely used projective test; set of 10 inkblots → identify people’s 
inner feelings with their interpretations of the blots 
■ Designed by Hermann 
■ Activity we did in class 
■ Mixed responses from critics 
● problem: lack of evidence of effectiveness  
 
561­562 (stop before “The Modern Unconscious Mind” on pg 562) ​ Thomas Cha 
Contradictory Evidence from Modern Research 
● Freudian research has a possibility of not being totally reliable as he did not have any access to 
neurotransmitters and DNA studies 
● Freud’s admirers and critics both agreed upon the idea that his principles do go against many of the 
modern/recent research 
Is Repression a Myth? 
● Freud’s entire psychoanalytical theory rests on his assumption that the human mind often represses 
offending wishes, banishing them into the unconscious until they resurface 
● His concept of repression became a widely accepted concept, some universities have given yield to the 
idea that childhood traumas get pushed back out of awareness into the unconscious. However other 
universities have not yielded valid evidence to support it. 
● Some research shows that prolonged stress might disrupt memory by damaging the hippocampus. But 
the far more common reality is that high stress and stress hormones enhance memory. 
 
562­564 (from “The Modern Unconscious Mind” on pg 562 and stop before “The Humanistic Perspective” on 
pg 564): ​
Sara  
The Modern Unconscious Mind 
● Freud was right in that we have limited access to what happens inside our minds 
● implicit learning can take place (unconscious)  
 ○ unconscious involves more than seething passions and repressive censoring ­ information 
processing that occurs without our awareness (two­track mind) 
● false consensus effect ­ the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and 
behaviors  
○ justify wrong behavior by arguing that many others will do and think likewise 
● humans defend themselves against anxiety 
○ terror­management theory states that anxiety is “the terror resulting from our awareness of 
vulnerability and death”  
○ people act not only to enhance their self­esteem but also to adhere more strongly to worldviews 
that answer questions about life’s meaning 
Freud’s Ideas as Scientific Theory 
● Freud’s theory is scientifically faulty because his theory rests largely on objective observations and few 
testable hypotheses can be drawn 
● biggest problem of Freud’s theory: offers after­the­fact explanations and fails to predict certain 
behaviors 
● Freud’s supporters argue that Freud never intended for his theories and studies to form testable 
hypotheses 
○ supporters also argue that Freud’s ideas are “enduring” and he is the first scientist who shed 
light on the idea of the unconscious and irrational  
● Studying Freudian psychology is decreasing  
○ Freudian psychology still maintains a large social presence in that many people believe what 
Freud theorized (ex. childhood experiences mold personality, dreams have meaning)  
 
565­567 (from “The Humanistic Perspective” on pg 564 up till before “The Trait Perspective” on pg 567 ​ Judy!! 
6: How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying 
personality? 
● Humanistic psychologists focused on the way healthy people strive for self­determination and 
self­realization ­ studied people through self­reported experiences and feelings 
● Abraham Maslow’s Self­Actualizing Person 
○ Proposed that we are motivated by a hierarchy of needs 
○ Idea that humans ultimately seek ​ self­actualization​ ­ motivation to fulfill one’s potential ­ and 
self­transcendence  
○ Maslow studied healthy, creative people who lead productive lives 
■ common characteristics: self­aware, self­accepting, loving, caring, enjoyed a few deep 
relationships, etc.  
■ stated that these characteristics = mature adult qualities 
○ Maslow’s believed that there was a certain set of characteristics that made one likely to become 
a self­actualizing adults 
● Carl Rogers' Person­Centered Perspective 
○ Believed that people are basically good and driven by self­actualizing tendencies 
○ Everyone has potential for growth and fulfilment  
○ A growth­promoting climate required three conditions 
■ Genuineness: transparent and open with feelings, etc. 
■ Acceptance: people need to offer​  unconditional positive regard ​ ­ an attitude of total 
acceptance toward another person 
■ Empathy: sharing and mirroring feelings 
● Central feature of personality is one’s ​ self concept ​
­ all our thoughts about ourselves 
7: How did humanistic psychologists assess a person’s sense of self? 
 ● Humanistic psychologists sometimes assess personality by asking people to fill in questionnaires 
● Some humanistic psychologists believed that any standardized assessment of personality is 
depersonalizing  
8: How has the humanistic perspective influenced psychology? What criticisms has it faced? 
● Humanistic perspective has influenced many fields, including today’s popular psychology 
● A lot of criticism too :( 
○ Concepts are vague and subjective (i.e. Maslow’s characteristics) 
○ Humanistic perspective encourages individualism, which may lead to self­indulgence and 
selfishness  
○ Humanistic perspective is naive and fails to appreciate the reality  
 
568­570 (from “The Trait Perspective” on pg 567)​  Eunice Kanggg 
The Trait Perspective 
● Trait​:​
 a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self­report 
inventories and peer reports 
● Psychologists like Gordon Allport described personality in terms of fundamental traits (identifiable 
behavior patterns); opposite of Freud 
● Myers­Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) ­ test that sorts people according to Carl Jung’s personality types 
(based on their responses to 126 questions like “Do you usually value sentiment more than logic?”) 
○ Used mostly for counseling, leadership training, and work­team development (not for research 
instrument since it can be troublesome scientifically) 
○ People are then categorized into different types like the “feeling type” (sympathetic, 
appreciative, and tactful) or the “thinking type” (good at analyzing, objective) ­­ every type has 
its strengths 
Exploring Traits 
● Factor Analysis 
○ Recall chapter 10 → factor analysis was the statistical procedure that identified clusters of test 
items that tapped basic components of intelligence like spatial ability and verbal skill 
○ Just like ^ factor analysis can group statistically correlated cluster of behaviors and traits 
■ Ex. people who describes themselves as outgoing also tend to like excitement and 
practical jokes and dislike quiet reading → this reflects a basic factor or trait = 
extraversion 
○ Many of our normal individual variations can be reduced to two or three dimensions: 
extraversion­introversion​  and ​
emotional stability­instability 
 ■ These factors are mostly genetically influenced  
 
Biology and Personality 
● Brain­activity scans of extraverts show that their brain arousal is relatively low 
● PET scans show that a frontal lobe area involved in behavioral inhibition is less active in extraverts than 
in introverts 
● Dopamine and dopamine­related neural activity tend to be higher in extraverts 
● Children’s shyness is attributed to the inhibition to their autonomic nervous system reactivity 
○ Given a reactive autonomic nervous system, we respond to stress with greater anxiety and 
inhibition 
Assessing Traits 
● Personality inventory: ​ a questionnaire (often with true/false items) on which people respond to items 
designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits 
● Classic personality inventory → ​ Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) ​ → most widely 
researched and clinically used of all personality tests 
○ Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use) 
○ Assesses “abnormal” personality tendencies rather than normal personality traits 
○ MMPI items were ​ empirically derived ​ (developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting 
those that discriminate between groups) 
● Personality inventories are scored objectively  
○ Objectivity does not guarantee validity, however 
■ ex) faking answers (saying false to questions like “i get angry sometimes”) 
 
571­572:​ Joyce 
The Big Five Factors 
Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation? 
● Conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion → tells a lot about your 
personality  
○ The Big Five Factor Test is currently our best method of measuring traits  
How stable are these traits? 
● In adulthood, the Big Five traits are quite stable, with (emotional stability, extraversion, openness) 
decreasing a bit during early and middle adulthood and (agreeableness and conscientiousness) rising.  
○ Conscientiousness rises during 20’s as people mature and learn to manage relationships   
○ Agreeableness rises during 30s and continues to do so through the 60s 
How heritable are they? 
● Heritability varies but it generally runs 50%+ for each trait, and genetic influences are similar in different 
nations  
Do the Big Five traits predict other personal attributes? 
● Yes 
○ Ex. Highly conscientious people earn better high school and university grades and are more 
likely to be morning people  
○ Ex. night people are more extraverted 
○ Ex. If someone scores lower than the other on agreeableness, stability, and openness, sexual 
satisfaction will suffer 
 
573­576 (up till before “The Social Cognitive Perspective” on pg 576):​  Amelie 
Evaluating the Trait Perspective 
Person­Situation Controversy 
●  ​ Our behavior is influenced by the interaction of our inner disposition w environment 
o ​ Still find genuine personality that persist over time and across situations 
  ​

●  ​ Personality traits – stable and potent 
●   ​ Behavior in specific situations are not predictable 
o ​ Makes personality test scores weak predictor of behavior 
  ​

o ​ HOWEVER, average outgoingness, happiness, or carelessness is predictable 
  ​

● Unfamiliar situations­ traits are hidden; familiar situations­ traits emerge 
o ​ Expressive people acting naturally> Inexpressive people acting expressive 
  ​

o ​ Expressive people use words like “always” and “certainly” 
  ​

 
577­578 (from “The Social Cognitive Perspective” on pg 576”) ​ Jay Yuu 
The Social­Cognitive Perspective 
● Social­cognitive perspective​ : emphasizes interaction of traits with our situations 
● Theorists believe we learn many of our behaviors through conditioning or by observing others 
● What we think about our situations affect behavior 
● Theorists focus on how we and our environment interact 
○ how do we interpret and respond to external events? 
○ how does our cognition affect behavior patterns? 
 
Reciprocal Influences 
● Reciprocal determinism​ : person­environment interaction 
○ Different people choose different environments 
○ Our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events 
○ Our personalities help create situations to which we react 
● Biological Influences 
○ genetically determined temperament 
○ autonomic nervous system reactivity 
○ brain activity 
● Psychological Influences 
○ learned responses 
○ unconscious thought processes 
○ expectations and interpretations 
● Social­cultural Influences 
○ childhood experiences 
 ○ influence of the situation 
○ cultural expectations 
○ social support 
 
Personal Control 
● Personal Control​ : whether we learn to see ourselves as controlling, or as controlled by, our 
environment. 
● Two basic ways to study the effect of personal control 
a. correlate people’s feelings of control with their behaviors and achievements 
b. experiment by raising or lowering people’s sense of control and noting the effects 
 
Internal Versus External Locus of Control 
● External Locus of Control​ : the perception that chance or outside forces determine their fate 
● Internal Locus of Control​ : you control your own destiny 
● “Internals” achieve more in school and work, act more independently, enjoy better health, and feel less 
depressed than do “externals” 
 
579­580 (up till before “Optimism Versus Pessimism” on pg 580)​  Jinney 
Depleting & Strengthening Self­ Control  
● self­control​ : ability to control impulses and delay gratification  
○ predicts good adjustment, better grades, social success 
○ those who plan their day and live out their day as planned are at low risk for depression 
○ self­ control temporarily weakens after an exertion, replenishes with rest, and becomes stronger 
with exercise 
○ Exercising willpower ­> deplete mental energy, blood sugar, and neural activity associated with 
mental focus 
○ giving people energy (sugar) strengthened effortful thinking!  
○ self­control requires attention and energy 
■ those who practice self­regulation through physical exercise and time­managed study 
programs can develop self­regulation capacity  
 
Learned Helplessness Versus Personal Control  
● Those who feel helpless and oppressed perceive control as external 
○ perception may then deepen their feelings for resignation 
○ experiment with Martin Seligman  
■ dogs strapped in a harness and given repeated shocks eventually learned a sense of 
helplessness 
■ dogs that could escape learned personal control and easily escaped the shocks in the 
new situation  
○ learned helplessness:​  when animals and people experience no control over repeated bad 
events, they often learn helplessness  
               
● people given little control over their world (in prisons, factories, colleges, nursing homes) experience 
lower morale and increased stress 
● measures that increase control (allowing prisoners to move chairs and control room lights, having 
workers participate in decision making, etc) improve health and morale 
● some freedom and control is better than none, but ever­increasing choices do not breed ever­happier 
lives  
○ “excess of freedom” in Western cultures contributes to decreasing life satisfaction, increased 
depression, and paralysis  
■ ex. people express less satisfaction in choosing among 30 brands of jam than choosing 
among half­dozen options  
 
581­583 (from “Optimism Versus Pessimism” on pg 580):​  Allison 
Optimism Versus Pessimism 
● One measure of how helpless or effective you feel = optimism/pessimism 
● Optimism and Health 
○ Depressed hopelessness dampens the body’s disease­fighting immune system 
○ Optimists have outlive pessimists or lived with fewer illnesses 
● Toward a More Positive Psychology 
○ positive psychology​  = the scientific study optimal human functioning; aims to discover and 
promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive 
● Excessive Optimism 
○ Self­disparaging explanations of past failures can depress ambition 
○ Realistic anxiety over possible future failures can fuel energetic efforts to avoid the dreaded fate 
○ Success requires enough optimism to provide hope and enough pessimism to prevent 
complacency 
○ Excessive optimism can blind us to real risks  
■ natural positive thinking bias can promote “an unrealistic optimism about future life 
events” 
■ Natural positive­thinking bias does not seem to vanish 
● Blindness to One’s Own Incompetence 
○ People are most overconfident when most incompetent  
■ Students scoring on low end of grammar and logic test believed they had scored in the 
top half 
■ To judge one’s incompetence and predict one’s future performance, it often pays to 
invite others’ assessments 
 
Assessing Behavior in Situations 
● Psychologists often observe behavior in realistic situations 
○ US Army’s WWII strategy for assessing candidate for spy missions → test ability to handle 
stress, solve problems, maintain leadership, and withstand intense interrogation without blowing 
their cover 
● Military and educational organizations and many Fortune 500 companies are adopting assessment 
center strategies in their evaluation of hundreds of thousands of people each year 
● These procedures exploit the principle that best means predicting future behavior is neither a 
personality test nor an interviewer’s intuition 
○ best predictor of job = past experience 
 
584­585 (finish up till the short paragraph that spills onto pg 586):  ​
Michelle 
Evaluating the Social­Cognitive Perspective 
16: What has the social­cognitive perspective contributed to the study of personality, and what criticisms has it 
faced? 
● social cognitive focuses on one’s learning and cognition & how situation affects and is affected by 
individuals.  
● Criticism: It fails to appreciate one’s inner traits & needs to consider one’s unconscious motives and 
emotions. 
Exploring the Self  
17: Are we helped or hindered by high self­esteem?  
● Self: ​ assumed to be center of personality, organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions  
● Hazel Markus’ ​ possible selves­ ​
you have images of successful and unsuccessful of your future self. 
These possible selves motivate us by laying out goals.  
● Thomas Gilovich­ “Fewer people notice than we presume”  
○ Spotlight effect: ​ overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, 
and blunders 
 
Benefits of Self­Esteem 
● Self­esteem: ​ one’s feelings of high or low self­worth  
● Today’s self esteem predicts tomorrow’s achievements. 
● But children’s self image does not accurately predict school achievement.  
● People with low self esteem­ more likely to disparage others and express racial prejudice.  
 
586­end: ​Andy 
Self Serving Bias: ​ our readiness to perceive ourselves favorably 
● People accept more responsibility for good deeds than for bad, and for successes than for 
failures  
○ people focus on strengths and achievement, but overlook their faults and failures 
○ take more responsibility for their group’s work than they give to other members 
● Most people see themselves as better than average  
● This phenomenon which reflects the overestimation of self rather than underestimation of others is less 
striking in Asia→ people in Asia value modesty 
● In every one of 53 countries surveyed, people expressed self­esteem above the midpoint of the most 
widely used scale → worldwide 
● Ironically, people see themselves as more immune than others to self­serving bias 
 ● Even pet owners have this bias to their pets → Three in four owners believe their pet is smarter than 
average 
● Even children show self­serving bias 
○ The most frequent reasons for fighting among children are social rejection and high self esteem 
● An adolescent or adult with a swelled head that gets deflated by insult is potentially dangerous 
○ After an experiment, in which 540 undergraduate volunteers wrote paragraphs and received 
either a praise (“Great Essay!”), or a criticism (“One of the worst essays I have read!”), the 
essay writers played a reaction­time game against the other students. Winning gave the writers 
to assault their opponent with noise of any intensity for any duration. As expected, the writers 
who received criticism and had high self esteem were exceptionally aggressive.    → 
Threatened egotism, more than low self­esteem predisposes aggression.  
● Psychologist Jean Twenge reports that today’s new generation ­­ Generation Me, she calls it, 
expresses more narcissism (ex. “If I ruled the world, it would be a better place”. “I think I am a special 
person”)  → shows materialism, the desire to be famous, inflated expectations, more gambling, more 
cheating → increased narcissism 
● If self serving bias prevails, why do so many people disparage themselves? 
○ Sometimes self­directed put­downs are subtly strategic (ex. “No one likes me” →  “Because not 
everyone has met you!” → reassures one) 
○ Self­disparaging comments prepare us for possible failure. 
○ Self­disparagement frequently pertains to one’s old self.  People are much more critical of their 
distant past selves than of their current selves, even when they have no changed. 
● Some researchers categorize self­esteem into two types: defensive and secure 
○ Defensive self­esteem 
■ Fragile 
■ Focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failures and criticism feel threatening 
■ correlates with aggressive and antisocial behavior 
○ Secure self­esteem 
■ Less fragile because it is less pertinent to external evaluations 
■ To feel accepted for who we are, and not for our looks, wealth, or acclaim, relieves 
pressures to succeed and enables us to focus beyond ourselves 
Facts about self serving bias 
● We remember and justify our past actions in self­enhancing ways. 
● We exhibit an inflated confidence in our beliefs and judgements 
● We overestimate how desirably we would act in situations where most people behave less than 
admirably 
● We often seek out favorable, self­enhancing information 
● We are quicker to believe flattering descriptions of ourselves than unflattering ones, and we are 
impressed with psychological tests that make us look good 
● We shore up our self­image by overestimating the commonality of our foibles and by underestimating 
the commonality of our strengths 
● We see ourselves making better­than average contributions to our groups(but so do our teammates, 
which explains why group members’ self­contribution estimates usually more than 100%) 
● We exhibit group pride­­­ a tendency to see our group 
 

Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders

593-595 ​
Eunice
Psychological Disorders
● World Health Organization reports ~450 million ppl. suffer from mental/behavioral disorders
● Rate and symptoms of psychological disorders vary by culture but no society is free of depression and
schizophrenia
Defining Psychological Disorders
● Psychological disorders:​ deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional ongoing behavior patterns
○ ex) ​Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)​ : a psychological disorder marked by the
appearance by age 7 of one ore more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention,
hyperactivity, and impulsivity
● Standards for deviant behavior vary by context and by culture; also vary with time
○ Mass killing is viewed normal/heroic in some context
○ Homosexuality was once classified as an illness → now it is not
● Deviant behavior usually causes the person distress
● (Harmful) dysfunction is also key to defining a disorder u

596-598 (from “Understanding Psychological Disorders”) ​ Eunice

Understanding Psychological Disorders
2: What perspectives can help us understand psychological disorders?
The Medical Model
● The concept that disease, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be
diagnosed​ treated, ​
,​ cured​
and in most cases, ​ treatment​
, of ten through ​ in a hospital
● Has gained credibility from recent discoveries that genetically influenced abnormalities in brain
structure
The Biopsychological Approach
● Nurture and nature interact to form behaviors (both normal and disordered)
● To presume that a person is “mentally ill”, psychologists attribute the condition to be a “sickness” that
can be found and cured
● BUT instead or additionally, there may be a difficulty in the person’s environment (person’s
interpretation of events, person’s bad habits, poor social skills, etc)
● This has to do with the links between disorders and cultures
○ Different cultures deal with stress differently
○ BUT not all disorders are culture-bound
■ Depression/schizophrenia occur worldwide
● To access the whole set of influences - genetic predispositions and physiological states; inner
psychological dynamics; and social and cultural circumstances - the biopsychological model helps
recognize that the mind and body are inseparable
● Negative emotions contribute to physical illness, vice versa
Classifying Psychological Disorders
3: How and why do clinicians classify psychological disorders?
● In psychiatry and psychology, diagnostic classification aims not only to describe a disorder but also
predict its future course, imply appropriate treatment, and stimulate research into its causes
● Current authoritative scheme for classifying psychological disorders → ​ DSM-IV-TR
 ○ This is the American Psychiatric Association’s ​
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders
○ There is a newly updated (5th) version of this that Mr. Loveday told us about
○ Most practitioners find the DSM-IV-TR helpful and practical; it is also financially necessary
○ DSM-IV-TR defines a diagnostic process and 16 clinical syndromes(as shown in the table)

■ Without presuming to explain their causes, it describes various disorders

○ Some critics have faulted the manual for casting too wide a net and bringing “almost any kind
of behavior within the compass of psychiatry”
■ Some also say that as the number of disorder categories increased, so has the number
of adults who meet more than one criteria
■ The number of children diagnosed with psychological disorders has also increased
dramatically

599-601 (from “Labeling Psychological Disorders” to “Anxiety Disorders”) ​Magggggggggsoswag

Why do some psychologists criticize the use of diagnostic labels?
● Critics say that labels are at best arbitrary and at worst value judgments masquerading as science
● Once we label a person, we view that person differently
○ Labels create preconceptions that guide our perceptions and our interpretations
○ David Rosenhan experiment: He and seven others went to hospital complaining of “hearing
voices” and all were diagnosed with disorders. The patients acted normal but the doctors said
they “discovered” the causes of their disorders.
● Labels matter.
 ○ Ex. People watched video taped interviews and those who were told they were watching
psychiatric/cancer patients -> perceived them as "different from most people"
● Labels can "have a life" and "influence its own"
○ Labels of being prisoners/mental hospital patients can make it more difficult to rent or find jobs
○ Public figures "coming out" is making the issue of these labels better
○ The more contact with patients, the more accepting we become
○ Media: portrays mental patients as objects of humor or ridicule
● Labels create bias perceptions AND CHANGE REALITY -> ex. someone who was led to think you are
"nasty", "retarded" will treat you harshly

601-604 (from “Anxiety Disorders” to “Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder”) ​ Sara

Anxiety Disorders​- when the uneasiness that we feel is intense and persistent and a cause of constant
distress
● Generalized anxiety disorder - person is unexplainably and continually tense and uneasy
○ ⅔of patients who suffer from this disorder are women
○ constantly jittery, agitated, sleep-deprived
○ concentration is difficult
○ apprehension reflects in physical appearance - furrowed brows, twitching eyelids, trembling,
perspiration, fidgeting
○ free-floating - cause cannot be identified
○ depressed mood
○ high blood pressure and ulcers
● Panic disorder - person experiences sudden episodes of intense dread
○ panic attack - minutes-long episode of intense fear that something horrible is about to happen
○ heart palpitations, shortness of breath, choking sensations, trembling, dizziness
○ smokers have at least a doubled risk of panic disorder
■ nicotine is a stimulant
● Phobias - person feels irrationally and intensely afraid of a specific object or situation
○ specific phobia - phobias that are focused on specific animals, insects, heights, blood, etc.
○ social phobia - shyness taken to an extreme
○ agoraphobia - fear or avoidance of situations in which escape might be difficult or help
unavailable when panic strikes
● Obsessive-compulsive disorder - person is troubled by repetitive thoughts or actions
○ obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors - persistently interfere with everyday living and
cause the person distress
○ example) checking to see if the door is locked 10 times, etc.
○ more common among teens and young adults than among old people

604-606 (from “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” to “The Biological Perspective”) ​The​​

大便
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
● A.k.a. “shellshock” or “battle fatigue” - an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories,
nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more
after a traumatic experience
 ● The greater one’s emotional distress during a trauma, the higher the risk for post-traumatic symptoms
● Findings suggest that some PTSD symptoms may be genetically predisposed
○ Sensitive limbic system seems to increase vulnerability by flooding the body with stress
hormones again and again as images of the traumatic experience erupt into consciousness
(genes may also play a role)
trauma:​
○ Original definition of ​ direct exposure to threatened death or serious injury, as during
combat or rape
○ Those who do ​ not ​
develop PTSD have an impressive ​ survivor resiliency
■ only about 1 in 10 women and 1 in 20 men develop PTSD
○ “What doesn’t kill you makes you stronger” is often true
■ Those who have suffered often develop a greater-than-usual sensitivity to suffering and
empathy for others who suffer, an increased sense of responsibility, and an enlarged
capacity for caring
● Posttraumatic growth: ​ positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely
challenging circumstances and life crisis
○ Those who have struggled with challenging crises (such as cancer) leads people later to report
an increased appreciation for life, more meaningful relationships, increased personal strength,
changed priorities, and a richer spiritual life
■ this idea is found in Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam

Anxiety Disorders
● Anxiety ​is both a feeling and a cognition
○ Beginning in childhood, people repress intolerable impulses, ideas, and feelings
■ This submerged mental energy produces mystifying symptoms, such as anxiety
■ Two contemporary perspectives : learning + biological
The Learning Perspective
● Fear conditioning- ​ when bad events happen unpredictably and uncontrollably, anxiety often develops
○ Conditioned fear and general anxiety helps explain why anxious people are hyper-attentive to
possible threats, and how panic-prone people come to associate anxiety with certain cues
○ Two learning processes contributed to anxiety:
■ (1) Stimulus generalization - when a person attacked by a fierce dog later develops a
all​
fear of ​ dogs
■ (2) Reinforcement - helps maintain our phobias and compulsions after they arise
● Avoiding/ escaping the feared situation reduces anxiety, thus reinforcing the
phobic behavior
● Observational learning- ​ learning fear through observational learning (by observing others’ fears)
○ Human parents similarity transmit fears to their children

606-608 (from “The Biological Perspective” to “Somatoform Disorders”) ​

Joyce
The Biological Perspective
● The biological perspective can help us understand why few people develop lasting phobias after
suffering traumas, why we learn some fears more readily, and why some individuals are more
vulnerable
Natural Selection
● Humans are biologically prepared to fear threats faced by our ancestors
○ spiders, snakes, dark, heights (preschool children more speedily detect snakes in a scene than
flowers, frogs, or caterpillars)
● Modern fears can also have an evolutionary explanation
○ Ex. Fear of flying may come from our biological predisposition to fear confinement and heights
● Our compulsive acts exaggerate behaviors that helped our species survive
○ checking territorial boundaries (helped species survive) → rechecking a locked door
(exaggeration of our species checking their boundaries)
Genes
● Some people are more predisposed to anxiety
● In monkeys, fearfulness runs in families (close biological relatives)
● In humans, vulnerability to anxiety disorder rises if one identical twins has it
○ Identical twins may develop similar phobias, even when raised separately
● After seeing the genetic contribution to anxiety disorders, researchers are investigating specific genes
that put people in danger
○ One research team found genes associated with OCD
● Genes influence disorders by regulating neurotransmitters
○ Some studies point to an ​ anxiety gene​ that affects brain levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter
that influences sleep and mood : decrease in serotonin-->low mood
○ Other studies implicate genes that regulate the neurotransmitter glutamate (too much of
glutamate makes the brain’s alarm centers overactive)
The Brain
● Psychological disorders are created biologically as an overarousal of brain areas involved in impulse
control and habitual behaviors
● When the brain detects that something is not right, it repeats thoughts or actions
● Brain scans of people with OCD show higher activity in specific brain areas during their compulsive
hand washing, ordering, etc
○ The ​ anterior cingulate cortex, ​ a brain region that monitors our actions and checks for errors, is
very active in those with OCD
● Fear learning experiences that traumatize the brain can also create fear circuits within the amygdala
○ some antidepressants dampen this activity and its associated OCD behavior

Somatoform Disorders
What are somatoform disorders?
● Somatoform disorder: psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form
without apparent physical cause
○ Ellen becomes dizzy and nauseated in the late afternoon shortly before she expects her
husband home (probably has an unconscious psychological origin, probably triggered by her
mixed feelings about her husband)
● One person can have a variety of complaints (vomiting, dizziness…) and one may have severe and
prolonged pain
● Culture has a big effect on people’s physical complaints and how they explain them
 ○ China: Psychological explanations of anxiety and depression are socially unacceptable and
people do not frequently express the emotional aspect of their distress. They are more willing
to report ​ physical​ distresses (fatigue, weakness)
○ West: Even in the west, somatic symptoms are familiar. People all experience unexplainable
physical symptoms under stress. Although the symptoms may be psychological in origin, they
are still truly felt.
● Type of somatoform disorder is ​ conversion disorder: ​
anxiety presumably is converted into a physical
symptom
○ a patient with conversion disorder might lose sensation in a way that makes no sense (sticking
needles in the affected area would produce no response)
● Somatoform disorders therefore send people not to a psychologist but to a physician. This is especially
true of those who have ​ hypochondriasis, ​ when​ ​
people interpret normal sensations (stomach crap
today, headache tomorrow) as symptoms of a severe disorders
○ sympathy or temporary relief from everyday demands may strengthen these complaints
○ no amount of reassurance convinces the patient not to worry

608-610 (from “Somatoform Disorders” to “Understanding Dissociative Identity Disorder”) ​ Justin Han
1. Somatoform Disorders are distressing symptoms that take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent
physical causes.
a. Culture has a big effect
b. Chinese more susceptible to somatoform because they repress their emotions
2. Conversion disorder, a type of somatoform disorder, is where anxiety is converted into a physical
symptom
a. EX.) Loss of sensation, paralysis, and blindness
3. Hypochondriasis is a somatoform disorder where people interpret normal sensations as symptoms
of a dreaded disease
a. Causes patients to continue seeking medical aid, even if there is nothing wrong with them
4. Dissociative disorders are where the person appears to experience a sudden loss of memory
5. Dissociative Identity disorder is where two or more distinct identities are said to alternately control
the person’s behavior
a. Often goes from good to bad personalities.
b. usually not violent

610-612 (from “Understanding Dissociative Identity Disorder” to “Bipolar Disorder”) ​

Kathleen
Understanding Dissociative Identity Disorder
● DID: debatable on whether if it is a genuine disorder or an extension of our normal capacity for
personality shifts.
○ most DID patients = highly hypnotizable
○ skeptics: suspicious that the disorder is so localized in time & space
■ outside of US = much less prevalent; Britain: rare; India & Japan: nonexistent
○ supporters: DID is a genuine disorder in the distinct brain and body states associated with
differing personalities.
Mood Disorders
 ● Mood disorders: two principal forms
○ Major depressive disorder (prolonged hopelessness and lethargy)
○ Bipolar disorder (manic depressive disorder)
■ person alternates between depression and mania
● Major Depressive Disorder
○ Depression = “common cold” or psychological disorders
○ Anxiety = response to the threat of future loss
○ Depressed mood = response to past and current loss
○ Occurs when at least 5 signs of depression (lethargy, worthlessness, loss of interest) last 2 or
more weeks

612-615 (from “Bipolar Disorder” to “Biological Perspective”) ​Jay

Bipolar Disorder
● Mania: the euphoric, hyperactive, wildly optimistic state
● Bipolar Disorder: alternating between depression and mania
● Adolescent mood swings can produce a bipolar diagnosis
● Emily Pronin and Daniel Wegner invited students to read statements at half and double the speed of
the normal reading speed. Those who raced through it felt happier.
● Mania’s energy and free-flowing thinking can fuel creativity.
● Afflicts both men and women equally.
Understanding Mood Disorders
● Many behavioral and cognitive changes accompany depression
○ Depression → inactive and feel unmotivated
○ Sensitive to negative happenings
● Depressions is widespread
● Compared with men, women are nearly twice as vulnerable to major depression
● Most major depressive episodes self-terminate
○ Therapy can speed recovery, but people tend to recover on their own
● Stressful events related to work, marriage, and close relationships often precede depression
● With each new generation, depression is striking earlier and affecting more people
615-618 (from “Biological Perspective” to “The Social-Cognitive Perspective”) ​
Joyce
The Biological Perspective
Genetic Influences
● Mood disorders run in families
○ Risk of major depression and bipolar disorder increases if you have a parent or sibling with the
disorder
○ After looking at major twin studies and how disorders correlate between them, Kendler
estimate that heritability of major depression is 35-40%
○ Adopted people who suffer a mood disorder often have close biological relatives who suffer
mood disorders, become dependent on alcohol, or commit suicide :O
● To tease out the genes that put people at risk for depression, some researchers have turned to ​ linkage
analysis.
 ○ After finding families in which the disorder appears across several generations, geneticists
examine DNA from affected and unaffected family members, looking for differences
○ Linkage analysis points us to a chromosome neighborhood → then find the “culprit” gene
The Depressed Brain
● Using modern technology, researchers are also gaining insight into brain activity during depressed and
manic states
○ Study Example: made 13 Canadian swimmers watch a video of the swim in which they failed at
the Olympic games and through the scans they showed that the swimmers experienced brain
activity similar to patients with depressed moods
● There is less activity in the brain during depressed states, and more activity during periods of mania
● The left frontal lobe (active during positive emotions) is likely to be inactive during depressed states
○ Study Example: severely depressed people have 7% smaller than average frontal lobes
● Two neurotransmitter systems play a role in mood disorders
○ norepinephrine​ : increases arousal and boosts mood, is scarce during depression and
overabundant during mania
○ serotonin: ​ scarce during depression ​ (some genes now under scrutiny provide codes for a
protein that controls serotonin activity)
○ Drugs that relieve depression tend to increase norepinephrine or serotonin supplies by blocking
either their reuptake
○ Exercise also reduces depression as it increases serotonin
■ boosting serotonin promotes recovery by stimulating hippocampus neuron growth

618-620 (from “The Social-Cognitive Perspective” to “Depression’s Vicious Cycle”) ​

Dustin
The Social-Cognitive Perspective
● Depressed People look the world through a darker lense
○ Often, this is because people gain ​Learned Helplessness ​
and feel that they have no real control
over their lives.
○ Also, even though all people experience such emotional events, the reason why some people
become depressed because their explanation often turns to blame toward themselves
○ However, there’s critique that this view has the “chicken-egg” dilemma; is it the pessimistic
view that causes depression, or is pessimism a sign of depression?

620-623 (from “Depression’s Vicious Cycle” to “Onset and Development of Schizophrenia”) ​ Michelle Jang
Depression’s Vicious Cycle
● Depression comes from anything that disrupts our sense of who we are
● Strack & Coyle- “Depression induces hostility, depression, and anxiety.”
● The cycle:
Stressful experiences -> Negative explanatory style -> Depressed mood -> Cognitive and
Behavioral changes -> back to the beginning
● Basketball fans- after a loss, they gave more negative predictions about the team’s future performance
and also themselves.
● We can break the cycle by moving to a different environment, turning our attention outward, or
engage in pleasant activities
 ● Winston Churchill called depression a black dog

Schizophrenia
11: What patterns of thinking, perceiving, feeling, and behaving characterize schizophrenia?
● 1/100 develop schizophrenia- 24 million suffer from this.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia
● Schizophrenia:​ group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking,
disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions.
Disorganized Thinking
● Thinking is fragmented, bizarre, and often distorted by false beliefs (delusions)
● Delusion: ​ false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders
● People with paranoia are prone to delusions of persecution
● Word salad- jumbled ideas create a sentence
● Disorganized thoughts result from breakdown in selective attention- something very tedious may
distract their attention from a bigger event.
Disturbed Perceptions
● Hallucinations- sensory experiences without sensory stimulation.
○ mostly auditory, frequently voices insulting or giving orders -> can lead to self harming
Inappropriate Emotions and Actions
● Inappropriate reactions and behaviors
○ They lapse into emotionless state of ​ flat affect​
.
● Inappropriate motor behaviors- senseless, compulsive acts- rocking or rubbing
○ Catatonia- remaining motionless for hours and becoming agitated.
● During severe schizophrenia, they live in a private inner world.

623-626 (from “Onset and Development of Schizophrenia” to “Genetic Factors”) ​ Maggie

Onset and Development of Schizophrenia
● Schizophrenia strikes as young people mature into adulthood
○ Thin young men who were not breastfed are more vulnerable
● It can appear suddenly or gradually, from a long history of social inadequacy
● Positive symptoms of schizophrenia- hallucinations, disorganized speech, inappropriate emotional
expressions - PRESENCE OF INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR
● Negative symptoms of schizophrenia- toneless voices, expressionless faces, mute bodies -ABSENCE OF
APPROPRIATE BEHAVIORS
● Slow development schizophrenia- recovery is doubtful, negative symptoms
● Rapid development of schizophrenia- recovery is very likely, positive symptoms
Understanding Schizophrenia
12: What causes schizophrenia?
Brain Abnormalities
● Scientists are trying to find out if schizophrenia is to do with brain chemistry.
Dopamine Overactivity
 ● High levels of dopamine may intensify brain signals, creating positive symptoms of schizophrenia
(paranoia, hallucinations)
● dopamine may underlie overreactions to irrelevant things and internal stimuli
● Impair glutamate activity- another source of schizophrenia symptoms
Abnormal Brain Activity and Anatomy
● Abnormally low brain activity in frontal lobes- may disrupt functioning of neural networks ->
schizophrenia
● During hallucination, high activity in thalamus
● During paranoia, high activity in amygdala
● The greater the shrinkage of cerebral tissues, the more severe the disease.
● 2 known risk factors: Low birth weight and oxygen deprivation during delivery
● Famine is also a known risk (ex. Dutch Famine increased this)
Maternal Virus During Mid pregnancy
● Mid-pregnancy viral infections can impair brain development
● 6 Conditions to BE AWARE OF!
○ 1) When country mother is in experiences flu epidemic
○ 2) Densely populated areas where viral diseases spread more quickly
○ 3) Babies born during winter/spring
○ 4)Both in southern hemisphere
○ 5) Mothers sick with Influenza during pregnancy
○ 6) Blood drawn from mothers of schizophrenics show higher-than-normal levels of antibodies
that suggest viral infections
626-628 (from “Genetic Factors” to “Personality Disorders”) ​ Amelie
Genetic Factors
·​ Fetal-virus infection increase the odds that a child will develop schizophrenia
       ​

·​ People also inherit a predisposition to this schizophrenia

       ​

o ​ 1/10 among those whose sibling/ parent has the disorder
  ​

o ​ ½ if affected sibling is an identical twin

  ​

o ​ Germs & genes produce identical twin similarities

  ​

·​ Adopted children have an elevated risk if a biological parent has schizophrenia

       ​

·​ Brain Abnormalities
       ​

o ​ Genes influence dopamine and other neurotransmitters

  ​

o ​ Affect production of myelin and lets impulse travel at high speed
  ​

o ​ Other factors may help “turn on” the genes that predispose ppl to schizophrenia
  ​

Psychological Factors
·​ No environmental causes have been discovered to produce schizophrenia
       ​

·​ 20% of people who developed schizophrenia displayed tendency to withdraw socially and behave oddly
       ​

before the onset of disorder

628-630 (from “Personality Disorders”) ​

Allison
Personality Disorders
● Personality disorders ​ - psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior
patterns that impair social functioning
 ● One cluster = ​avoidant personality disorder​ = express anxiety, such as fearful sensitivity to rejection
● Second cluster = ​schizoid personality disorder ​
= expresses eccentric behaviors, such as the emotionless
disengagement
● Third cluster = histrionic personality disorder & narcissistic personality disorder = exhibits dramatic or
impulsive behaviors & self-inflating behavior

Antisocial Personality Disorder

● Antisocial personality disorder ​ - a personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a
lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members
○ May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist
○ Most troubling and heavily researched personality disorder
● typical person who has this disorder = male whose lack of conscience becomes plain before age 15, as
he begins to lie, steal, fight, or display unrestrained sexual behavior
○ about half of these ppl become antisocial adults → can’t keep job, irresponsible parent etc
○ antisocial + clever = con artist
● Many criminals do not fit the description of antisocial personality disorder
○ they actually show responsible concern for their friends and family
● Antisocial personality expresses little regret over violating others’ rights

Understanding Antisocial Personality Disorder

● Antisocial personality disorder is woven of both biological and psychological strands
○ biological relatives have higher risk of being antisocial
● genetic vulnerability of people with antisocial and unemotional tendencies appears as a fearless
approach to life
● Some studies have detected the early signs of antisocial behavior in children as young as 3 to 6
○ young boys are impulsive, uninhibited, unconcerned with social reward, and low in anxiety
○ If channeled in more productive direction → heroism, adventurism etc
● Reduced activity in frontal lobe for those who murder impulsively
○ people who are antisocial show deficits in frontal lobe activity
● genetic predispositions do put some individuals more at risk for antisocial conduct than others
● We must also look to social-cultural factors to explain violence
● Study of criminal tendencies among young Danish men
○ men experienced biological risk factors at birth or came from family backgrounds marked by
poverty and family instability
○ Compared two groups to a third “biosocial” group → biosocial group had double the risk of
committing crime
○ Childhood maltreatment and a gene that altered neurotransmitter balance predicted antisocial
problems = nature + nurture

631-633 (from “Rates of Psychological Disorders”) ​

Michelle Lee
Rates of Psychological Disorders
● How many people suffer, or have suffered, from a psychological disorder?
● countries have conducted structured interviews of representative samples of citizens
 ○ US National Institute of Mental Health: 26% of adult Americans have mental disorder every
year
○ 2004 World Health Organization study (based on 90 min interviews of 60,463 people)
■ lowest rate of reported mental disorders = Shanghai
■ highest = United States (mental conditions of immigrants to US > native counterparts of
US)
● Who is most vulnerable to mental disorder? varies with disorder
○ poverty crosses ethnic and genetic lines as one predictor of mental disorder
■ incidence of disorder doubly high below poverty line
■ does poverty cause disorders? or do disorders cause poverty? both
● disorders strike usually by early adulthood
○ symptoms of antisocial personality disorder and phobias = earliest to appear (ages 8-10)
○ symptoms of alcohol dependency, obsessive-compulsive disorder, bipolar disorder, and
schizophrenia appear around 20
○ major depression around 25

Chapter 15: Therapy

637­639 ​
Jinney  
Psychotherapy  
● treatment involving psychological technological techniques 
○ consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome 
psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth 
○ major theories: psychoanalytic, humanistic, behavioral, cognitive 
● Eclectic approach: ​ an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client’s problems, uses 
techniques from various forms of therapy 
○ Psychotherapy integration ​ attempts to combine a selection of assorted techniques into a single, 
coherent system 
Psychoanalysis 
● Sigmund Freud’s therapeutic technique 
○ Freud believed the patient’s free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences ­­ and 
the therapist’s interpretations of them ­­ released previously repressed feelings, allowing the 
patient to gain self­insight 
● Aims: ​Freud assumed that psychological problems are fueled by childhood’s residue of repressed 
impulses and conflicts 
○ excavated children’s past and patients then work through the buried feelings and take 
responsibility for their own growth 
○ healthier, less anxious living becomes possible when people release the energy they had 
previously devoted to id­ego­superego conflicts 
● Methods:  
○ resistance: ​ in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety­laden material 
○ interpretation:​  in psychoanalysis, the analyst’s noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, 
and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight. 
○ transference:​  in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst emotions linked with other 
relationships (love or hatred for a parent) 
 ● although psychoanalysis are believed to be helpful to patients, there is criticism that their interpretations 
can not be proven or disproven. 
 
640­642 (stop at “Behavior Therapies”) ​ Joyce 
Psychodynamic Therapy 
● Influenced by Freud, ​ psychodynamic therapists ​ try to understand a patient by: 
○  focusing on themes across important relationships, including childhood experiences and the 
therapist relationship 
○ help patients explore and gain perspective on defended­against thoughts and feelings 
○ suggesting insight into patients’ problems 
● Interpersonal psychotherapy​ :​
 help people gain insight into the roots of their difficulties, but its goal is 
symptom relief in the here and now, not overall personality change 
○ rather than focusing on undoing past hurts, the therapist focuses on current relationships and 
helping people improve their relationship skills 
○ has been effective in treating depression 
Humanistic Therapies 
What are the basic themes of humanistic therapy, such as Rogers’ client­centered approach?  
● Humanistic perspective​  has emphasized people’s inherent potential for self­fulfillment 
○ Humanistic therapists​  aim to boost self­fulfillment by helping people grow in self­awareness 
and self­acceptance  
■ they attempt to reduce the inner conflicts that are impeding natural growth by providing 
new insights (similar to psychoanalytic therapies) 
● The Psychoanalytic and humanistic therapies are often called ​ insight therapies,​ ​
 a variety of therapies 
which aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client’s awareness of underlying 
motives and defenses  
● Comparisons between humanistic and psychoanalytic therapists  
○ humanistic focus on present and future more than the past  
○ humanistic focus on conscious rather than unconscious thoughts 
○ humanistic urges on to take immediate responsibility for one’s feelings and actions, rather than 
uncovering hidden determinants 
○ humanistic promotes growth instead of curing illness 
● Rogers developed the humanistic technique of ​ client­centered therapy,​  ​
which focuses on the person’s 
conscious self­perceptions 
○ in this therapy, the therapist listens without judging or interpreting 
○ Rogers believed that people already possess the resources for growth and instead encouraged 
therapists to show genuineness, acceptance, and empathy  
■ therapists should use the technique of ​ active listening: ​
the therapist interrupts only to 
restate and confirm feelings, to accept what is being expressed, or to seek clarification  
● Paraphrase, Invite clarification, reflect feelings 
■ Rogers thought therapists needed ​ unconditional positive regard,​  ​
​a caring attitude 
believed to be vital to developing self­awareness and acceptance 
643­644 (start from “Behavior Therapies” on pg 642, stop at “Aversive...” on pg 644) ​ Elizabeth 
Behavior Therapies 
● Behavior Therapy​ : therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors 
○ proponents doubt healing power of self awareness => eliminate behavior 
○ view maladaptive symptoms as learned behaviors that can be replaced 
1. Classical Conditioning​  (Exposure Therapies + aversive conditioning) 
○ maladaptive symptoms as conditioned responses 
 ■ eg. bed­wetting => alarm triggered by wetting bed > association of urinary relaxation and 
waking up stops bedwetting 
○ counterconditioning​ : pairs trigger stimulus (eg. enclosed space of the elevator) with a new 
incompatible ​
response (relaxation) that is ​ with fear 
■ involves (1) Exposure Therapy (2) Aversive Conditioning 
(1) Exposure Therapies 
● Mary Cover Jones 
● exposure therapies​ : exposes people to what they normally avoid 
● Systematic Desensitization​ : a widely used exposure therapy that associates pleasant 
relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety­triggering stimuli 
○ Pair fear with a conditioned response incompatible with fear by associating the 
fear­evoking thing with pleasurable response 
○ Eg. Peter’s fear of rabbits paired with eating, a relaxed response => the 
relaxation becomes the response rather than the fear 
○ (1) create a hierarchy of anxiety triggering situations (2) progressive relaxation in 
which therapists trains you to relax while imagining anxiety arousing situation (3) 
progress anxiety hierarchy => do it in real life situations 
○ virtual reality exposure therapy​ : an anxiety treatment that progressively 
exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears ​ that cannot be enacted 
constantly ​(airplane flying, public speaking) 
 
644­646 (start from “Aversive…” on pg 644, stop at “Cognitive..” on pg 646)​  Justin Han 
(2) Aversive Conditioning​  is the substituting of a negative response for a positive response to a 
harmful stimulus. It is the opposite of systematic desensitization ­ AC seeks to condition an aversion to 
something a person should avoid.  
a. For example, paint nails to something that tastes bad to prevent nail­biting, or sneaking in 
설사약 into alcohol to prevent alcoholism.  
2. Operant Conditioning​  is where voluntary behaviors are strongly influenced by their consequences 
a. hits can help behavior therapists practice behavior modification(reinforcing desired behaviors 
via punishment and reward) 
b. Token Economy​  is when people are rewarded with tokens as a reward, which can then be 
exchanged for rewards like candy, TV time, etc. 
c. Critics say that such a practice may not be ethical (too authoritarian) nor durable(May not last 
after therapy is done).  
 
647­648 (start from “Cognitive Therapies” on pg 646, stop at “Cognitive­Behavior Therapy on pg 648) ​ Thomas 
Cha 
Cognitive Therapies 
­ cognitive therapies believe that thinking colors our feelings.

 
 
­ overgeneralized explanation of bad events are often an integral part of the vicious cycle of depression 
­ the depressed person interprets a suggestion as criticism, disagreement as dislike, praise as flattery and 
friendliness as pretty 
­ Thinking about such ideas bring a bad mood, when this thinking patterns can be learned, we can easily 
replace them. 
 
Beck’s Therapy of Depression 
­ trained in Freudian techniques, Beck analyzed dreams of people, finding recurring negative themes of loss, 
rejection and abandonment 
­ with cognitive therapy Beck tried to reverse the clients catastrophizing beliefs about themselves. 
 
648 (start from “Cognitive­Behavior…” on pg 648,  stop at “Evaluating Psycho…” on pg 650) ​ Sara Shin 
Cognitive­Behavior Therapy 
● widely practiced integrative therapy, that aims not only to alter the way people think (cognitive therapy) 
but also to alter the way they act (behavioral therapy)  
● encourages people to practice the more positive approach in everyday settings ­ optimism 
● effective treatment for these emotional disorders is emotion regulation ­ trains people to adopt more 
realistic modes of thinking instead of catastrophic thinking 
● when people with OCD developed urges to constantly wash their hands they were told to change their 
way of thinking and instead think to themselves “I’m having a compulsive urge”  
○ they were told to think that the OCD urges were due to the brain’s abnormal activity and spend 
15 minutes doing an enjoyable, alternative behavior (ex. playing an instrument, etc.)  
○ after two­three months of this same routine, most participants’ symptoms had lessened and their 
brain scans revealed the cognitive­behavior therapy’s effectiveness  
Group and Family Therapies 
● group therapy does not provide same therapist intervention but is no less effective than individual 
therapy 
○ frequently suggested to people experiencing family issues or behaving in ways that bother 
others 
○ unique benefit of group therapy: social context allows people both to discover that others have 
problems similar to their own and to receive feedback as they try to learn different ways of living 
 ● family therapy ­­ unique type of group interaction ­­ that helps people learn that we live and grow in 
relation to others, no person is on an island 
○ need to connect with family emotionally 
○ family therapists work with family members to heal relationships and to mobilize family 
resources  
○ help family members discover the role that they need to play in the family  
● online support groups focus on stigmatized illnesses that are difficult to discuss face­to­face (ex. 
anorexia, alcoholics) 
○ studies have shown that online support groups for example Alcoholics Anonymous are effective 
and beneficial for those seeking help  
○ individualism goes hand in hand with support groups ­ people seem to be seeking community 
and connectedness once in a while  
 
651­652 (start from “Evaluating Psycho..” on pg 650, stop at “Clinicians’..” on pg 652) ​Eunice  
Is Psychotherapy Effective? 
Client’s Perceptions  
● Skeptics say: 
○ People often enter therapy in crisis 
○ With the normal flow of events, crisis passes ­ but people attribute their improvement to 
therapy 
● Clients may need to believe therapy was worth the effect 
○ Self­justification (want to believe that therapy was worth the time and money) 
● Clients generally speak kindly of their therapists 
○ Even if the problems remain, clients try to find something positive to say; after all, 
therapist has been very understanding and the client has gained a new perspective 
● We are prone to selective and biased recall and to making judgements that confirm our beliefs 
○ Experiment with over 500 Massachusetts boys, aged 5 to 13, who seemed bound for 
delinquency 
○ Half the boys were assigned to a 5­year treatment program (coin toss) 
○ Treated boys were visited by counselors twice a month, participating in community programs, 
academic tutoring, medical attention, family assistance, etc 
○ 30 years later, 485 participants answered questionnaires and checked public records from 
courts, mental hospitals, etc 
■ Results were encouraging 
● Some men said had it not been for their counselors, “i would probably be in jail”, 
“i would have gone the other way”, etc 
● Even among the “difficult” boys in the treatment group, 66% had no official 
juvenile crime record 
■ BUT results for the control group (half of the boys who didn’t receive any counseling) 
showed that the testimonials of those treated was unintentionally deceiving 
● 70% of the untreated men had no juvenile record 
● Control group had fewer problems (crimes, alcohol dependence, death rate, job 
satisfaction, etc) than the treatment group  
 
652­654 (start at “Clinicians’..” on pg 652, stop at “The Relative..” on pg 654) ​
Maggie 
654­657 (start from “The Relative..” on pg 654, stop at “Commonalities..” on pg 657) ​ Jay Yuu 
The Relative Effectiveness of Different Therapies 
● Energy Therapies:​  propose to manipulate people’s invisible energy fields 
 ● Recovered­memory therapies:​  aim to unearth “repressed memories” of early child abuse 
● Rebirthing therapies:​  engage people in reenacting the supposed trauma of their birth 
● Facilitated communication:​  has an assistant touch the typing hand of a child with autism 
● Crisis debriefing:​
 forces people to rehearse and “process” their traumatic experiences 
● Evidence­based clinical decision­making:​  the ideal clinical decision­making is a three­legged stool, 
upheld by research evidence, clinical expertise, and knowledge of the patient 
● Evidence­based practice:​  clinical decision­making that integrates the best available research with 
clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences 
Evaluating Alternative Therapies 
● There is no evidence for or against most of them 
● Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) 
○ a therapy adored by thousands and dismissed by thousands others as a sham 
○ Francine Shapiro had people imagine traumatic scenes while she triggered eye movements by 
waving her finger in front of their eyes, supposedly enabling them to unlock and reprocess 
previously frozen memories 
○ 84 to 100% of single­trauma victims participating in four recent studies say it is effective 
○ Eye movements are not the therapeutic ingredient 
● Light Exposure Therapy 
○ SAD: seasonal affective disorder 
■ form of depression especially for women 
○ Give SAD people a timed daily dose of intense light 
○ People reported they felt better 
○ This therapy sparks activity in a brain region that influences the body’s arousal and hormones 
 
657­659 (start from “Commonalities..” on pg 657)​  Judy Kim 
9: What three elements are shared by all forms of psychotherapy? 
● At least three common ingredients of various therapies  
● Hope for demoralized people 
○ therapy offers the expectation that things can and will get better 
○ positive belief may function as a placebo that improves morale 
○ therapy helps the client heal oneself 
● A new perspective 
○ therapy offers an explanation for symptoms and an alternative way of looking at things 
○ fresh perspective → new attitude! 
● A caring and trusting relationship 
○ emotional bond b/w therapist and client ­ “therapeutic alliance” ­ is key of effective therapy  
● → people who seek help improve, therapy does help 
  
660­663​
 Albert Kim (From “Biomedical Therapies” to “Antidepressant Drugs”) 
Biomedical Therapies 
● The other way to treat psychological disorders is ​ biomedical therapy: ​physically changing the brain’s 
functioning by altering its chemistry with drugs, or affecting its circuitry with electroconvulsive shock, 
magnetic impulses or psychosurgery 
● Psychologist can provide psychological therapies 
● ONLY ​ psychiatrists​ (as medical doctors) offer biomedical therapies 
Drug Therapies 
● The most widely used biomedical treatment today is drug therapy 
● Since the 1950’s discoveries in ​ psychopharmacology​  ​
(the study of drug effects on mind and behavior) 
have revolutionized treatment of people with severe disorders  
○ Because of drug therapy, population of mental hospitals in the US declined  
Antipsychotic Drugs 
● Drug therapy for psychological disorders began by accident when certain drugs calmed patients with 
psychoses​  (hallucinations or delusions make one lose contact with reality)  
○ These ​ antipsychotic drugs​  dampened responsiveness to irrelevant stimuli, helping patients with 
positive​
 symptoms of schizophrenia 
● Molecules of antipsychotic drugs are similar to neurotransmitter dopamine to occupy its receptor sites 
and block activity 
● Long term use of antipsychotic drugs produces ​ tardive dyskinesia ​with involuntary movements of the 
facial muscles, tongue, and limbs 
● Patients showing ​ negative ​symptoms of schizophrenia may use newer ​ atypical antipsychotics​
 such as 
clozapine helping to alleviate negative symptoms  
Antianxiety Drugs 
● Like alcohol, ​antianxiety ​agents, depress the central nervous system activity  
○ These anti anxiety drugs facilitates the extinction of learned fears and helps reduces the 
symptoms of PTSD and OCD 
● Criticism: they reduce symptoms without resolving underlying problems  
○ Although drug can be used for ongoing treatment, it produces a dependence  
Antidepressant Drugs 
● Antidepressants​  named for their ability to lift people up from a state of depression  
○ Now, they are used to treat anxiety disorders like OCD 
● They work by increasing the availability of norepinephrine or serotonin, neurotransmitters that elevate 
arousal  
● Fluoxetine (known as Prozac) blocks reabsorption/removal of serotonin from synapses 
 ○ Prozac is an ​ SSRI​  (selective­serotonin­reuptake­inhibitors)  
● Patients with depression who begin taking antidepressants require 4 weeks 
●  
664­665 (stop at “Alternative…” on pg 665) ​ Michelle Jang 
Mood­Stabilizing Medications 
● lithium­ effective mood stabilizer for those suffering bipolar disorder. 
● Taking lithium drops the risk of suicide to ⅙  
● Depakote­ effective in controlling manic episodes  
 
Brain Stimulation 
12: How effective is electroconvulsive therapy, and what other brain­stimulation options may offer relief from 
severe depression?  
● electroconvulsive therapy: ​ biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief 
electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient.  
○ Past­ patient was strapped and lost unconsciousness­ barbaric image 
○ Today­ patient receives anesthetic and a muscle relaxant. The patient wakes up and 
remembers nothing of the treatment.  
○ Effective treatment for depression  
○ ECT boosts production of new brain cells.  
○ Sometimes only done to the right side of the brain for less memory disruption.  
 
665­666 (start at “Alternative…” on pg 665) ​ Allison 
Alternative Neurostimulation Therapies 
● treating chronic depression → chest implant that stimulates vagus nerve; magnetic stimulation’ 
deep=brain stimulation 
● Magnetic Stimulation 
○ Depressed moods improve when repeated pulses surge through a magnetic coil held close to a 
person’s skull 
○ magnetic energy only penetrates to the brain’s surface 
○ repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)​  = the application of repeated pulses of 
magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity 
■ produces no seizures, memory loss, or other side effects 
■ stimulation energizes depressed patients’ relatively inactive left frontal lobe 
● Deep­Brain Stimulation 
○ Helen Mayberg & colleagues → discovered that cortex becomes calm when treated by ECT or 
antidepressants 
■ cortex is overactive in the brain of a depressed or temporarily sad person 
 
667­668 (stop at “Preventing..” on pg 668) ​ Amelie 
Psychosurgery​ : surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior 
Lobotomy​ : now­rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. 
Cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion­controlling centers of the inner brain 
● Developed by Egas Moniz 
● Shock patient → hammer an icepick like instrument through eye socket into brain → wiggle to sever 
connection 
●  ​Effects 
o ​ Decreased person’s misery or tension 
  ​

o ​ Permanently lethargic, immature, uncreative person 
  ​
 ● Now psychosurgery is used only in extreme cases 
  ​

  
Therapeutic Lifestyle change 
● Psychological events ARE biological events 
o ​ Human being is an integrated biopsychosocial system 
  ​

● Therapeutic lifestyle change 
o ​ Strenuous physical activity, strong community ties, sunlight exposure, plenty of sleep = less 
  ​

depression 
o ​ Aerobic exercise, adequate sleep, light exposure, social connection, anti­rumination, nutritional 
  ​

supplements 
o ​ RESULT: 77% experienced relief from depressive symptoms (19% for treatment­as­usual control 
  ​

condition) 
 
668­669 (start from “Preventing..” on pg 668) ​ Kathleen 
I. Preventing Psychological Disorders 
A. Not just the person, but also the society that needs fixing.  
i. Fix a sick situation before developing a problematic person 
ii. Ex) There is a river and people keep drowning in it. 
a. Rather than saving each person one by one, go to the top and find/fix what’s  
causing all of these people to 물에빠저  
iii. Preventative mental health (eliminate cause)  
a. George Albee: poverty, criticism, unemployment, discrimination → rise in stress → rise in risk of 
depression, alcohol dependency, suicide 
 

Chapter 16: Social Psychology

673­676 (stop at “Actions Affect Attitudes”) ​ Amelie Koo 
Social Thinking 
Social Psychology: the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another 
Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations  
● Attribution Theory: the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the 
person’s disposition 
o ​ For example, we think child’s hostility is a reflection of aggressive personality rather than reaction 
  ​

to stress or abuse 
● F​ undamental attribution error:​  the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to 
underestimate the impact of situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition 
o ​ Error persists even when told that person’s behavior was situational 
  ​

o ​ People tend to attribute our own action as situational and other’s as internal 
  ​

● The effects of attribution 
o ​ How do you explain poverty or unemployment? 
  ​

o ​ Politically conservative: dispositional 
  ​

Liberal: situational 
  
Attitudes and Actions 
Attitudes: feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, 
people, and events 
● Central route persuasion: interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable 
thoughts 
 o​ Occur most when people are naturally analytical or involved in the issue 
   ​

● Peripheral route persuasion: people are influenced by incidental cues 
o ​ Endorsements by respected people 
  ​

● Central route persuasion is more durable 
● Strong social pressure can weaken attitude­behavior connection 
 
676­679 (start from Actions Affect Attitude)​  Allison Yoo 
Actions Affect Attitudes 
The Foot­in­the­Door Phenomenon 
● Inducing people to act against their beliefs can affect attitude 
○ Korean War → US POWs were imprisoned in war camps run by Chinese Communists 
○ No brutality; captors secured the prisoners’ collaboration in various activities; radio appeals and 
false confessions 
○ 21 prisoners chose to stay with communists; others returned home brainwashed 
● Foot­in­the­door phenomenon ​ = a tendancy for people who have first agreed to a small request to 
comply later with a larger request 
● Chinese gradually escalated their demands → trained POWs to speakor write trivial statements → copy 
or create something more imporant (noting the flaws of captialism) → prisoners participate in group 
discussions → public criticism etc 
● Start small and build 
● Doing becomes believing  
● Attitudes­follow­behavior principle works good deeds too 
○ helped boost charitable contributions, blood donations, and product sales\ 
○ ex. volunteers asked to permit the installation of a large, poorly lettered “drive carefully” sign in 
their front yards → only 17% consented ⇒ After apporaching home owners with a small request 
first → nearly all consented 
● Racial attitudes likewise follow behavior 
 
Role­Playing Affects Attitudes 
● role​  = a set of explanations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave 
● when you adopt a new role, you try to follow the social prescriptions 
● At first it may feel phony, but later it becomes you 
● Philip Zimbardo’s experiment 
○ randomly designated some college students as guards and others as prisoners 
○ instructed guards to enforce certain rules; prisoners were locked in cells and forced to wear 
humiliating outfits 
○ after a few days, guards developed disparaging attitudes; prisoners broke down, rebelled, or 
passively resigned → ppl played their roles 
● Greece’s military junta during the early 1970s took advanage of role­playing to train men to become 
torturers 
● Person and situation interact 
 
Cognitive Dissonance: Relief From Tension 
● Actions affect attitude → when we become aware that our attitudes and actions don’t coincied, we 
experience tension, or ​ cognitive dissonance 
● Cognitive dissonance theory ​ = the theory that we act to reduce the iscomfort we feel when two of our 
thoughts are inconsistent 
 ○ ex. when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting 
dissonance by changing our attitudes 
○ proposed by Leon Festinger 
● Ex. Iraq war = war began → only 38% of Americans said war was justified even if Iraq did not ahve 
WMD → when no WMD was found Americans felt dissonance 
● to reduce dissonance → ppl revised their memories of the main rationale for going to war → became 
liberating an oppressed people and promoting democracy in the Middle East 
● We cannot directly control our feelings, but we can influence them by altering behavior 
 
680­683 (stop at Obedience) ​ Joyce Kim 
Conformity and Obedience 
What do experiments on conformity and compliance reveal about the power of social influence?  
● Behavior is contagious  
● The ​ chameleon effect​  describes how we are natural mimics ­­ we unconsciously mimic others’ 
expressions, postures, and voice tones 
○ also explains the phenomenon of ​ mood linkage ​ ­­ we are happier among happy people and 
sadder among sad people 
○ this mimicing has to do with empathy as empathic people yawn more after seeing others yawn 
● Sometimes the effects of mimicing are negative (Ex. after Columbine High School shooting rampage 
there were a lot of copycat crimes) 
 
Group Pressure and Conformity  
● Suggestibility is a subtle type of conformity (adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group 
standrad)  
○ Experiment: Asch Standard line test (There is a reference line and three other lines. You must 
choose which of the three lines is the same length as the reference line) They had six college 
students and first everyone answered simiarly. By the third round, however, everyone is saying 
line “2” as the answer while it is clear to you that line “1” is correct. However, you become 
increasingly inconfident in your answer and choose to simply go along with the answer given by 
the five students before you.  
■ Result: More than ⅓ of the time, these students were willing to discard their own 
opinions by going along with the group 
 
Conditions That Strengthen Conformity  
Conformity increases when: 
● one is made to feel insecure 
● the group has at least 3 people 
● the group is unanimous  
● one admire’s the group’s status and attractiveness (ex. fraternity) 
 
Reasons for Conforming 
● Normative Social Influence: ​ we conform to avoid rejection or to gain social approval. We are sensitive 
to social norms 
● Informational social infleunce: ​ we conform because​  ​
groups may provide valuable information, and only 
an uncommonly stubborn person will never listen to others  
● Robert Baron demonstrated our openness to informational influence on tough, important judgments  
○ Experiment: showed students a slide of a stimulus person followed by a slide of a four person 
lineup. The experiment made it either easy (view lineup for 5 seconds) or hard (viewing lineup 
 for half a second) and also led them to thinkt hat their judgments were unimportant (just a 
simple test) or important (20 dollar award for most accurate)  
■ Result: when the task was difficult and seemed important, people were more receptive to 
others’ opinions  
● In individualist cultures (west), conformity rates are lower 
 
683­686​ Michelle Lee 
Obedience 
● Stanley Milgram: how people comply with social pressures vs. commands (experiment) 
○ 2 roles: teacher and learner 
○ learner is strapped onto electric shock machine 
○ teacher has to teach then test learner on word pairs 
■ shock the student with increasingly higher voltages after each mistake they make 
○ the student will respond with increasingly agonzing shrieks 
■ how far would the teacher respond to the experimenter’s commands to continue the 
experiment? 
● most people said they would stop as soon as there were signs of pain from the 
learner 
● but 63% complied to the end (very last voltage), but with anxiety 
● obedience was highest when 
○ authority figures were close + legitimate + supported by prestigious institution 
○ victim was depersonalized/at a distance 
○ no role models for defiance 
 
Lessons from Conformity and Obedience Studies 
● Asch and Milgram devised experiments where participants had to choose: adhering to their own 
standards vs. being responsive to others 
○ experiments demonstrate that social influences can make people conform to falsehoods + 
cruelty 
○ first acts of compliance/resistance, attitudes follow 
○ people succumb gradually to evil 
 
687­691 (stop at social relations) ​Thomas Cha 
691­694 (stop at social roots of prejudice) ​
Judy Kim 
Social Relations 
7: What is prejudice? 
Prejudice​: an unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members, mixture of beliefs, emotions, and 
predispoisitons to action 
Stereotype​ : generalized belief about a group of people 
Discrimination​ : unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its member 
Automatic prejudice: prejudice is more implicit than explicit  
● implicit racial associations 
○ people who deny harboring racial prejudice may carry negative associations 
○ it took longer for people to identify pleasant words when presented with black­sounding names 
rather than white­sounding names 
● unconscious patronization 
○ white unviersity women were asked to evaluate a flawed essay said to be written by a black or 
white student 
 ○ when they believed the writesr were black, women gave higher ratings t 
● race­influenced perceptions 
● seeing black 
○ the more a person’s features are perceived as typical of their racial category, the more likely 
they are to elicit race­based responding 
○ black faces looked more criminal to police officers 
● reflexive bodily responses 
 
694­697 ​ Kathleen Joono 
I. Social Roots of Prejudice 
A. Stereotypes rationalize inequalities. 
B. Discrimination → increased stereotyping and prejudice through reactions provoked in victims.   
i. Blame­the­victim dynamic 
II. Us and Them: Ingroup and Outgroup 
A. Group­bound species 
B. John Turner & Michael Hogg → through our social identities we associate ourselves with certain groups 
and contrast ourselves with others 
C. Most intense dislike for outgroup rivals most like us 
D. Social definition of who we are also implies who we are not 
a. Us = ingroup; excluded = outgroup  
b. Ingroup bias: favoring one’s own group → us­them distinction  
III. Emotional Roots of Prejudice 
A. Divisions of society + passions from heart → prejudice 
B. Scapegoat theory of prejudice: blaming someone when things go wrong = target for one’s anger 
IV. Cognitive Roots of Prejudice 
A. Categorization 
i. prejudice springs from a culture’s divisions 
ii. unconsciously understand 
B. Other­race effect: the tendency to recall faces of own’s own race more accurately than faces of other 
races. Also called the “cross­race effect” and “own­race bias” 
C. Just world phenomenon: the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore 
get what they deserve and deserve what they get.  
 
698­701 ​ Maggie Goodfellow 
702­705 (stop at Attraction) ​ Eunice Kang 
Observing Models of Aggresion 
● Observing TV violence → desensitize people to cruelty and prime them to act aggressively when 
provoked 
● Men and women who watch more television tend to accept the rape myth 
○ Rape myth = the idea that some women invite or enjoy rape and get swept away 
● High pornography consumption → greater sexual aggressiveness among university men 
● Repeatedly watching X­rate films later makes one’s own partner seem less attractive, make a woman’s 
friendliness more sexual, and make sexual aggression seem less serious 
● Experiments can assess a man’s willingness to hurt a woman 
Acquiring Social Scripts 
● Significant behaviors (like violence) have many determinants → one single explanation becomes an 
oversimplication 
 ● Social psychologists attribute media’s infleunce to social scripts (mental tapes for how to act, provided 
by our culture) 
Do Video Games Teach, or Release, Violence? 
● Interactive games transport the player into their own reality 
● Most abused children don’t become abusive adults 
● Research reveals biological, psychological, and social­cultural infleunces on aggressive behavior 
● Aggression is a biopsycholosocial phenonmenon 
 
705­709 (stop at similarity) ​
Sara Shin 
709­713 ​Dustin Yoon 
Romantic Love  
● Passionate Love is a combination of Physical Desire & Cognitive Appraisal  
● Compassionate Love is less violatile, but longer  
○ Equity is important in keeping compassionate love for both partners to be satisified.  
Altruism  
● Altruism is a selfless action that aids others  
○ While people do act out of their self­interest, it must be noted that the bystander effect, can lead 
to people not acting out.  
○ Bystander effect is when people are less likely to help with others around  
○ Researchers believe we help when the cost does not outweight the benefits, called 
social­exchange theory  
○ Also, we learn the need to be nice through reciprocity norm, which explains that we must be 
good to people who have been good to us  
○ Also, socialization teaches us the social­responsibilty norm, which teaches that we must help 
those weaker than us, even if the cost is more than that of not helping.  
 
714­717 (stop at cooperation) ​ Michelle Jang 
The Norms for Helping 
● cost benefit analysis: everyone’s goal is to maximize rewards and minimize costs 
● Social Exchange Theory: ​ theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is 
to maximize benfits and minimize costs.  
● If rewards you get from helping exceed the costs, you will help.  
● People who donate morea are happier than those who spend it only on themselves.  
● reciprocity norm: ​ expectation that people will help those dependent upon them  
● Social responsibility norm: ​ expection that people will help those dependent upon them.  
● Those who attend religious service often donate more and volunteer more.  
 
Conflic and Peacemaking  
15: How do social traps and mirror image perceptions fuel social conflict? 
● conflict: ​perceived incompatibility of actions goals or ideas.  
● The destructive processes are social traps and distorted perceptions.  
Social Trap 
● We sometimes support, sometimes harm our well being by pursuing personal interest.  
● Social traps: ​ situation in which conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing self interest, become 
caught in mutually destructive behavior.  
● Real life situations pit our individual interests against our communal well­being.  
● People cooperate for mutual betterment, through regulations, better communication and promoting 
awareness of responsibilities.  
Enemy Perceptions 
● mirror image perceptions: ​ mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees 
itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other ide as evil and aggressive.  
● People in conflict see their own actions as responses to provocation, not as causes of what hapens 
next.  
● Enemy perceptions often form mirror images, as enemies change, so do perceptions.  
 
Contact 
16: How can we transform feelings of prejudice,agression, and conflict into attitudes that promote peace? 
● Contact between groups that are noncompetitive and of equal status helps.  
 
717­719 ​Jay Yuu 
Cooperation 
● Muzafer Sherif put 22 Oklahoma City boys in two seperate areas of a Boy Scout camp. There were a 
series of competitive activities. The two groups became hostile to each other. When Sherif put the two 
groups together, they avoided one another except to taunt and threaten. He gave them superordinate 
goals, shared goals, and they became comrades. 
● A shared predicament has a powerful unifying effect 
● Cooperation has especially positive effects 
 
Communication 
● Mediators help to understand the other side’s point of view 
● replace win­lose with win­win 
● communication → understanding and cooperation 
 
Conciliation 
● Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension­Reduction (GRIT): one side first announces its 
recognition of mutual interests then initiates conciliatory acts 
● GRIT → trust and cooperation