INNER PART OF THE EARTH

The planet Earth is made up of different

layers: the very
thin, brittle crust, the mantle, and the
core; the mantle and core
are each divided into two parts.
Although the core and mantle
are about equal in thickness, the core
actually forms only 15
percent of the Earth's volume, whereas
the mantle occupies 84
percent. The crust makes up the
remaining 1 percent.
Crust
The crust is the outermost part of the
earth and is very thin compared to the
other
layers. It is a part where the living organisms dwell in. It forms a very thin
continuous
layer that extends underneath the ocean and continents.
2 KINDS of CRUST
1. Continental crust is mostly composed of different types of granites. Geologists
often
refer to the rocks of the continental crust as “sial” which stands for silicate and
aluminum, the most abundant minerals in continental crust.
Cratons are the oldest and most stable part of the continental lithosphere and
are found deep in the interior of most continents.
2. Oceanic crust is mostly composed of different types of basalts. Rocks of the
oceanic
crust are referred to as “sima” which stands for silicate and magnesium, the most
abundant minerals in oceanic crust.
The Mantle
It is the mostly-solid bulk of Earth’s interior. The mantle lies between
Earth’s dense, super heated core and its thin outer layer, the crust. It is made up
of
silicates, magnesium oxide, iron, aluminum, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The
mantle is divided into two layers: the upper mantle and the lower mantle.
Mantle Plumes
A mantle plume is an upwelling of superheated rock from the mantle. Mantle
plumes are the likely cause of “hot spots,” volcanic regions not created by plate
tectonics.
The Core
It is the dense center and hottest part of earth. The core is made almost entirely
of iron and nickel.
The Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the core and the mantle.
The core is made of two layers:
a) Outer Core - borders the mantle. Bullen discontinuity is the hottest part of the
core.
b) Inner Core- is a hot, dense ball of iron. The temperature of the inner core is
far above the melting point of iron.
Bullen discontinuity is the boundary separating these two layers.
Earth’s Magnetic Field
Earth’s magnetic field protects the planet from the charged particles of the solar
wind. Without the shield of the magnetic field, the solar wind would strip Earth’s
atmosphere of the ozone layer that protects life from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
CHAPTER TEST:
Read each questions carefully. Write the letter of the correct answer in the blank.
__1. In what sphere of the earth are the rocks and minerals found?
a. Atmosphere c. Hydrosphere
b. Biosphere d. Geosphere
__2 What parts of the earth make up the hydrosphere?
a. Glaciers c. seawater and inland water
b. Groundwater d. All of the above
__3. What part of Earth's spheres is composed of a mixture of gases?
a. Atmosphere c. Geosphere
b. Biosphere d. Hydrosphere
__4. Why only few lives exist below bathypelagic zone?
a. No sunlight penetrates on this zone
b. Water is very cold
c. Water pressure is very high
d. All of these
__5. When is the accumulated pile of snow become glaciers?
a. When it undergo cementation and compaction
b. Upon reaching a certain mass and acted upon by gravity
c. When it piled up in huge amount and solidify
d. When the temperature dropped very low
__6. Earth’s atmosphere is consists mostly of what gas?
a. CO2 b. He c. N2 d. O2
__7. In the troposphere, as the altitude rise, what happen to the temperature?
a. decreases b. increases c. constant d. extremely hot
__8. In what layer of the atmosphere, many satellites orbit?
a. exosphere b. troposphere c. mesosphere d. stratosphere
__9. What is the largest part of the earth?
a. Biosphere b. Geosphere c. Atmosphere d. Hydrosphere
__10. What is the importance of magnetic field?
a. It protects the earth from the solar wind.
b. It keeps our planet in orbit.
c. It protects us from harmful UV rays.
d. It gives us many minerals.
CHAPTER 2: EARTHY MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
Lesson 2.1: ROCKS AND MINERALS
Objectives:
1. To identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and
chemical properties
2. To classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
Rocks
Rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals.
The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock.
The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are deter-mined by the manner in
which the rock was formed. Many rocks contain silica (SiO2); a compound of silicon
and
oxygen that forms 74.3% of the Earth's crust. This material forms crystals with other
compounds in the rock.
Geological Classification of rocks according to Characteristics such as
1. mineral and chemical composition,
2. permeability,
3. the texture of the constituent particles,
4. and particle size.
These physical properties are the end result of the processes that formed the
rocks. Over the course of time, rocks can transform from one type into another, as
described
by the geological model called the rock cycle. These events produce three
general classes of rocks : igneous , sedimentary, and metamorphic.
1. Igneous:
Igneous rocks form from the cooling of melted rock (either lava or
magma) into solid form.
If the cooling occurs underground, the rock is an intrusive, or plutonic,
igneous rock.
If the cooling occurs on the earth's surface, the rock is an extrusive or
volcanic rock.
Molten material within the Earth is called magma; it is “lava” once it has
erupted onto the surface.
2. Metamorphic: Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to
intense heat and pressure, usually deep below the earth's surface. These
conditions change the original minerals of the rock into new minerals.
3. Sedimentary:
Sedimentary rocks are either detrital or chemical.
a. Detrital rocks are formed by the compaction of separate particles, or
sediments, into a rock.
b. Chemical sedimentary rocks form from minerals that have been
dissolved in water and precipitate out, forming a solid rock.

Geologists describe sedimentary rocks according to the size and shape of the
particles in them or their mineral
composition (in the case of chemical
sedimentary rocks).
Oxygen (O) 46.6%
Silicon (Si) 27.7%
Aluminum (Al) 8.1%
Iron (Fe) 5.0%
Calcium (Ca) 3.6%
Sodium (Na) 2.8%
Potassium (K) 2.6%
Magnesium (Mg) 2.1%
Rock Cycle
The rocks of earth's crust are
constantly being recycled and changed
into new forms through geologic
processes. This continual transformation
of rocks from one type to another is called
the rock cycle.
Rock Cycle
How rock type can be changed?
Rock can be changed through the processes of weathering, heating, melting,
cooling, and compaction. Any one rock type can be changed into a different rock type
as
its chemical composition and physical characteristics are transformed.
The minerals and metals found in rocks have been essential to human
civilization.
Minerals
Minerals are the fundamental components of rocks.
They are naturally occurring inorganic substances with a specific chemical
composition and an orderly repeating atomic structure that defines a crystal
structure.
Silicate minerals are the most abundant components of rocks on the Earth's
surface, making up over 90% by mass of the Earth's crust.
The common non-silicate minerals, which constitute less than 10% of the
Earth's crust, include carbonates, oxides, sulfides, phosphates and salts. A
few elements may occur in pure form. These include gold, silver, copper,
bismuth, arsenic, lead, tellurium and carbon.
Although 92 naturally occurring elements exist in nature, only eight of these are
common in the rocks of the Earth's crust. Together, these eight elements make up
more than 98% of the crust (Table 1).
Table 1. The eight most common
elements in the Earth’s crust( by mass )
Rock Forming Minerals:
The physical properties of minerals, such as their hardness, lustre, color,
cleavage, fracture, and relative density can be used to identify minerals.

These general characteristics are controlled mainly by their atomic structure

(crystal structure).
Common rock-forming minerals:
These are specimens of minerals from the University of Auckland's collection.
Along with the common rock-forming minerals, including apatite, corundum, diamond,
fluorite, topaz and talc to illustrate minerals used in Moh's Scale of Hardness.
apatite augite biotite calcite chlorite corundum diamond
fluorite garnet gypsum
hornblende ilmenite magnetite muscovite

Classification and Identification of Minerals

Minerals are classified according to their chemical composition.
1. Definite fixed composition,
Quartz is always SiO2, and calcite is always CaCO3.
2. Form both by inorganic and organic processes.
For example, calcite (CaCO3) is a common vein mineral in rocks, and also
a shell-forming material in many life forms. Calcite of organic origin
conforms to the above definition except for the requirement that it be
inorganic.
3. "Mineraloids"
While not truly falling into the category of minerals, they are still usually
classified as minerals. Two well-known examples are Mercury, which lacks
a crystal structure due to its liquid state, and Opal, which also lacks a crystal
structure as well as a definitive chemical formula. Despite the fact that these
mineraloids lack certain essential characteristics of minerals, they are
classified as minerals in most reference guides including the acclaimed
Dana's System of Mineralogy.
4. Organic minerals is another unique category of minerals.
While this term is technically an oxymoron, since the definition of a mineral
requires it to be inorganic, there are several naturally occurring rare organic
substances with a definitive chemical formula. The best example of this
is Whewellite. Most reference guides and scientific sources make an
exception to these substances and still classify them as minerals.

Study Questions:
1. What are the physical properties of minerals ?
2. How are rocks classified ?
3. Describe how the following rocks are formed.
a. igneous rock
b. sedimentary rock
c. metamorphic rock