CW 35 Ol

The IEA Health an d Welfar e Unit
Choice in Welfar e No. 35
Ze ro To le ran c e :
Po li c in g a Fre e S o c ie t y
Enlarged and Re vise d Sec ond Edit ion
William J . Bratt on
William Griffiths
Ray Mallon
J o h n Orr
Ch arl e s Po ll ard
No rm a n D e n n is (Ed it o r)
IE A H ea lt h a n d We lfa r e U n it
London
F ir s t p u b l is h e d Ap r il 1 9 9 7
En lar ged a n d Re vise d S eco n d E dit ion , J a n u a ry 1 99 8
The IEA Health an d Welfar e Unit

2 Lo r d No r t h S t
Lo n d o n S W1 P 3 LB
© Th e IE A H e a lt h a n d W e lfa r e U n it 1 9 9 8
A l l r ig h t s r e s e rv e d
IS B N 0 - 2 5 5 3 6 4 3 2 -6
IS S N 1 3 6 2 - 9 5 6 5
Typ es et by th e IE A Hea lth a n d Welfa re Un it

in B oo km a n 1 0 po in t
P r in t e d in G r e a t Br it a in b y
Hartington Fine Arts Ltd, Lancing, West Su ss ex
Co nt e nt s
Pa ge
Th e A u th ors iv
Forew ord t o th e S econ d Ed ition Da vid G. Gre en vii
Ed itor’s In trod u ction

N orm a n D e n n is 1
Crime is Down in New York City: Blame th e Police

William J . Bratton 29
Zer o Toler a n ce: S h ort -te rm Fix, Lon g-te rm Liab ility?
Ch a rles Pollard 44
Con fiden t Policing in Ha rtlep ool

N orm a n D e n n is a n d R a y M a llo n 62
Crim e an d Cu ltu re in Har tlepool

N orm a n D e n n is a n d R a y M a llo n 88
St ra th clyd e’s Sp ot ligh t In itia tive

J o h n Orr 105
Zero Toleran ce: A View from Lond on

William Griffiths 126
Notes 138
The Authors
William J . Bra t t o n b e ga n h is career a s a police officer in Bost on
in 1 9 7 0 , r is i n g b y 19 80 to th e pos ition of Su per inte nd en t of
Police. He served a s Ch ie f o f t h e Ma s s a c h u s e t t s B a y Tr a n s p o rta -
tion Au t h o rit y P olic e a n d a s Su per inte nd en t of t h e Me tr op olit a n
District Com m iss ion Police. Between 1 9 9 0 a n d 1 99 2 h e a c h ieve d
n a tion a l re co gn itio n for h is lea d er s h ip of th e Ne w York Cit y
Tr a n s it Police, initiatin g reform s a n d s t r a te gie s th a t eve n t u a lly
cut s u b wa y c rim e b y n e a r l y 5 0 p e r c e n t . I n 1 9 9 2 h e r e t u r n e d t o
Bost on as Su perin ten den t-in-Ch ief, an d becam e Boston Police
Comm issioner in 1 9 9 3 . In J a n u a r y 1 9 9 4 h e was app ointed Polic e
Com m is s i o n e r of th e C ity of New York by Ma yor Ru d olp h
Giu lia n i, a n d e m b a r k e d o n a m a j or r e fo r m a t i on o f t h e N ew Yo r k
Police Departmen t. He is n o w Vice Ch a ir m a n of t h e Bo s to n -b a s ed
F ir s t Security Ser vic es Corp ora tion a n d President of its New Yor k
su bsidiary First Secu rity Cons ulting, Inc.
Norman Denn is is Gu est Fellow in th e Dep ar tm en t of Religious

S t u d ie s , a t t h e University of New ca s tle u p o n Tyne. With Professo r
A.H. Halsey h e is a u t h o r o f En glis h Et h ica l S ocia lis m , Clar en don
P re s s , 1 9 88 . Th e IE A H ea lt h a n d We lfa r e Un it is th e pu blish er of
h is Fam ilies W ithou t Fat he rhood (co-a u t h or Geo r ge E r d os ), 1 9 9 3
(secon d edition ) a n d The Invention of Pe rm a n e n t Poverty , 1 9 9 6 . He
is a l s o we ll -k n o w n fo r h is s t u d y of a Yo r k s h i r e co a l-m in in g town,
Coal Is Our Life (with Cliff Sla u gh te r a n d F e r n a n d o He n r iq u e s ),
a n d h is t wo s tu d ies of a wor k in g-c la s s dis tr ict of Su n d er la n d ,
Peop le a n d Pla n n in g, 1 9 7 0 , a n d Pub lic Participa tion a n d Pla n n ers ’
B lig h t, 197 2. He is cur ren tly s t u d y i n g t h e s t r u g g le b e t w e en t h e
b u r e au cratic, p olit ic a l a n d m edia a dvoca tes of dru g, edu cat iona l
a n d fa m i l y p e r m i s s i ve n e s s i n t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n a n d S w i t ze r -
la n d , an d one of their most importa nt opp onen ts, a Zürich
citize n s’ orga n izat ion ca lled t h e VPM.
William Griffiths BEM QPM was app ointed C om m a n d er (C r im e )

of Sou th Ea st Area of t h e Me t r op o lit a n P o lic e in 1 9 9 4 , a n d w as
d e s ign a t e d Depu ty to the Assistan t Comm issioner in 19 96. He
joined t h e Me t r op o lit a n P o lic e in 1 9 6 7 a n d s erved a s a c on s t a b le
a t Ca n o n Row for thr ee y ea r s , followed b y 1 7 y ea r s a s a detective
iv
v
officer in v a rio u s d ivis io n s . Th i s wa s i n t e rs p e r s e d wit h p e r io d s

on th e S er iou s Cr im es Br a n ch a n d th e F lyi n g S q u a d at New
S co tla n d Ya r d . H e w a s a ls o involved for a time in stra tegic
p la n n in g for t h e c r im e d e pa rt m e n t , i n c l u d i n g a n a p p o i n t m e n t a s
project m a n a g e r fo r t h e C r im e s t o p p e r s in itia tiv e in Lon d on . In
1 9 9 0 h e w a s a p p o in t e d C h i e f S u p er in t end ent to Ca rter Str eet
Division in S ou t h wa r k . H e th en re tu rn ed to d et ect ive du ty a n d
t h e F ly in g S qu a d a s it s o p er a t io n a l h e a d . As a C o m m a n d e r h e
le a d s th e s tr a te gy for cr im e r ed u ct ion , as well as th e street
r o b b e r y ca m p a ign Op er a tio n Ea gle E ye, a n d h e m a in ta in s a
t h e m a t i c over vie w o f a ll te chn ology used in ta ckling crime. He
was awar ded t h e B r it is h E m p i r e Me d a l fo r ga l la n t r y in t h e 1 9 7 4
B ir t h d a y H o n o u r s a n d t h e Qu eens Police M ed a l for d is t in gu is h ed
s e r v ic e in t h e 1 9 9 7 N ew Ye a r H o n o u r s .
R a y Ma l lo n i s a n a t i v e of S t o c k t o n - on - T e es . H e li ve s t h e r e w it h
h is wife a n d their two te en a ge d a u g h t er s . He joined t h e Cle vela n d
C o n s t a b u l a r y in J u n e 1 9 7 4 . H e served a s a f o ot p a t r o l o ffi ce r in
h is h om e town a n d a s a t r a ffic pa trol officer a t Billin gh a m (a ga in ,
loca lly) before trans ferring for a b rief period to Mers e ys i d e Police
in 1 9 7 7 . In 19 78 h e re-joined Cleveland Cons tab u lary, an d
served wit h t h e R e gi on a l C r im e S q u a d . Aft e r a p e r i od w it h t h e
Cadet Training Departm ent h e ser v ed w it h t h e C ID a t La n g-
b a u gh . He was th en a ppointed to hea d crime s trat egy at Ha rtle-
p ool. He is n ow a De te ct ive S u p er in te n d en t a n d h ea d of t h e C ID
a t Mid d le s br ou g h .
J o h n Orr OBE QPM CIMgt join ed th e Kilm a rn oc k Bu rg h Polic e

in 1 9 6 4 . In 1 9 6 9 h e joined t h e form er Ayr s h ir e C o n s t a b u l a r y a n d
in 1 9 8 4 h e w a s a p p o i n t e d H e a d o f S t r a t h c lyde Police Ser ious
C r im e S q u a d . He was prom oted Detective Chief Superinten den t
in 1 9 8 7 , becom ing J oin t H ea d of S t r a t h c ly d e CID. He was ch ose n
t o h e a d t h e in v e s t i ga tion i n t o t h e Lo ck e rb ie a ir d is a s t er a n d
s u b s e q u e n t l y le ct u r ed e xt en s ive ly o n dis a s t er p la n n in g a n d
inves tigation . He wa s a pp ointe d Direc tor of th e Man agem en t of
D is a s t e r s a n d Civil E m ergency Cours e at th e Police S t a ff College ,
B ra m s h ill, in 1 9 92 a n d 199 3. In 1 9 9 0 h e w a s a p p o i n t e d D e p u t y
Chief Con s ta b le of D u m frie s a n d Ga llowa y Co n s ta b u la ry a n d in
1 9 9 4 , on secon dm ent, Assistan t Inspec t or of Cons ta bu lary for
S cot la n d . M r O r r wa s a p p o i n t e d C h ie f C o n s t a b l e o f S t r a t h c lyd e
vi ZERO TOLERANCE : POLIC ING A FRE E S OC IETY
Police in J a n u ar y 1 9 9 6 . H e wa s a w a r d e d t h e OB E in 1 9 9 2 a n d
t h e Q u e en ’s Polic e Me d a l in 19 9 6 . Mr Or r is m a rr ied wit h a
g r ow n - u p f a m i ly of t w o s o n s a n d a d a u g h t e r .
Charles Po ll ard QPM LLB joined the Met rop olita n Polic e in
1 9 6 4 . H e a t t end ed th e 9 t h S p e c ia l C ou r s e a t t h e P o li ce S t a ff
College, B ra m s h ill in 1 9 7 1 w h e r e h e g a i n e d a s c h o l a r s h i p t o
Brist ol Univers ity an d ob t a ined an Honou rs Degree in Law. He
then s er ved a fu rt h er five ye a rs wit h th e Me tr op olit a n Polic e,
b ein g clos ely in volve d in t h e B a l c om b e S t r e e t s i e ge a n d t h e
Ir a n ia n E m b a ss y siege. In 1 9 8 0 h e was prom oted Superinte nd en t
in the Su ss ex Police where h e wa s involved in t he police oper a-
t i on a t t h e Bright on bom b in c id en t d u r in g t h e 1 9 8 4 Con s er va tive
P a r t y Conference . He was prom oted As s is t a n t Chief Consta ble in
t h e Th a m es Va lley Police in 1 9 8 5 , then retu rned to t h e Met ro p oli-
t a n Polic e a s De p u ty Ass is ta n t C om m is s i on e r in 1 9 8 8 . H e w a s
su bsequ en tly app ointed Chief Constab le of Th a m es Valle y Po lice
in J a n u a ry 19 9 1 . H e w a s a wa rd ed th e Q u ee n ’s Polic e Me d a l in
19 90 an d is a Visitin g Fellow of Nuffield College, Oxford.
Fo r e w o r d t o t h e S e c o n d E d i t i o n
Th is b o o k b r in g s t o ge t h e r p o li ce o ffi ce r s from b ot h s id es of t h e
At l a n t i c to describe th eir effo r ts to de a l effec tive ly wit h ris in g
crime. New Yo r k ach ieved a s ign ifica n t red u ction in its crim e r a te
followin g the int rodu ction of ‘zero-toleran ce’ policin g u n d e r t h e
le a d er s h ip of W il li a m B r a t t o n . I n t h e fi r s t e s s a y Mr B r a t t o n
descr ibes th e p h iloso ph y be h in d t h e NYPD’s c h a n ge of s tr a te gy.
At ab out th e sa me time, a s im ila r experimen t was being
condu cted in H a r tlepool un der th e leadersh ip of Ray Mallon. Th e
r e s u l t s a re de sc rib ed in o u r t h ird es sa y by Ra y Mallon a nd
No rm a n De n n is . Th e b len d of th e s oc iolog is t’s in s igh t s wit h th e
p r a ct ic a l k n o w l ed g e of a s e r v in g p o li ce o ffi ce r c o m m i t ted t o t h e
tra dition of British p olicing th at is res tra ined, good-h u m o u r e d
a n d ye t e ffective h a s p rod u ced a n es sa y of ra re qu a lity.
J oh n O r r , Chief C on s t a b l e of S t r a t h c l y d e , d e s c r i b e s h i s e ffo r t s
to t a c k le c r im e a n d disorder b y m e a n s of th e ‘S p o t li gh t In itia tive ’.
T h e r e a r e d iffe rences between t he a pproa ch of the NYPD a n d th e
n e w police tactics b ein g pu rsu ed in S tr a th c lyd e, bu t t h er e is a ls o
m u c h c om m o n g r o u n d .
Cha rles P olla r d’s es s a y is t h e le as t sym pa th etic to zer o-
tolerance policing a n d w a r n s of s om e in h e re n t d a n ge r s . However,
policing in Th a m e s Va lle y h a s d r a wn o n t h e ‘b r ok e n -w in d o ws ’
p h ilosoph y elabora ted b y George Kelling an d J am es Q. W ils on
(see below p. 46 ) whic h a r gu e s th a t s m all s ign s of d is or d er in a
loca lity, lik e b r ok en w in d o ws or g r a ffi t i, c a n e n c o u r a g e m o r e
serious criminality by giving rise to a sen se th at n obody cares.
Th e second edition h as been s tren gthen ed b y t h e ad dition of a
cha pter by on e of Lond on ’s mos t experienced s enior police
o ffi ce r s , Com m a n de r William Gr iffith s, wh o a n a lyse s t h e r e l e-
vance of zero tolerance for the Metropolitan District.
With the b enefit of a m a s te rly in tr od u ct ion by Nor m a n De n n is
t h e c o ll ec t io n e x p lo r e s t h e d i le m m a s t h a t lie a t t h e h e a rt of a n y
free s o c ie t y. Li b er t y d e p e n d s on law, b u t if the a gents of enforce-
m e n t s tr a y ou ts id e p ro p er lim its , lib er ty its elf is th rea ten ed. No
le s s impor tan t, th ere ca n b e no freedom if we a r e a fr a id t o le a ve
ou r hom es for fear of break-in or to ventu re into som e p a r t s of
ou r cities b ec a u s e w e fe a r a ssa ult. Th e a u t h o r s h a ve th rown n ew
light o n h o w we c a n i m p r o ve p o li ce e ffe c t iv en e s s w i t h o u t o ve r -
s t e pp in g th e le ga l lim i ts t h a t gu a r d o u r lib e rt ie s .
Da vid G. Gre en
vii
Ed it o r’s In t ro d u c t io n
Norm an De nn is
Z e r o-T o l e ra n c e P o li c i n g
T HE TER M ‘zer o t ole ra n ce ’ is a n u n fortu na te one. Few people,

le a st of a ll t h os e b r ou g h t u p in a n d p r o fe s s i o n a l ly t r a in e d t o
resp ect British tra ditions , are in favour of intoleran ce, or wou ld
a d m it it if t h e y were. Reacting on ly to the ter m, with out kn owing
w h a t i t r efe r s t o , c le r g ym e n a s s u m e t h a t i t m ean s la ck of
c om p a s s ion (w h er ea s it is c om p a s s io n ’s n e c e s s a r y pr e-con d ition);
a n d d efe n d er s of a f r ee s o c ie t y a s s u m e t h a t i t m e a n s t h e
rep res sion o f c iv il li b er t i es (w h e r e a s i t is t h e o n l y w a y t o s e c u r e
th em ).
‘Z er o t o le r a n c e ’ i s t h e labe l for a fo rm o f p olic in g th a t wa s
in tr od u ced q u i t e in d e p e n d e n t l y b u t a t ju s t a b ou t th e s a m e t im e
in New York , u n d er its m a yor Ru d olp h Giu lia n i, an d in Har tle-
pool u nd er DCI Ra y Mallon.
Th e essen ce of the b adly-nam ed zero-toleran ce crime s trat egy
is n ot in to ler a n ce bu t c on fide n ce . It is m a rk ed in th e fir s t place
b y the con fiden ce of t h e police offic er in h a n d lin g sit u a t io n s th a t
com e within h is lawful pu rview, down to th e lowest level of su b-
criminal, qu ality-of-life, offences .
Whether a qu ality-of-li fe o ffe n c e is d e a l t with b y a joke, or wit h
t h e l ig h t e s t o f h a n d s t h a t i s r e q u i r e d b y t h e s i t u a t i o n , it i s d e a lt
w it h wit h a vie w t o s t op p in g t h e o ffe n c e , a n d s t o p p i n g a r e p e t i-
tion of it. Th e o b jec tive th a t is to pr eva il is cle a r. It is th e p olice
o ffi ce r ’s , n o t t h e cu l p rit ’s . Th e tactics to ach ieve t h e ob jec tive will
a lwa ys b e a s t o l e r a n t a s poss ible. But t h e tactics a r e t h o se of t h e
police officer, n ot t h os e of th e offen de r or h is p re ss u re -gr ou p
p r o t e ct o r .
It is co n fid en t po licin g in a s ec on d s en s e. Un d er s u ch po licin g
t h e p u b l ic i s c on f id e n t t h a t t h e p o l ic e , d e ce n t l y an d within laws
s t ro n gly oriented towar ds th e defence of civil libert ies, ar e
1
2 ZERO TOLERANCE : POLIC ING A FRE E S OC IETY
effec tive ly protecting them from a t t a c k s on th eir r igh t to go a b o u t

their b u s in e s s with ou t in te rfe re n ce , n ot on ly fro m cr im in a ls , b u t
fr om l ou t s .
In the b ook I wrote s om e time a go with Geo rge E r d os , Fa m ilies
W ithou t Fath erh ood , we tell a s tory abou t zero-toleran ce , co n fi-
d en t , policing in Su nd erland in 194 1. Three boys wer e s h a r in g a
Wood b in e one S u n d a y m o rn in g in t h e lo ad in g b a y o f a t ow n -
c e n t r e store. A policeman app eared a t on e end of the s hort b ack
la n e , an other a t th e other. The boys wer e ma rched h om e to their
p a r en t s . (The b oys a n d th e p olic em en bo th wa lk ed a m ile. ) The ir
fa t h e r s s m o k ed. The policemen sm oked. Bu t boys of twelve were
n o t a llowed to sm oke. Th ey c er ta in ly co u ld n o t t h u m b their n o s es
a t g en e r a liz ed a d u l t a u t h o r it y b y s m o k in g in p u b l ic . Th e b o ys
wh ose fa t h e rs w er e n o t a w a y figh tin g in th e wa r w er e in tr ou b le
with their fa t h e rs . All of them w e r e in tr o u b l e wi t h t h e ir m o t h e r s .
If a n y jou rn a lis t h a d seen fit to write a n art icle condem ning th e
w a s te of p olic e r es ou rc es on a tr ivia l—a n d vict im les s —offence
when t h e i r fa t h e r s a n d b r o t h e r s w e r e b e in g k i ll ed a t t h e front or
a t sea , h is ed itor wou ld ha ve wond ered wh a t o n ea rt h h is po in t
co u ld be. If the e d it o r h a d p u blis h ed it, th e p u blic wou ld h a ve
h a d difficu lty in u n d e r s t a n d i n g wh a t w a s b e i n g p r o p o s e d —t h a t
b e ca u s e t h e i r fa t h e r s w e r e abs ent, th eir sons s hou ld be allowed
t o flo u t r u l es t h a t t h e y wo u ld h a v e u p h e ld if t h e y h a d b e e n a t
h om e ?
Wh en po licin g wa s de ta iled a n d co n s en s u a l, we co n clu d e, it
was low-key, good h um oured , an d effective. 1 O f t h e s e t h r ee boys
from wor k in g-c la s s h om e s in terra ce h o u s e s wit hou t ga r de n s a n d
opening s t r a i g h t o n t o t h e s t r e e t , t h e p r o d u c t s o f d e pr es s io n a n d
w a r , o n e b ec a m e o n e of t h e t ow n ’s b e s t s h i p -y a r d we ld ers, on e a
ba nk ma na ger, an d on e th e hea d of a polytechn ic.
Th ey wer e b rou gh t u p i n a c u l t u r e w h i ch r e s e r v e d it s h on ou r
for c o n d u c t t h a t w a s e x e m p l ifi ed a t its h ighes t by the Pilsley
colliery d e p u t y , Fra nk Nix, in 19 44. In sp ite of ha ving h is own
fam ily to think of, as well as h imself, with e x t r a or d i n a r y b r a v e r y,
s k i ll an d intelligence he s aved th e life of Ern est Vickers , a m iner
trap ped u n d e r a c oa l- cu t t in g m a c h ine when the coa l-face
co lla p s e d , a n d wa s in im m in en t d a n ger of co lla p s in g a ga in a n d
k illin g t h e m b o t h . Th a t w a s t h e s o r t of d ee d t h ese th re e b oys
talked a b o u t t h r e e o r fou r y ea r s after their Wood b in e e x p e r ience,
a n d h e is th e s ort of ma n th ey t a lk a bo u t t od a y. 2
EDITOR ’S INTRODUCTION 3
Zero- tolerance po licin g is ba s ed on th re e id ea s . O n e is t h e

s i m p le prin ciple, ‘nip t hin gs in th e bu d’. Pr e v e n t a n t i- s oc ia l
ele m en ts de velo p in g t h e fe elin g tha t th ey are in cha rge. Prevent
a b r o k en - d o wn a n d u gly en viron m en t of n eglec t b eco m in g a
b r e e d in g g ro u n d f o r cr i m e a n d d i s o r d e r .
T h e s e c on d i d e a i s t h a t , i n c o m p a r i s o n w it h ser ious offences ,
low-intens ity, h u m a n e , g oo d -n a t u r e d control—in th ose sen ses
‘t o le r a n t ’ cont rol—of these sm aller cha llenges to th e give-an d-
t a k e of dec e n t s o c ial intercour se is a ta ctic open to the p olice
o ffi ce r .
Th e t h i r d follows fr om t h e fi r s t t wo . At t h is low le ve l of con trol,
zero-tol eran ce policing can m a k e a distinct difference, directly b y
re d u cin g p et ty cr im e, va n d a lis m , g r a ffi t i a n d l o w -l ev el d is o r d e r ,
a n d indirectly b y c re a tin g a n en vironm ent le s s h o s p it a b le to m or e
s e r io u s cr im i n a ls .
A h a n d f u l o f y ou n g p e op l e s le e p in t h e sh op d o o r w a ys o f t h e
Str an d, on e of the th oroughfares mos t frequent ed b y vis it or s a s
they m o ve b et we en t h e We s t E n d a n d t h e C it y. Th o s e who sleep
in t h e entr an ces of t h e thea tres a r e even m o r e lik ely to sh ock rich
visitors sta ying at t he Sa voy. Seve ra l h u n d r ed a r e s p r ea d a c ro s s
other very p u b l ic l oc a t i on s . T h e y a r e a t r e m e n d o u s a s s e t t o
p e op le wh o wa n t t o re volu tion ize th e ec on om y a n d incom e
d i s t ri b u t ion of the cou ntr y. Becaus e as long as they ar e there,
t h is tan gle of pers ona l and s ocial failure can be held u p t o t h e
wor ld a s d e cis ive livin g pr oof th a t ‘t h e s ys te m ’ is a ll to blam e, a n d
t h a t B r it a i n ’s s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c o r d e r is r o t t e n t o t h e core.
Com pa ss ion a n d m o r a l in d ign a t io n on t h eir b eh a lf is a b u n d an t
a n d gen u in e. But compa ss ion is mitigated by the requ iremen t
t h a t they or t h e i r re p la ce m en ts m u s t n ot be in volu n ta rily
rem oved fr om t h e s e m o s t p u b li c o f p u b l ic a r e n a s . Th e y a r e t o o
va lu a b l e as ra dica l prop aga nd a for th at . They a re con sp icuou s
pr oofs o f t h e ba n k r u p t cy o f s t at e h ou s in g p olic y, s ta te be n efit s
policy a n d s tate s o cia l- s ervices po licy. It is called ‘t h e p r op a ga n da
o f t h e d e ed ’.
T h e r e is en orm ou s c om p a s s ion a n d concern in London a n d th e
provinces for the h om ele s s , e s p ec ia lly b u t b y n o m ea n s ex clu -
s ively fo r t h e m e n t a l ly il l a n d o t h e r s w h e r e i t is p r e t t y cl ea r l y ‘n o
fa u lt of th eir own’. Bu t wh ether they congregate u nh indered a t
Kin gs Cros s or in th e Str an d or not , wh eth er t he police ignor e
them o r d ir e c t t h e m t o a c c o m m o d a t i o n o r t re at m ent , does not
affect t h e d a ily life of m o s t p e op le e xc e p t i n t h e c o m p a s s i on a t e

sen se. Bu t very m an y peop le in Lond on a n d t h e p r o vi n c e s a r e
n o w con cer n ed on a da ily ba s is with the local bu rglars, th e local
va n d a ls , the local graffiti artists , the lo c a l gan gs of bu llies on
th eir own est at es a nd in th eir own sm all ne ighbou rh oods .
But it d oes n ot s eem to m a tt er to t h os e wh o d efen d t h e r igh t
of the h omeless to s leep with m aximu m p ub lic e x p os u r e in t h e
d oorw a ys of t h e m a in p u b l ic t h o ro u gh fa r e s , or a ga in s t t h e wa r m -
a ir vents of hotels, tha t zero-toleran ce policin g o u t sid e ce n t ra l
London is in p r act ice concern ed a lm o s t entirely with lowe rin g th e
in cid ence of thes e u n p r o b le m a t i c a l a n d c o n s e n s u a l ly d e f in e d
offences th at ou ght to b e st op p ed . Th es e o ffen ce s , a ga in s t
pr op er ty, a ga in s t t h e p e rs on a n d a ga in s t t h e quality of life , a ffect
ever yon e d irec tly, d a y by d a y.
In th e c u r r e n t d i s c u s s i o n e v er y t h i n g i s fo c u s e d , n o t s im p l y on
t h e difficu lt a n d d i ve r s e s u b je c t o f ‘h o m e le s s n e s s ’, b u t o n p r ob -
a b l y t h e s m a lle s t, an d from th e p oin t o f view o f civil lib er tie s t h e
le a s t p r o b l em a t ic a l, p a rt of th e h om ele s s n es s pr ob lem —pe op le
who beg p olitely and ch oose t o s l e ep in a s h o p d oo rw a y in
p re fer en ce to a h os te l.
Th e m u ch s i m p l er , s t r a i gh t f or w a r d a n d fa r m o r e p e rva s ive a n d
widesprea d pr ob lem s th ro u gh ou t t h e c ou n tr y, in clu d in g c en t r a l
Lond on, cau sed by petty crime, affecting infinitely more people,
are s hu ffled out of the deba te.
All t h a t c on fid ent policing s a ys is t h a t, so fa r a s it is a p olic in g
m a t t e r , boys an d you ng m en will be s top ped from h a n d lin g their
problems i n w a ys t h a t a r e u s e le s s to them selves a n d u n p le a sa n t
for d ecen t, law- ab iding citizen s. If the y sm as h b ottles on t he
p a v e m e n t , s c r a w l g ra ffit i o n h o u s e w a lls , t e a r a p a r t th e b u s
s h e l t e r , ga th er in in t i m id a ting groups at th e sh opping centr e,
then it will not be o ve r lo o k e d . W h a t u s e is i t t o a n yb o d y t o k ee p
th os e ways open to them ?
Wh a t do es th e Arch bis h op of Ca n te rb u ry m ea n wh en h e s a ys
t h a t ‘cla m p in g d own is n ot th e w a y to s olve t h e problem’? 3
Whoever s a i d or t h ou gh t it was ? No police st ra tegy by itself, no
ma tter how effective, can retu rn cr ime to t h e leve ls of for t y ye a r s
ago. There ha s been a pr ofoun d displacem ent of percep tion a nd
va lu e s , which h as left th e English popu lation mu ch m o r e p r on e
to rea ct to problems in self-destructive a n d a n t i- s oc ia l wa ys, wit h
a declin e in a c u ltu re of res pon sibility, a r ise in a cu ltu re of
victimh ood, a n d a t r a n s f e r of a t t r ib u t io n s o f c a u s alit y fr om t h e

c u lt u r a l to t h e m a t e ria l environmen t. Th a t d is p la c em e n t is b y n o
m e a n s u n c on n e c t e d w it h t h e c h a n g e o ve r t h e s a m e per iod in th e
m e s s a ge s p re a ch e d fr om B r it is h p u l pit s . 4
Polic e forces c a n h a r d l y touch t h e problem of t h e dism emb ered
fam ily. Too m a n y m es s a ges a re s till b e i n g tr a n sm itt ed to b oys
a n d yo u n g m e n —a n d of c ou r s e to t h e gir ls a n d women who m igh t
becom e th e m ot h er s of th eir ch ildr en —th a t u rge th em a ll to g ive
p r i or i t y t o th eir own in d i vid u a l o b je c t iv es i n t h e ir s e lf- r eg a r d in g
way of life . Police forces c a n h a r d l y touch t h e problem of m ot iva t-
in g a b o y or yo u n g m a n to m a xim ize h is p ot en t ia l a t s ch o ol a n d
in th e comm u nity. Po lic e fo r ce s n ow op e ra t e in a c u lt u r a l a n d
m e d i a en vironm en t in wh ich t he ess en tial dis tinc tion h a s been
fo r go t t e n (or ha s n ever been m a d e b y th e p e op le c on c e r n e d )
between th e r ole of ju d icia lly-im p os ed pu n is h m en ts in d e t e r r in g
t h e mor e-or - l e ss co m m itt ed a n d in co rr igib le c u lp rit h im s elf
(w h e r e t h e i r d et e r r e n c e va l u e is c o m p a r a t ively weak) and their
role in d et er r in g a n a t -p r es e n t la w- ab id in g boy or yo u n g m a n
(w h e r e t h e ir d e t e r r e n c e va l u e is s t r o n g ).
None o f t h e s e t h in gs a r e t o a n y s ign ific a n t e xt en t wit h in t h e
scope or com peten ce of police officers to ch an ge.
Bu t it is completely m is le a din g to insinuate into t h e d is c u s s ion
t h e logical n o n s e q u it u r t h at , b e ca u s e a p a r tic u la r fo r m of activity
c a n n ot ch an ge ever yth ing, it ca n ch an ge n oth ing; o r becau se it
m a y n ot be a b le t o c h a n ge t h in gs qu ick ly, it is u s ele s s t o t r y t o
c h a n ge th e m a t a ll.
Police officer s h a ve a ver y sp ecific job t o d o . T h e y a r e n o t a n d
c a n n ot b e a ll- p u r p os e s oc ia l wo r ke r s . So fa r a s their lega l powers
a n d ru les of gu id a n ce pe rm it, a n d pu b lic op in ion a llows , it is t o
see t h a t p e o p le c a n g o a b o u t t h e ir la wfu l b u s in e s s w it h in a
p u b lic e n vir o n m e n t w h ic h h a s n o t b e e n gr a t u i t ou s l y d e gr a d e d ,
in a n a t m os p h e re of r ea s o n a ble give-and-ta ke, a n d with ou t grea t
an xiety t h a t their h om e s or c a r s will h a ve b een br oken into w h en
th ey retu rn to th em .
Not ‘cla m p in g d own ’ on m in or m is d em ea n ou rs , if ‘cla m p in g
down ’ is t h e qu e s t io n -b e ggin g ph r a s e t h e Ar c h b i s h o p o f C a n t e r -
b u r y wan ts t o us e, is t h e c er t a in w a y of n o t solving the prob lem.
For not on ly do you not s olve the problem in t h e form in wh ich it
becomes m a n i fe s t to th e p u b lic, a n d in s o fa r a s it is co n tr olla b le
b y the p olice. You p rovide a b r ee din g gr ou n d in wh ic h t h e s a m e
a n d w or s e p r ob le m s ca n fes t er. ‘Clampin g down’—confident
policing wit h in its p r o p er lim i t ed doma in—does n o t p r et en d to b e

t h e whole s olut ion t o a n y p r o b le m . I t is m e a n t t o r e m o v e t h e
problem fr o m a c o n t e x t w h e r e it c a n ’t p os s ibly be s olved, int o a
c o n t e x t wh e r e i t m ight b e s o lv ed .
Th e s c o pe for comp as sionat e treat men t of the p roblems t h a t
u n d e r li e t h e m e n t a lly ill a d r i ft in th e city, t h e failures of t h e local-
a u t h o r i t y c a r e s ys t e m s , va n d a lis m , s lee pin g o u t i n t h e s t r e e t ,
in jec tin g h er oin , livin g for th e n ex t d rin k , k n oc k in g a n eld er ly
cyc lis t o ff h is b ik e fo r a la u gh , sm a s h in g w in d o w s , d r op p in g
b r ic k s an d b its of con cret e from t h e b r id g e on t o m o t o r i s t s
p a s s in g u n d e r n e a th , lo ot in g em p t y h o u s e s ,5 is n ot re s tr ict ed in
t h e sligh test if th e police do t h e ir job co n fide n tly , wit h th e p u b lic
pu tt in g th eir c on fiden ce in wh a t t h ey a re do in g.
As Ch a rle s Polla rd s h ows in th is volu m e, sh ared a s s u m p t io n s
a bou t c r im e c a n l ea d t o a v a r i et y of p olicin g st ra te gies . ‘Neigh -
bou rh ood po licin g’ in Sa n Die go is n o t t h e s a m e a s ‘c o m m u n i t y
po licin g’ in New York City. ‘Confiden t po licin g’ in Har tlepool is n ot
i d e n t ic a l with ‘problem-s olving policing’ in the Tha mes Valley
C o n s t a b u l a r y a r ea , nor with intelligence-led policing in Lond on,
nor with th e Spotlight Initiative in St rath clyde.
When t h e p olic e h a ve d on e t h e i r jo b , t h e n , a s c o m p a s s i o n a t e
p r i va t e citizens, compass ionate p o lit ic ia n s , c om p a s s ion a te s oc ia l
w or k er s , compa ss ionate clergy, compa ss ionate p re ss u re -gr o u p s
a n d c o m p a s s i o n a t e c h a r i t ie s , w e c a n d o o u r s .
T h e ‘C a u s e s ’ o f Cr i m e a n d Q u a l i t y -o f -L if e Of f e n c e s
Th e p e rs o n a l a n d e n vir on m e n t a l in flu en c es t h a t in t er p la y in t h e
p r es e n t a n d h a ve i n t e r p la y e d in t h e p a s t , t o fo r m t h e c o n t e x t in
which a p e r s o n d e c i d e s t o a c t in a n u n lawful, im m ora l or
offen sive way, a re in every ca se b oth nu m erou s a nd com plex.
E n vir on m e n t a l in flu e n c es d o n o t ‘c a u s e’ crime or an y other
t yp e o f h u m a n c o n d u ct . H u m a n b e in g s a r e n o t t h e in a n im a t e
o b je c t s of their circu ms tan ces lik e iron with its own coeffi ci en t o f
e xp a n s io n , or lik e i n s t in c t - d r iv en c r ea t u r e s in t h e anima te wor ld .
E n vir on m e n t a l in flu en ces d o not ‘cau se’ people to b eh ave in one
way or an oth er. Th ey m ak e a c ert ain line of cond u ct ea sier or
m o r e d i ffi cu l t . Th e t e r m ‘ca u s e ’ h a s b e e n b o r r o w e d fr o m t h e
p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s a s a r o u g h s h o r t h a n d fo r t h i s fa c t . So long a s
t h e w o r d ‘cau se’ app lied to s o cia l a ffa ir s is r ec ogn ize d a s n ot h in g
b u t a s om etim es u sefu l, som etim es m islead ing, a na logy (an d
n o rm a lly I do not hes i t a t e t o u s e t h e t e r m s o l o n g a s t h a t i s
un ders tood) no great h arm is done.

In 1 9 3 1 th e n at ion a l figur e on u n e m p lo ym e n t was 2 1 per cent .
In 1 93 1 t h er e we re 20 8 r ob be ries n a tion a lly.
In 199 6 th e na tiona l figure on u nem ploymen t was eig h t p er
cen t. In 19 96 th er e we re 72 ,0 00 rob be ries n a tion a lly.
B e for e t h e 1 9 6 0 s c rim e wa s a n option t h a t b y p r es en t d a y
s t a n d a r d s was very r arely chosen by poor an d u nem ployed
people, a n d Englan d was a s afe, law-ab iding and—a word often
u s e d then a n d later—‘decent’ so ciet y. Th e pos ition in m a n y town s
a n d indu stries wa s a s objectively ‘hopeless ’ t h e n a s it wa s in
1 9 9 6 . Bu t t h e P ilgr im Tru s t, re p or tin g in 19 3 8 o n t h e l on g - t e r m
u n e m p lo ye d , s a id of the Du rh am m iner th at his rea ction w a s ‘a
s t u r d y r efu s a l to give up ’. Neither h e n o r h is s on s d e a lt with their
problems by tu rn in g to th eft , viole n ce , a n d va n d a lis m a g ain s t
their n e igh b o u r s . A few w e r e ma stered b y t h e s o c ia b l e a n d s i m p le
d r u g of alcohol, but th e abs tinence m ovement, then still in flu en-
t ia l, h a d m a d e g r ea t in r oads into dru nk enn ess in t he m ining
comm un ities. Th er e w a s n o ‘d r u g s c e n e ’ i n S t a n l e y d u r i n g t h e
lon g an d h ar d yea rs of the De pr ess ion, wh en no on e cou ld y et
k n o w w h e t h e r p r o s p e r it y wo u l d e ve r r e t u r n . 6
Th e p overty and u nem ploymen t lobbies have s o m e t h in g t o
w o r k on . In m a n y very obviou s a n d ob jec tive wa ys u n e m ploym e nt
was a m uch worse experience in t h e 1 9 20 s a n d 1 9 30 s th a n in
1 9 9 6 . But n o d o u b t in s om e wa ys, e s p ec ia lly su bjectively, p o ve r ty
a n d u n e m p l o ym e n t , a t a m u ch h igh e r s t a n da r d o f livin g in b o t h
c a s es , co u ld be a wor s e e xp er ien ce in 1 9 9 6 tha n it was between
t h e wa r s .
But im a gin e a s science fic t io n t h a t a n u n e m p l oy e d m a n i n t h e
1 9 3 0 s cou ld h ave b een told fully an d h one st ly abou t a ll t h e
con dition s h e wo u ld h a ve to en d u r e a s a n u n em p lo ye d m a n in
t h e 199 0s, with th e attitu des of an u nem p l o ye d m a n in t h e
1 9 9 0 s . Wou ld h e com e to t h e 1 9 9 0 s or sta y where h e w a s ? Would
a n u n e m p lo ye d m a n of t h e 1 9 9 0 s c h a n ge p la c es w it h a n u n e m -
p lo ye d m a n i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s ?
Th e a n s w e r t h a t t h e p o v e r t y a n d u n e m p l o ym e n t lob b ies give
—their c a s e logic a lly dep e n d s e n t ir e ly u p on it—is t h a t t h e 1 9 9 0 s ’
m a n would chos e the 1 930 s beca us e he wou ld con c lu d e t h a t
u n e m p lo y m e n t in t h e 1 9 30 s wa s in s om e wa ys d ec is ive ly a n d
m a s s i ve ly b e tt e r t h a n t h e 19 9 0 s .
It is n o good th ose lob b ies s a yin g th at th e com pa rison can not
b e m a d e , a n d t h e r e fo r e t h e p o in t is n o n s ens e. Their wh ole

a r gu m e n t d e p e n d s u p on t h e ir h a vin g im p lic it ly m a d e s u c h a
com pa rison an d ca lcula tion, an d com ing to t ha t con clus ion.
To ma ke t he ir cas e th at th e m as sively higher level of crime is
d u e to s om e ma ss ively w or s e con dition of poverty a n d u n e m p lo y-
m e n t i n s o m e s e n s e o r a n o t h e r, t h e p overty and u nem ploymen t
lobbies ha ve to us e th e u tm ost in genu ity and diligence, a nd
r em a in r o b u stly n eglectful of t h e logical principles s u m m ed u p a s
‘O c c a m ’s R a z o r ’, t h a t t h e s i m p l es t e x p la n a t i on i s t h e b e s t .
It is on ly b y ign or in g or d is m is s in g figur es t h a t d o n o t s u it their
cas e, a n d in fla t in g t h ose t ha t s u pp ort it, a nd only by tor tu ou s,
f a c titious in t e rp r et a t io n s , t h a t in flu e n t ia l m o d er n c en t r es o f
‘r es e ar ch ’ an d ‘expert comm en t ’ i n a c a d e m i a a n d t h e s e r i o u s
m e d i a can su cceed t o t h e ir o w n s a t i s fa c t i on i n a t t r i b u t i n g t h e
d ifference b e t we e n 1 9 9 6 a n d 1 9 3 1 , 3 4 6 r ob b e r ie s in 1 9 9 6 for
e ve r y o n e 1 93 1 , to a n ove rw h elm in gly p owe rfu l in cr ea s e in th e
d et rim e n ts of u n e m p lo ym e n t a n d poverty a s t h e ‘c a u se s ’ of crime .
Unfo r t u n ately, wit h th eir ‘s cie n tific’ au th or ity, th ey h a ve
su cceeded in p e r s u a d in g m a n y peop le of perfect goo d -w ill a s we ll.
P o ve r t y or u n em ploym e n t as a ‘c a u s e ’ o f c r im e , e x c ep t a s a
m e ta p h or t o b e u s e d w i t h t h e m i n d a lw a ys o n te n t er h o ok s , c u t s
a ll t h e groun d from u nd ernea th a ny sort of religious or even
m o ra l vie w o f m a n .
App lyin g t h e w or d ‘c a u s e’ l it e r a l ly t o h u m a n b e i n g s , in i t s
p h ys ic a l- sc ie n ces ’ sen se, ju s tifie s a n y degree of either in d oc tr in a -
t ion o r s o c ia l c on t r o l t h a t m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y a s c o u n t er a c t i ve
‘c a u s e s ’.
Alte rna tively (t h e cu r r en t ly d om in a n t d ir ec tio n ) a s n o -o n e c a n
pos s i b ly b e r e s p o n s i b le fo r w h a t h i s e n vi r on m e n t ma kes h im d o,
a ll e d u ca t io n is d is m is s e d a s ‘m a n ip u la t io n ’, a ll s o cia l c on t r ol a s
‘r ep r es s io n ’, a n d a ll m o r a lit y a s s e n s e l es s — th e fa s h i o n a b le
p h ilo s op h y k n o wn a s ‘p o s t- m od e rn is m ’.
As t o n is h in gly, s o m e o f t h e s o ft e s t t a r g e t s fo r t h e d o c t r in e t h a t
‘s o cia l, a n d e s p ec ia lly m a t e r ia l, co n d it io n s ca u s e c rim e ’ h a ve
been fo u n d i n t h e r a n k s o f t h e ‘p r og r e s s i v e ’ c le r g y u p t o t h e
highest leve ls . D oe s it n o t s t r i k e t h e m t h a t t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e
u n e m p lo ye d in 1 9 3 1 t h ou g h t a b ou t th e righ t a n d wron g wa ys t h ey
s h ou ld d e a l wit h th eir u n em p loym en t—a s in d ivid u a l h u m a n
b ein gs i n t h e ir o w n r igh t , a n d n o t a s flo ts a m a n d je ts a m o n t h e
sea of ‘social conditions ’—might explain t he d ifference b etween
1 9 3 1 a n d 1 9 9 7 s o m ew h a t m ore sim ply a n d c on vinc in gly? Migh t

n o t s u c h a n ex pla n a t io n s it m o r e e a s i ly , i n t o t h e b a r g a in , w it h
t h e re ligiou s a n d m or a l do ct rin es th ey o th er wis e c la im to
p r ofe s s ?
T h e In c e n t i v e s t o C o m m i t C r i m e s
E n vir on m e n t a l in f lu e n c e s a r e b r oa d l y of t w o t yp es . O n th e on e
h a n d t h e r e a r e t h e i n c e n t i ve s t o beh ave un der th e sway of one’s
im p u l s es o r in t h e p u r s u i t o f o n e ’s o w n in t e r e s t s w it h o u t r e g a r d
for the con sequ ences to ot h e r s ( a n d s o m e t i m e s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e
consequ ences to on e s elf). Th e s e in c en t ive s to be h a ve b a dly c a n
a ll in one way or an other b e grouped un der th e h e a d in g of
‘fr u s tr a tio n ’.
If we feel fru stra ted econom ically we a re t em pt ed t o st eal or
d e fr a u d . If we feel fru stra ted em otionally, we may en ga ge in
b i za r r e b e h a v io u r t o b e a t le a s t n o t ic e d b y t h e p ers on wh o is
n egle ct in g u s . If w e a r e p h ys ic a lly m a s s ive en o u gh , we m a y
c o m p e n s a t e fo r u n r e q u i t ed l ov e w it h t h e s a t is fa c tio n s of b r u t a l
conquest. If we feel we a r e in s u fficiently re s p e ct e d , we m a y c re a te
for ours elves th e sat isfactions of power an d reven ge by t h e
des tru ction a n d d e fa c e m e n t o f ob j e ct s of th e p eop le wh o h a ve
sligh t ed or h u m iliat ed u s. If the su pp osed au th ors of ou r
h u m i li a t io n are too likely to be able to identify us a nd retaliate,
we ma y simply tran sfer our a ggression to a comp letely inn ocent
s u b s t i tu te, s u c h a s a n old la d y in t h e n eigh b o u r h oo d w h o c a n
fair ly s a fe ly b e r o b b ed a n d w it h a l m o s t co m p le t e s a f et y b e
i n s u l t e d —t h e f a m i li a r r e a c t io n o f ‘k i c k in g t h e c a t ’.
When ‘r e la t ive d ep r iva t io n ’ is th e ‘cau se’, then resou rces place
n o c e ilin g on b a d b e h a v io u r . Mo n e y b u ys t he th ings tha t keep
p e op le well-fed an d wa rm , t h a t m a k e a h om e co m fo rt a b le a n d
b e a u t i fu l , t h a t e n a b l e t h e i r d is e a s e s t o b e e r a d i c a t e d o r cu r e d ,
t h a t ma ke u s feel we look or s m ell n ice. Ha ving ‘plen ty of m on ey’
ma kes t h e m a n a ge m en t of one’s resou rces le s s one rou s a n d t i me
c on s u m in g. An increa se in m a t e ria l r e s o u r c e s m a k e s i t e a s i e r t o
b u y things t ha t are go o d for you an d to be generou s to oth er
people. All t h e s e t h in gs a n d m a n y m o r e a r e d e s ir a b l e a n d m a y b e
un iversa lly achievable.
But few s oc iet ies h a ve e ver pr od u ce d a s oc ia l-a ffair s in te ll-
igen ts ia like ou r ow n t h a t h a s t a k e n a n d p r e s s e s t h e vi ew t h a t
good b eh a viou r is secu red b y in c re a sin g m a t e ria l r e s our ces. Suc h
a t h e o r y is c o n t r a d ic t e d b y a ll h u m a n e x p er ie n ce , a n d w as
rejected by the foun der of eve ry wid es p re a d a n d du ra b le w or ld
religion o r e t h i ca l c od e . G oo d b e h a v io u r , w it h m o n ey or with ou t
m on ey, is s e cu r e d by q u it e o th e r m ea n s . Fo r, em p ir ic a lly
s p ea k in g, whole populat ions of very poor people have b e h aved
v er y well, a n d w h ole p op u lat ion s o f very r i c h p e op le h a ve
b e h a v ed v er y b a d l y.
Pe op le w it h li t t l e m one y ha ve coped with t he ir frus tra tions
in d ivid u a lly a n d c ollect ively by e m ph a sizin g a n d p r a c t is in g
‘vir t u e s ’. Pe op le with plenty of m o n ey c a n a lwa ys fin d frus trations
t o feed th eir resen tm ent a nd bad beh aviour, if tha t is how th ey
r es p on d t o li fe. ‘F orget ab out am ate u rs like Fergie’, a S u n d a y
Tim es ‘Profile’ rea d s . ‘When it com es t o b eh a vin g b a d ly , Princess
M a r ga r e t is in a c la s s of her own .’ One of her closest friend s
e xp la in s t h i s in t e r m s of h e r ‘relative d ep r iva t io n ’ a n d ‘exclu sion ’.
‘P rin c e ss M a r ga r e t h a s h a d to m a k e d o wit h w h a t is left over. Sh e
was s e con d b es t. In a w a y s h e h a d t o b e m a rgin a l iz e d .’ Th e
‘Profile’ c olu m n i s t a d d s t h a t t h e p a la c e es t a b l is h m e n t ‘s t a b b e d
h e r in t h e b a c k ’. 7
Th e r e p o r t m a y b e t r u e o r u n t ru e. Th e poin t is t h a t it t a kes for
granted t h e cogency of t h e a rgu m e n t t h a t frus tration ‘ca u s es ’ b a d
b e h a v io u r . Th a t P r i n c e s s Ma r g a r et h a s h a d p le n t y t o c om p la in
a bou t in h er life is a lm os t ce r ta in . Bu t in t h a t r es p e ct s h e is ju s t
like—or p e rh a p s e ve n b et t er off t h a n —m i llio n s of h e r fellow-
citizens who ha ve not coped wit h th eir fru s tr a tio n s by be h a vin g
b a d l y.
But w h e n t h i s v ie w of l ife , t h a t fr u s t r a tio n ‘c a u s es ’ b a d
b e h a v io u r , is fe d a nd fe e d s do wn to bo ys a n d you n g m en in
Harlem o r H a r t le p o ol , t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s h a v e b e e n a n d a r e
n eit h er ch ic, n or en te rt a in in g, n or tr ivia l.
Th e ‘r e la t i ve’ poverty a n d ‘relative’ dep rivation a r gu m e n t wou ld
e qu a l ly we ll ‘ex p la in ’ th e s p re a d of cr im in a l b eh a vio u r in t h e
B r it is h b u s in e s s c om m u n i ty a s a consequ ence of their c o m p a r i ng
their own wealth with tha t of Sau di princes.
Rela tive po ver ty is a n incentive to c r im i n a l c o n d u c t w h i c h i t is
t h e b u s i n e s s o f o t h e r fo r c e s o f e d u c a t i o n a n d s o c ia l h o n o u r t o
counteract.
T h e D is i n c e n t i v e s t o C o m m i t C r i m e s
Th e d isin cen tives to c om m it crim es in clud e a p ers ona l sen se of
gu ilt an d th e em otiona l discom for t th a t gu ilt a ro u s es . Pe op le
t h e r e fo r e t r y to im p la n t in o t h e r s t h e r e a din e s s to feel u n c om for t-
a b l y gu ilty if t h ey b eh a ve b a dly, and pleas an tly virtu ous when
t h ey b e h a ve we ll. An o th er disincentive to b eh a vin g b a d l y is p u b l ic

d is a p p r ova l a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t l os s o f b en e f it s a s s o c i a t e d w it h
b ein g d e s p is e d , d is t r u s t e d a n d d i s lik e d . A t h i r d d i s in c e n t i ve t o
b a d b e h a v io u r is p o lic e a ct io n —t h e s u b j e ct o f t h i s b oo k .
E v en t hou gh in th is coun try it needed a n American , Char les
M u r r a y , t o r i n g t h e a l a r m b e lls , 8 it h a s n o w a lm o s t c ea s e d t o b e
d ispu ted th a t s om et h in g qu ite pr ofou n d h a s h a p p en ed , in t h e
calcu lation s of the p e r p etra tors , to th e ba lan ce of the per son al
r e w a r d s a n d c o s t s i n c o m m i t t in g c r im i n a l a c t s a n d a c t s of s u b-
c rim in a l d i s or d e r . Th e per iod ic Brit is h C r im e Su rve ys (BCS) s h ow
a figur e of 1 1 m i llio n c r im e s i n 1 9 8 1 . B y 1 9 9 5 t h e r e we r e 1 9
m illion. 9
It wa s t h e in n ova tion of victim su rve ys o f t h e BC S t h a t
destr oyed one of the m a in a n ti- p olic e t a ct ics of th e c u ltu ra l
proponents of perm issivene s s , n a m ely, t h e tactic of c la im in g t h at
c r im e was n ot really increas ing—tha t th e crime figures were
s i m p ly a c r ea t io n of t h e pu b l ic ’s ‘m ora l pan ic’, wh ere it wa s n ot
a n illus ion delibera tely created b y police to justify their c la im s for
e x p a n d e d p o w e r s , m o n e y , a n d e s t a b l is h m e n t s .
These BCS figu r es , b y c on fir m in g t h e v a lid it y o f t h e t re n d s in
c r im e sh own by th e official police sta tistics of recorded crim e,
stren gthen ed t h e c a s e for b elievin g t h a t t h e officia l sta tistics were
a ls o a re a so n a ble gu ide to t re n ds be fore t h e BC S figu re s b ega n
to be collected in th e 198 0s.
Ac c or d in g t o t h e o fficia l figu re s , c rim e in En gla n d a n d Wa les
sh ifted d e c is i ve ly u p w a r d s f r o m a b o u t 1 9 5 5 . U p t o 1 9 5 5 t h e
c r im e rate h ad b een below 1 , 0 0 0 crimes per 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 pop u lation ,
y e a r a ft er yea r a n d de ca d e a fte r d ec a d e. Yet b y 1 9 6 5 th e c rim e
r a t e h a d m u c h m o re th a n d o u b le d t o 2 , 6 0 0 , e ve n t h o u g h 1 9 5 5 -
6 5 h a d b e e n a p e r i o d o f v er y lo w u n e m p l oy m e n t . T h e c r im e r a t e
h a d m u c h m o r e t h a n d ou b le d a ga in by 19 85, t o 7,30 0. The ris e
in t h e c r i m e r a t e in t h e s in g le ye a r 19 9 0 -9 1 wa s tw ice the total
c r im e r a t e of 1 9 5 5 .
Th e q u e s t i o n o f t h e h ow far a n increa se in frus trat ion can
e xp la in this rise is a b r o a d a n d difficu lt o n e. Ob viou s ly, if
som eon e feels frustr ated h e is fru s t r a t e d . If som eon e sees himself
a s deprived, he will a c t as a dep rived pers on. Most people,
p r ob a b l y, h a v e p l en t y o f r e a s o n s f o r t h i n k in g a n d f e e li n g th a t
they ha ve not the m oney, the power, th e love , t h e r e s p e c t , t h e
b ea u ty, th e s ex a pp ea l or po te n cy, th a t t h ey t h in k t h ey d es er ve
or wou ld like to h ave. Peop le differ, h owever, in th e exten t to
which t h e y a llow th eir feelings of fru str ation to grow an d

d o m i n a t e them . They differ, too, in h ow they cope with even
overpowe ring feelings of fru st ra tion.
Wh a t is m o r e important, d iffe r e n t cultures h a n d l e t h e in cip ien t
feelin gs of frus tration a n d t h e p r oper react ion to them in differen t
wa ys . So m e c u ltu re s h a n dle th em by re du cin g th e le vel of
p e rs o n a l e x p e c t a t io n s , h o pe s a n d w is h e s . S om e c u l t u r e s h a n d l e
them a s cha llenges to b e m e t a n d o ve r c o m e b y h u m a n e f fo r t a n d
ingenu it y. Oth er cu ltu res ha nd le th em by bla m ing ‘dep rivation ’
on ot h er pe op le’s (e.g . a wit ch ’s or a s or ce re r’s) la ck of c om p a s -
sion, ab us e of power an d m alevolence.
T h e B a l a n c e o f In c e n t i v e s a n d D i s i n c e n t i v es
in British Culture
Since 1 9 5 5 B r i tis h cu l t u r e h a s c h a n g e d d r a s t ic a lly a n d r a p id ly
in one res pect which w a s fu n d a men tal to the wa y in wh ich
fr u s t r a t i o n is h a n d le d. Un t il t h e m id - 19 5 0 s a Br it is h m a le wa s
br ou gh t u p w i t h t h e s t r o n g d e m a n d m a d e u p o n h i m t h a t h e
wou ld b e c om e t h e life - lo n g h u s b a n d to on ly o n e w ife ; t h a t s h e
wou ld b e h i s s o le e ve r s e x u a l p a r t n e r ; t h a t to get h er th ey w ou ld
live in th e s a me h om e t o b rin g u p t h eir ch ild r en ; a n d th a t be in g
a h u s b a n d an d fa t h er of t h is k in d was a m a j or , if n o t t h e m a j o r ,
project of life.
Ma in t a in in g th a t s yst em m ea n t t h a t a very l a r ge nu m ber of
p e op le took a very grea t int eres t, n ot on ly in h ow ea ch bo y a n d
youn g ma n wa s beh aving himself in th e here a nd now, bu t even
m ore in w h a t h is p r es e n t condu ct m e a n t for w h a t h e was gr owin g
u p t o b e . Th e r e w a s a l o t a t s ta k e. Th e fa ct th a t m a n y p eo p le
(e s p ec ia lly t h e ver y r ic h ) v io la t e d t h e r u le s , t h a t s om e ru les (s u ch
a s t h a t of p r e- m a r it a l chas tity) w e r e extremely d ifficu lt to monitor
a n d control, and were often evad ed, does n o t p r ov e t h a t t h e
s y s t e m h a d n o i m p o r t a n t e f fe c t s o n c o n d u c t .
Th e s o cia l e ffo r t t h a t wen t into m a in t a in in g t h e ru les was grea t
precisely b e ca u s e s e x is a v er y u n r u ly a n d d iffic u lt th in g fo r t h e
in d ivid u a l a n d s o c ie t y t o d e a l w it h . 1 0 More imp ortan tly, sex c a n
m e a n concep tion, a n d (if t h ey a r e n ot s im p ly t o b e d is p os ed of)
b a b i e s t a k e a l ot o f l oo k in g a ft e r .
Q u i t e s u d d e n l y a n d r a p i d ly , in t h e p e r io d fr o m t h e m id - 1 9 5 0 s
i n t o t h e 1 9 9 0 s , B r it is h bo ys a n d youn g m e n b e ga n to b e r eleased
from t h e h e a vy obligation s an d st renu ous expectations involved
in t h is cu lt u re of life lon g m on oga m y.

Th ey co u ld n o w h a n d l e their fru st ra tions to a n eve r- in cr ea s in g
ext ent a s s elf-r ega rd in g in d ivid u a ls . As co m p a re d wit h th eir
p r e d ec es s o rs , how boys dea lt with t heir frust rations becam e t o
a fa r gr e a te r , a n d t o a n in c r ea s in g, extent n o b o d y’s b u s in e s s b u t
th eir own. At t h e s a m e tim e, th e cu ltu re s hifted in th e direc tion
of d e fin i n g d ifficu lty a n d s h o rt a ge a s ‘deprivation ’—t h e w it h h o ld -
in g by someon e else, or some group , or some ‘stru ctu re’, of
s o m e t h in g t o w h ic h o n e wa s e n t i re ly en t i tle d .
Opt ions of an ti-social condu ct were opened u p wh ic h h a d
fo r m e r ly been closed off to boys an d you ng m en . The cu ltu re of
p e rs o n a l effort in th e face of d ifficu ltie s wa s b ein g d is s ip a te d . It
was gr a d u a lly r e p l a c e d b y a c u lt u r e o f s u lle n r es e n tm e n t th a t
one’s d i ffi cu l t i es w e r e o t h e r p e op l e ’s f a u l t t h a t t h e y h a d t o
r e m e d y ... or else . Regar d for, a nd th e rea lity of, th e rea ction s of
p e op le perma nently a b le to m ak e th eir life m ore com fort a b le a n d
p le a s a nt if t h ey b eh a ve d p r op er ly a n d le s s c om fo rt a ble a n d
p le a sa n t if they beh aved b a d l y, their perm an en t a n d s t a b l e circle
of u n a m b i gu o u s k in s folk , was wea ken ing. Nearly everyone,
th rou gh t h e ir t a ken- for-gran ted pa rticipa tion in th e cu ltu re of
lifelong m onoga m y, ha d p layed a pa rt in th e m ain ten an ce of t h e
system th a t e n s u r ed a s fa r a s p o s s ib le t h a t a n y b a b y wou ld h a ve
a h o me a n d two parents d u r in g t h e long per iod of its dep end ency
on o t h e r s d u r in g c h ild h o o d a n d a d olescence. Th a t was n o lon ger
the ca se.
Coinciden t with th e we a ke n in g of soc ial c on tr ol by t h e k in s h ip
system was th e wea ken ing of a r a n ge of ot h er wor k in g-c la s s
in s t itu tion s w h i c h h a d h e lp e d c l os e o ff c r im e a n d o t h e r a n t i -
s o cia l a n d s elf-d es tr u ct ive c on d u ct a s po s s ib le r e s p o n s e s t o
fr u s tr a tio n . F r i en d l y s o ci et i es , t h e c o - op e r a t i ve m o v em e n t , t h e
La bou r Pa rt y wh en it w a s s tr on gly or ien te d to wa rd s th e p h ilos -
o p h y of ethica l socialism an d Ch r is t ia n S o cia lis m , t h e c h a p els ,
t h e w or k in g m e n ’s c lu b s in their educative a s p ec t—a ll t h e s e wen t
into decline.
Th e ch ap ter on c rim e an d cu ltu re in Har tlepool is of g e n e r a l
in t e re s t in t h is co n n ec tio n . It is a text- book exam ple, on variou s
im p or ta n t a n d u n co n tr ove rs ia l m ea s u re s of m a te ria l a n d s oc ia l
we ll-b ein g (the p artial exception bein g u n e m p lo ym e n t), of t h e
objective s ou rces of frus tration b ein g significantly reduced d u r i n g
t h e per iod of ris in g crim e. Ha rt lep ool is eve n m or e in te re s tin g
when w e d o t a k e t h e t er r i b l e ex p er ien ce of u n em p loym en t fu lly

in to a cco u n t. F or a ga in , ver y clea rly, it was no worse a problem
ob ject ively, a n d a t t im e s m u c h l e s s o f a p r o b l e m d u r i n g t h e
per iod of rising crime, tha n it ha d been du ring other exten d ed
periods in th e hist ory of th e town .
Bu t wh en po ver ty a n d u n em p loym en t h a d be en de a lt w it h in
t h e con text of s t ro n g fa m ilies a n d o th er ins tit u tion s o f soc ializ-
a t i on an d social control, then crime, vand alism a nd teen a ge
h o oliga n is m h a d r e m a in e d a t lo w le ve ls .
S o lo n g a s t h e fa m ily an d o t h e r i n s t i t u t i on s w e r e s t r o n g , t h e
police, of cour se, cou ld be b oth formida ble a nd u nob t r u sive. (A
h a n dfu l of bobbies a t Highb ur y or Roker P a r k h a d n o t h i n g v er y
m u ch t o d o b u t w a t c h t h e m a t c h ; in cip ie n t u n r u lin e s s in t h e
30 ,00 0-s tron g c r ow d s a n d m or e wa s s u p p r e s s e d b y t h e a d u l t
m a le specta tors on the s pot. But when t h e y w e re n e e d ed , a few
police officers were e nou gh. Th e m ost vivid ima ge of th is kin d of
con trol is t h e lon e ‘po licem a n on th e wh ite h ors e’ con tr olling t h e
va s t c r ow d t h a t in v a d e d t h e Wembley p it ch , I t h in k in 192 6.) Bu t
from t h e 1 9 6 0 s , a s fewer a du lt m a le s exercised s oc ia l co n tr ol, th e
r e wa r d s b ec am e s p a r s e r a n d t h e r is k s g r e a t e r fo r t h e r em a in in g
m a le s who m ight at tem pt to con tinu e to d o s o . M or e a n d m o r e of
the b ur den of social control was th rown ont o the police force.
Un d e r m i n i n g t h e P o l ic e
Th e p o l ic e are obviously only one elemen t in th is complex
s it u a tio n . Bu t t h e p olic e, to o, w er e in a n im p or ta n t resp ect bein g
w e a k en e d . In B rit a in , in E u r op e a n d in t h e United Sta tes, t h e r e
w e r e su cces sfu l att ack s u pon w h a t h a d b e e n t h e c lo s e ly in t e r -
related cen tra l as su m pt ions of police a ction —as dist inct from
social work, medicine, politics, religion or m etap hysics.
One c en t ra l a s s u m p tio n for p o l ic e action was tha t when a
c r im e ha d been com mitte d s omeon e was res pon sible for it. The
la w is ca p a ble of b ein g u p h e ld on ly on t h e a s s u m p t i o n (tru e or
false) of p e rs o n a l responsibility. Th e ass um ption t h a t increa s in gly
displaced it was th at a crime was a h e lp le s s in d ivid u a l’s in e vit a -
b le rea ction to s om e set of e xt er n a l c ir c u m s t a n c es . 1 1 In one of th e
firs t b o o k s t o p o in t o u t th e em ergen ce of the ne w as su m pt ion,
a n d its perverse influen ce on po licin g, t h e c rim in olog is t P a tr icia
Morga n pr ovided an extr em e bu t h om ely exa m p l e of t h e c on t r a st
between th e two a ss u m pt ions fr o m a s im p l e c o n ve r s a t i on h e a r d
a t a b u s stop. It concern ed a s even-ye a r- old who h a d been in th e

p r oc es s of dism an tling th e clas sr oom while th e tea ch er s tood
pas sively b y . ‘C a n ’t you stop h im?’, ask ed a m other. ‘He comes
from a broken hom e.’ ‘Well’, sa id th e mot her , ‘he ca n b loody-well
le a rn , c a n ’t h e ?’ Th e m o th e r ’s a s s u m p t i on w as t h a t b y t re a tin g
t h e ch ild a s r e s p o n s ib le for h is a c t io n s , h e co u ld b e c h a n g e d . Th e
t e a c h e r ’s w as t h a t t h e s it u a tio n from w hich s h e gra tu itou s ly
e xc lu d e d h ers elf a nd th e s chool h a d s im p ly t o b e to le ra t ed , a n d
t h a t it wa s d om in a t ed b y w h a t w a s n ega t ive , h o p ele s s a n d
irreversible. 1 2
In 1 9 5 4 , n e a r ly 2 0 ,0 0 0 c h ild r e n u n d e r t h e a g e o f 1 4 we r e
fo u n d gu ilty of offen ce s . In 1 9 9 4 t he crime figur e was eleven
times higher t h a n in 1 9 5 4 ; b u t t h e n u m b er o f c h i ld r e n u n d e r th e
a ge of 1 4 who were fou nd guilty of offences wa s s ix times lower.
As Cha rles M u r r a y writes (w h os e c a lc u la t io n th is is ), th e m otiv es
to d e a l with t h e youn g as peop le not res pon sible for t h e ir act ion s
w e r e noble. The effects h a v e c r ep t u p on u s , a s s u c c es s ive
gene ra tions of you n g offen d er s h a ve c om e t o t h in k t h a t they ca n
get a wa y with a lm os t a n yth in g. 1 3
A police force can act m ean ingfully on th e fi r s t a s s u m p -
t i on — t h a t t h e s a n e a d u l t , a n d gr a d u a lly t h e gr ow in g in fa n t a n d
child , c a n be h eld re sp on sib le for wh a t h e d oes . Bu t ‘policin g’
does n o t m a k e s en s e o n t h e s e c o n d a s s u m p t i o n — t h a t t h e
in d ivid u a l is the crea tu re of his (non-police) environmen t. On
t h a t as su mp tion, so long as th e c i r c u m s t a n ce s r em a in u n -
c h a n g e d , t h e nu mb er of crimina ls an d crim inal a cts will r em a in
u n c h a n g e d . Policing, in th at cas e, loses its m ora l jus tificat ion.
E q u a lly, po licin g los es its pr a ct ica l ju s tific a t ion—the police are
h e lp le s s to do a nyt hin g ab ou t cr ime. All they ca n d o is to g o
th rou gh t h e m otions of co n tr ollin g it —a t b e s t with ou t them selves
s u c cu m b in g t o corru ption an d to th e abu se of what th ey lega lly
h a ve u n i q u e ly in t h e i r h a n d s —‘t h e d a n g e ro u s d r u g of violence’,
a s the n ineteenth cen t u r y ph ilosoph er B e r n a r d Bos a nq u et c a lled
it.
Neither of thes e ass um ptions, of ‘the r es p o n s ib le in d ivid u a l’
a n d ‘th e s over eign t y of cir cu m s ta n ce s ’, h a s eve r b ee n to ta lly
d om in a n t a n y w h e r e . B u t t h e r a p i d s u b s t i t u t i on , i n t h e l a s t fo r t y
y ea r s , of th e n ot ion of ‘p er s on a l re s p on s ib ility in a ll cir cu m -
s t a n c es ’ by th e n otion of ‘circum sta nces deter m in in g t h e a c tio n s
of a l l p e r s o n s ’, e ffe c t iv el y u n d e r m in ed th e au thority of the p olice
in t h e e s t i m a t i on o f t h e p u b l ic . As i m p o r t a n t l y , i t s a p p e d t h e
confiden ce of police person nel t h e m s elve s in t h e le git im a c y a n d

effectiven ess of their p olicing fu nc tion.
Anoth er ce n t ra l ass um ption was t h a t police forces existed onl y
t o p r o t e c t t he la w- a b i d in g c it i ze n a n d a p p r e h e n d t h e s u s p e c t .
U n d er m in in g th e n ot ion of p er s on a l re s p on s ib ility a n d re p la cin g
it with t h e not ion of e xt er n a l cau sa tion (from which policin g itself
was im p l ic it l y e x c lu d e d a s i r r e le va n t t o c o n d u c t , ju s t a s t h e
sch ool-teach er ha d exclu ded he rs elf from th e ch ild’s s itu at ion)
obscu red t h e d is t in c t io n b etween vict im a n d culprit, w h e r e it d id
n ot lea d to co m p let e r ole re ver s a l.
Th e m i ld e r fo r m of ro le r eve rs a l m a d e t h e o ld ‘vict im ’ in t o t h e
c u l p r i t . For the victim of a cr im e h a d c r ea t e d , o r h a d b e e n a t t h e
le a s t a w i ll in g u p h o ld e r o f, t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s t h a t ‘fo r c e d ’ t h e
thief, t h e m a l i n ge r e r , t h e r i ot e r , t h e va n d a l, t h e lout , t h e t e r r o r is t,
t o act in th e way he did. The old ‘cul p r it ’ w as t h u s th e n ew
vic ti m —th e vict im of t h e c i r cu m s t a n c e s t h r o u g h w h i c h s o c i et y
h a d fo r ce d h im to a dop t h is a nt i-social or s e lf- d es t r u c tive wa ys .
Ve r y few crimes (n o t a b ly rap e) escap ed t h is tend en cy t o wa r d s th e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the—in s o me ways—blameless m is c re a n t a t th e
e xp e n s e of the—in s om e wa ys—guilty victim. A Chu rch of
E n gla n d vic ar work ing on Mead ow Well esta te, t he sce ne of
r i ot in g a n d a r s on in Septem ber 1 9 9 1 , descr ibed a s ‘c r a p ’ t h e id ea
t h a t a n e le m e n t in t h e es t a t e’s p r ob le m s m igh t b e a deficiency in
m o r al t e a ch in g . Th e ca u s e s la y, in h is vie w, in t h e m a te ria l
p o ve r t y of t h e r e s i d e n t s . 1 4
Th e s t r o n g e r fo r m o f r o le r e ve r s a l we n t fu r t h e r s t ill. In s om e
s o cie t ie s , not a ll, the la w s o f t h e s t a t e a n d t h e r u l e s o f i t s
volu n t a r y a s s o c i a t i on s w e r e w id e l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e , o n t h e
whole, ‘good’. Where t hey were n ot good enou gh th ere wa s a
‘good’ wa y to c h a n ge t h em by u s i n g t h e ru les tha t governed
cha nges in the laws or ru les. Law ab idingness—res p e c t for th e
r u les o f m e m b e r s h i p a n d t h e cu st om s of s o cia l in t e rc ou r s e —w as
t h e r e f or e in n e a r l y a l l c ir c u m s t a n c e s it s e lf c on s i d e re d t o b e
‘good’. In som e societies th e laws an d ru les of con d u c t w e r e
th ou ght to be so good th at th ey were wor th dying for.
From the 1 950 s th ese ideas were progressi v e ly we a k en ed . In
their plac e two n otions were s imu ltan eou s ly p ro p a ga t e d —
s o m et im e s , in c on g ru o u s ly, b y t h e ve r y s a m e p eo p le . Th e fir s t
not ion w as t h at t h e r e wa s n o th in g on a s o cie t a l le ve l t o c h oo s e
between t h e way of life of t h e English , th e Irish , th e Ru ss ian s, or
t h e Coma nch e. At a p er s ona l level, there wa s n othing bu t ‘life-
s t yle s ’, non e of which could be grad ed ab ove or below any other

in t er m s of p r ac tic a l via b ilit y o r m o ra l w or th . 1 5
Th e s e c on d , c o n t r ad ict or y, n ot ion wa s th a t fe w if a n y s oc ieties
h a ve m a t c h e d i n t h e i m m o r a l it y of t h e i r w a y o f l ife t h e s lave-
own in g a n d t h e n t h e c a p i t a li s t ‘Am e r i k a ’, o r E n g la n d w it h i t s
r e pr e s s ive l eg a c y o f b r u t a l a n d s e l fi s h im p e r i alis m a b r oa d , a n d
élitist, s e xis t a n d exp loita tive ‘Victor ia n v a lu e s ’ a t h o m e—a n d th e
pres en t d is gr a ceful m a n ife s ta t io n s in both B rit a in a n d t h e United
Stat es of hom eless ne ss , ra cial pr ejud ice, gend er d iscrim ina tion,
u n e m p l o ym e n t , p ove rt y a n d n eo -c olo n ia lis m . In s p ite of t h e
extreme ob jec tive difficu ltie s in m a k in g ou t t h e c a s e, u n ce a s in g
p r o p aga n d a h a s be en re m a rk a b ly s u cc es s fu l in es ta b lis h in g in
t h e pu blic mind th e view th a t r is i n g c r im i n a lit y a n d r i s in g s u b -
c rim in a l d is o rd e r h a v e b e en t h e r es u lt of t h e s e ve r e r h a r d s h i p s
in t e r m s of p o ve r t y a n d u n e m p l o ym e n t t h a t r e c e n t g e n e r a t i on s
in B rit a in h a ve experienced a s compa red with their p r e d e c e s s o r s.
No d ou b t th is is pa rt ly d u e t o t h e fa ct th a t, a s Hit ler a rg u ed in
Me in Ka m pf, o r d in a r y p eo p le k n o w h o w t o a s s e s s l it t l e u n t r u t h s ,
bu t th ey do not kn ow how to cope with r eally big ones .
Th e su cces s a ch ieved in s pr ead ing th ese two s ets of id e a s ca n
b e i ll u s t r a t e d b y on e e x a m p l e fr o m som eone with relatively litt le
in flu en ce on t he inte llectu al life of Britain , an d b y an oth er
e xa m p l e pu rporting to be fro m a p osition ne ar th e pea k of
in t e lle ct u a l in flu e n c e in B r it a in .
Th e fir s t e xa m p l e d e a l s w it h t h e id e a t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o
ch oose be twe en on e wa y of beh a ving a n d a n other , a n d t h e r e f or e
a ll attempts to give s p e cia l pr otect ion th rou gh t h e laws or n a tion -
wid e c u s t o m s t o o n e w a y o f l ife r a t h e r t h a n a n o t h e r , a n d t o
e n s u r e t h e enforcem e n t o f t h os e la ws if n ec e s s a r y th rou gh police
a c tio n , is s en s e le s s if n o t a b s u r d . I w a s o n c e t r a v e ll in g o n t h e
n igh t coach from London to the North, h aving atten ded th e
a n n u a l Rem em br a n ce D a y s er vice a t t h e Mer ch a n t Na vy Wa r
Mem or ia l a t Tower Hill. In a n e igh b ou r in g s eat wa s a 25-yea r-old
wom an fr o m a C o u n t y D u r h a m c o ll ie r y v il la g e wi t h h e r yo u n g
fam ily. In t h e co n ve rs a tion it tran spired th at s he h ad t aken a
G C S E in h i s t o ry, specializing in t he S econd World War. Her
c o n fi d e n t ve r d i ct , fr o m w h ic h s h e c ou l d n o t b e b u d g ed b e ca u s e
s h e ha d a n a cad em ic qua lificat ion in th e su bject, was t h a t ther e
h a d be en n ot h in g to ch oos e b et we en th e e vils a n d virtu es o f t h e
c om b a t a n t s . Th e y b o t h h a d , e q u a l ly , r i gh t o n t h e i r sid e. Th ey
w e r e b o t h e q u a l l y a t f a u l t . Fr o m w h a t s h e h a d b e en t a u gh t a t
sch ool, s he kn ew th at th e origins , th e cou rs e, a nd th e res u lt of
t h e war between Nazi G er m a n y a n d t h e a llie s ‘w a s six of o n e a n d
h a l f- a - d o ze n o f t h e o t h e r ’.
Th e second exa m p l e d eals with th e idea tha t certa in values
as sociated w it h t h e B r it is h way of life a r e e s p ec ia lly r ep u gn a n t to
a n y h u m a n e p e r s o n . T h e s u c c e s s o f t h e a t ta c k on ‘Vict or ia n
va lu e s ’, w h i c h d e n i gr a t e s n i n e t e e n t h cent u ry Britis h s ociety, or
c o n t e m p o r a r y British s ociety, or both , is eviden ced by the fact
t h a t , a c c o r d in g t o a r e ce n t r ep or t in Th e S un d a y Tim e s , a
pr ofessor a t t h e University of O x fo r d as serted t h a t ‘the Vic to ria n s
ha nged youn g people for stea ling a h an dkerch ief’.
Qu een Vict or ia reigned from 1 8 3 7 to 1 9 0 1 . D u rin g t h o se sixty -
fou r years no p ers on, you ng or old, wa s e ver lega lly ha nged for
s t e a lin g a ha nd kerch ief, or for a n yt h in g rem otely r e s e m b lin g t h a t
offence. E v en i f t h e r e p o r t h a d a d d r e s s e d t h e p e r io d w h e n t h e
n u m ber of cap ital offences on th e sta tu te book was at it s
h i g h e s t —be fore Qu een Victoria cam e to th e t h ro n e—it wou ld be
v er y d i ffi cu l t fo r a n y o n e t o u n e a r t h even a s in gle ex am p le of t h e
s o r t o f e ve n t a t t r i b u t e d to t he Victor ian s a s ch ar act erist ic of
‘Vic t or ia n v a lu e s ’.
Whether o r n o t it w a s a c t u a l ly m a d e , t h e i m p o r t a n t p o in t i s
t h a t th is lu d icr ou s a s s er tio n co u ld be wid ely d is s em in a te d in
1 9 9 6 by o n e of th e co u n tr y’s m os t wid ely re a d a n d m os t h igh ly
resp ected n e ws p a p e rs , back ed with a ll t h e au thority of a n Oxford
University professor as its sou rce. 1 6
As a cor ollary to th e n otion t h a t Br it is h society was irredeem-
a b l y c o r r u pt, th e c rim in a l wa s ele va te d to s oc ia l h er o. Th e
in flu en ce an d s pr ead of this id ea w as ou t of all prop ortion to th e
n u m b e r s of th os e p ro p a ga tin g it. By flou tin g its ru les th e r a m -
raider was in th e ac tive van gua rd of thos e wh o wo u ld s a ve
s o c ie t y b y t h e r e vo lu t i o n a r y t r a n s f or m a t i o n o f i ts l a w s , or b y
doin g a w a y w it h t h e m a l t og et h e r . B y r e fu s i n g t o co n fo r m t o
so ciet y’s de m a n ds on h im to b e s ob er , h ea lth y, in d u s t rio u s an d
i n d e p e n d e n t , t h e d ru g a d d ict wa s s a yin g ‘No!’ to th e in to ler a b le
injust ices lying b eh i n d th o s e d e m a n d s , a n d p e r p e t u a t e d t o t h e
e x t e n t t h at h e complied with t hem . For tha t idea to ha ve dir e
e ffe c t s for social order an d th e effectivenes s of cons en s u a l
po licin g, it n e e d n o t b e b e lie ve d o r e ve n b e w i d el y k n o w n i n t h e
pop u lation g en e r a lly . It w a s s u ffic ie n t t h a t it s h o u l d filt e r d ow n
t o th e you ng cr imin al or d r u g u s e r h im s e lf. No t s u r p ris in gly, h e

w a s v e r y r e c e p t iv e t o it .
A t h i rd a s s u m p t i on fo r m e r ly u n d e r p in n i n g p olice a c tio n wa s
t h a t t h e s t a t e , t h rou gh t h e arm ed forces exter n a lly a n d n o rm a lly
t h e police i n t e r n a lly, h a s th e r igh t t o u s e le ga lly-d efin ed , m in i-
m u m force a s a la s t r e s o r t a ga in s t t h e cr im in a l, a n d th e cr im in a l
h a s n o r igh t t o u s e fo rc e a ga in s t th e p olic e. Th e G er m a n s oc iol-
ogis t Ma x W eb er a r gu ed t h a t a s t a t e o n ly e xis t ed if a n d in s o fa r
a s it h a d s u cceed ed in per su ad ing th e pop u lation to c on s e n t t o
its u s e of fo rc e (in c lu d i n g a ga in s t t h em s e lve s if t h e y b r ea k th e
sta te’s laws) a n d n o t to consen t to t h e u se of force by a n yone else
e xc e p t with its per m iss ion o r p r esc ript ion, t he only excep tions
being na rrowly circum scribed ca ses of self-defence. 1 7
In w e s t e r n li b e ra l de m oc ra cie s th is legit im a cy—t h is willin g
accepta nce of the r ares t poss ible res ort t o th e m inim u m of
requ ired coe rc ive s o cia l con trol (‘it’s a fair c op , gu v!’)—is bas ed on
two c la im s . T h e first is th at t he r u les governing th e sta te’s own
u s e of fo r ce p r ev en t it fr om in t er fer in g in t h e l ive s of la w- ab id in g
citizens (t h e p r op er m ea n in g of ‘th e r u le of la w’). Th e s ec on d is
t h a t a s o c i et y wo r k s w it h a m inimu m of force wh er e o n ly p eo p le
u n a m b i gu o u s ly au th orized by th e sta te, wor k i n g wi t h in s t r i c t ly
defined a n d e n forc ed ru les em a n a tin g from a gove r n m en t
r eg u l a r ly replac eab le by un ivers al su ffra ge, ha ve t h e righ t to u s e
it. The u se of on ly officia l force, co n s cio u s ly controlled, is seen a s
b ein g n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p r e s s t h e f a r w o r s e c on s e q u e n c e s o f t h e
spiralling u se of private force.
But in the p as t forty year s th is legitima cy ha s on th e wh ole
been tent atively e xt e n d e d , t hou gh with e b b s a n d flows, to t h e u s e
of viole n ce by gr ou p s wit h a s elf-d efin ed s ocia l gr iev a n c e or a
m o r al caus e—hous ing-estate r ioters, violent p ic k et s , nationalists ,
anima l-rights c a m p a ign e r s , s t u d e n t s wh o will n o t a llo w a p e rs on
with ‘u n d e s i r a b l e’ v ie w s t o s p e a k o n t h e i r c a m p u s , p o ll -t a x
p r o t e s t e r s a n d s o fo rt h . 1 8 Th e m os t im p or ta n t a dva n c es in t h e
accepta nce of the idea of legitima te priv a t e viole n ce wa s du rin g
t h e m i n e r s ’ s t r ik e of 1 9 8 4 - 8 5, b u t th ere we re m an y oth er ‘good
c a u s e s ’ ove r t h e p er iod , e s p ec ia lly fro m th e la te s ixt ies , t h at
a s s i s t e d in i t s s p r ea d .
Since t h e la t e 1 95 0 s t h e s u c c e s s fu l w e a k e n in g o f t h e u n d e r -
p in n in gs of policing h as been th e work of exper t s i n t h e s oc ia l
s c ie n c es ; of dra m at ist s; o f novelis ts ; a n d o f a n i n t e l le c t u a l é li t e
in general which h as been pr ovided with th e n ew m egap hon e of

te levis ion , film a n d re co rd ed po p u la r m u s ic.
T h e Id e a o f ‘Pe r m i s s iv e ne s s ’
O u t s i d e t h e po lice forc es , b u t p ro fou n d ly affecting th eir ou tlook
a n d t h a t of t h e ge n er a l pu blic, w e r e cha nges t h a t took place from
t h e 19 50 s on war ds , bot h in th e expa ns ion in th e n u m ber of
governm ent-em ployed s o cia l w o r ke r s of o n e k in d or an other a n d,
n o t l es s i m p o r t a n t l y, in t h e i d ea s t h a t g u id e d s o c ia l - wo r k
pra ctice.
So cia l wor k or igin a te d in car e for t h e p h ys ic a lly a n d m e n t a lly
ill or h a n d i c a p p e d , t h e w id o w , t h e orph an , the s ober, cons cien-
tiou s w o r km a n w ithou t emp loymen t, an d th e victims of other
people’s b a d b eh a viou r li k e t h e a b a n d on ed m ot h er . Th e t ype of
s u c h a s o c ia l wo r k e r wa s t h e h o s p it a l a lm o n e r .
Polic e fo r ce s h a v e b e e n m a i n ly a ge n t s o f s o c ia l co n t r ol, b u t
i n c id e n t l y th ey h a ve b ee n a gen ts of s oc ia liza tio n a ls o. S oc ia l
w o r k er s ha ve been brou ght closer t o t h e p o li ce in t h a t , fr o m t h e
1 9 5 0 s onwa rd s, t he y were in crea sin gly app oin t e d to be m a in ly
concern ed with the be late d s ocializa tion of peop le wh o ha d n ot
been su ccessfully socia lized or who h ad b een m al-socialized as
c h i ldren by s ociet y’s o th er ins tit u tion s a n d in flue n ces —by t h e
fa m ily, t h e s c h o o l , t h e c h a p e l, t h e R a ve , t h e fo o t b a ll t ea m , t h e
d a n c e class, ch ildren ’s books , records, television program mes
a n d v id e os , b y My Da rlin g Cle m en tin e or b y Re s ervoir Dogs .
‘Socializat ion’ is the p rocess wh ich is intend ed to produ ce a
p ers on wh o will b e t ec h n ica lly eq u ip p ed wit h th e s k ills a n d
in t e rn a l m o tiva t io n s t o d o w h at it is s oc ia lly a p p ro pr ia t e a n d
u s efu l for h im to do . H e w ill be a b le a n d he w ill wa nt to d o w h a t
h e ou gh t to do. ‘Social contr ol’, on th e other h an d, is the p roces s
th rou gh which people a re ind u ced to d o, an d i n t h e cas e of
coe rc ive social cont rol, m a d e to d o w h a t t h e y o u g h t t o d o , or a r e
deterred o r p r ev en t e d from doin g wh a t t h ey o u gh t n ot to d o. Th e
two proces ses come t ogether in one impor tan t res pect. A cr u c ia l
element of socialization is the incu lcation of the a ttitud es which
m a k e t h e pe r s on sen sitive an d a m en ab le to low -lev el s o cia l
co n tr ol, to a llowin g h is ‘d evia n t’ con d u c t t o b e ‘n ip p ed in t h e
b u d ’. One of t h e m o s t fa m ou s scen es in t h e h is tory of the cinem a
is of Gene Kelly ‘s in gin g in t h e r a in ’. Alt hou gh in t h e film h e p la ys
t h e pa rt of a celebrity, he s tops , a n d m o v e s ob ed ien tly a n d
s h e ep is h ly a w a y in r e sp on s e to th e m e re a p pe a ran ce of a n
o r d in a r y const able. Th e c on s t a b l e h a d don e not hin g. He h a d ju s t

st ood ther e. He h a d ‘m a d e h is pres ence fel t ’. Th a t w a s t h e United
S t a t e s in 1 9 5 2 .
Clea rly, few p e op le h a ve a n in t e re s t in u s in g their r es o u r ce s in
a s s is t in g other p eople to purs ue a ctivities which t he y re ga r d
either a s in d ifferent or d a m a gin g to t h e interests of them selves a s
givers, or a s d a m aging to the rec ip ie n t s . Most p e op le d o n o t wan t
t o fa c i li t a t e , t h r o u g h s u p p o r t in g wit h th eir ta xe s or ch a rit a b le
c on t r ib u t io n s , the free choices of people wh ose socially- or self-
d e s t r u c t iv e condu ct is t h e ex p re s s ion of fa iled s oc ia liza tio n . Th e
s oc ia lizin g elem en t of the socia l-work p rofess ion grew on t h e
b a s is of t h e c la im —a n d it was th e only bas is on wh ich t h e p u b l ic
wou ld co n ce iva b ly h a ve p a id s o cia l w or k er s ’ s a la r ie s —t h a t their
t re a tm e n t o f t h e u n d e r - or m a l-s oc ia lized clie n t w ou ld be
b e n efic ia l to th e pu blic. It was highly desira ble, of cours e, th a t i t
s h ou ld a t t h e s a m e t i m e b e n e f it t h e c l ie n t . B u t t h e b e n e fi t to th e
client was secon d a r y . It was n o t param ount, a s it h a d been in th e
w o r k of t h e h o s p i t a l a l m o n e r .
Th e l ea d i n g a n d h i gh l y in f lu e n t i a l t h e o r e t ic ia n o f s o ci a li za t i o n
a t th e b egin n in g of t h e e xp a n s ion of ‘s oc ia lizing’ soc ia l wor k in
B rit a in , th e res t of west ern Eu rop e a n d t h e United Sta tes, wa s
t h e Amer ican s ociologist Talcott Pars ons. He p ut the com mon
s e n s e of th e o r d in a r y s u cces s fu l parent, t e a c h e r o r m a n a g e r in t o
a fo rm t h a t m a d e it s u fficien tly h igh -flow n , a n d s ee m in gly
d ifficu lt enou gh, to be incorpora ted in t o u n ive r s it y c ou r s e s , a n d
s e em in gly t ec h n ic a l e n o u g h t o b e a va ila b le to bo ls t er t h e c la im s
to ex p er tis e o f gro u p s of wor k er s de s irin g p ro fes s ion a l s ta tu s .
In a n u t s h ell his th eory wa s t his : Hu m an bein gs d epen d u pon
one anoth e r if t h e y a r e t o s u r v iv e. Th i s i s p a r t i cu l a r l y t r u e o f t h e
h u m a n in fa n t , w it h it s lon g per iod of helples sn ess . Bu t m ost
bab ies a re bo rn in to , a n d m os t a d u lts live in , s oc iet ie s which
p r ovid e m u ch m ore t ha n t he m ean s of ba re s u rvival. Som e
s o c ie t ie s h a v e e vo lv ed s y s t e m s t h a t p r o vi d e t h e ir m e m b e r s w i t h
a m ore or less sec u re a nd m ore or less vas t a rra y of m a t er ia l
goods a n d e du c a t io n a l, s pir it u a l, e m o tio n a l a n d ot h er ex p er i-
e n c es . Th ey h a ve a ls o e volve d system s th at ten d to redu ce
fa m in e , plagu e, rap ine an d war. Bu t th e system s th at p rodu ce
t h e ben efits , a n d t h e s y s t e m s t h a t r e d u c e t h e h o r r or s , w o r k onl y
in s o fa r a n d fo r a s l on g a s p e o p l e a r e c om p e t e n t a n d w e l l-
motivated en ough t o ma intain a nd improve them .
J a m e s Ma d is on , th e con st itu tiona l t h e or et ic ia n , 1 9 wa s th erefor e

too o p t im i s t i c wh e n h e s a i d t h a t ‘i f p eop l e l a c k s u f fi ci en t v ir t u e
for s e l f- g ov er n m e n t n o t h i n g l es s t h a n t h e c h a in s o f d e s po tis m
c a n restr ain th em from d e s t r o yi n g a n d d e v o u r i n g o n e a n o t h e r ’.
F o r , P a rs o n s ar gu ed , if t h e p eo p le la ck s u fficie n t ‘virt u e’—th e
t r a in e d a b ilit ie s a n d in g ra in e d m ot iva t io n to a ct ‘w ell’ a n d
‘efficie n tly’ in rela tion to their fello ws —n o d e s p ot is m , n o p olicin g,
b y its elf can c om e an ywher e close t o m ain ta inin g th e sys tem s of
a pr od u ct ive a n d s a fe so ciet y. So cia liza t ion is cr u cia l. S oc ia l
con trol ca n on ly op er a te on pe op le w h o a re s oc ia lized to res pon d
t o it. Coe rc ive s o c ia l co n t r ol c a n o n ly b e effective if it has to deal
with n o th in g b u t t h e m a r g i n s o f t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e m a j o r it y, a n d
when th e u nd er-s ocialized or m al-s ocialized form on ly a v er y
sm all minor ity of th e popu lation.
But i n t e r m s o f w h a t is p r a gma tically succes sful, h o w a r e
p e op le so cia lized? In a n s we rin g t h a t que stion a t th e highest level
of genera lization Pa rson s d ealt with t wo sta tes o f a f fa i r s : t h a t o f
condu ct in c on fo rm it y w it h s oc ie ty’s o pe ra t in g sys t em s a n d t h a t
of co n d u ct n ot in co n for m it y wit h —‘d evia n t’ from —soc iety’s
o pe ra t in g s y s t e m s . H o w d o yo u g e t p e op l e ou t o f t he ir d evia n t
b e h a v io u r i n t o co n fo r m i n g b e h a v io u r ?
F or m a lizin g th e em pirica l experien ce of the m oth er of e v e ry
b a b y , Par son s sa id th at th e per son doin g th e job of socialization
h a s t o s ta rt from wh er e t h e d evia n t is (a b a b y b ein g in P a r s on s ’
s e n s e a ‘de vian t’ to be so cia lized into ‘co n form ity’). The socializer
h a s t o b e in th e firs t ins ta nce ‘p er m is s ive’. (‘Pe rm is s ive’ pr ob a b ly
enter ed t h e v oc a b u l a r y of t h e s o cia l worker a n d then of t h e m ed ia
gen er a lly in t h e 1 9 6 0 s a s a re s u lt o f Pa rs on s ’ u s e o f th e w or d in
t h e 1 9 5 0 s . ) S h e m u s t ‘t a k e th e p er so n (inclu din g a b a b y) a s s h e
fin d s h im ’. It is on ly by inter act ing with th e ‘devian t’ on h is own
t e r m s a n d a t h i s o w n l ev el t ha t a be gin n in g c a n b e m a d e in
m ovin g h im t o wa r d s con form ity. If t h e b a b y s a ys ‘A-goo!’, you s a y
‘A-goo!’. I f t h e b a b y d e f ec a t e s o n t h e c a r p e t , y o u c le a n u p t h e
m e s s a n d o t h erwis e ig n o r e t h e in c i d e n t . Th e m o t h e r s t a r t s b y
a pp la u din g t h e b a b y when it b u r p s , then allows t h e ch ild to b u rp
w it h a n a p olo gy, th e n p ro h ib it s a n y bu r pin g a t a ll. Th e s a m e
cons idera tions a p p l y t o th e b e la t e d s o cia l iz a t io n o f t h e d ru g
add ict or ju ven ile delinqu ent. The r e la t io n sh ip is firs t e s ta b lis h ed
on t h e deviant’s t e rm s , b u t on ly a s p a rt of t h e s ocia lizer’s strate gy
of s ocializa tion . Th e d e v ia n t identifies with t h e s o cia liz e r , b u t t h e
s o c ia l iz e r on l y a p p e a r s t o id e n t i fy wi t h t h e d e v ia n t .
Th e so cia lizer moves on to t h e ne xt s tage, still controlled b y th e
s t r ategy of the s ocialization pr ocess. The socializer now m akes
d e m a n d s on th e b a by, th e d elin qu en t or th e d ru g a dd ict t o
c o n fo r m . B u t s h e m a i n t a i n s t h e r ela t io n sh ip in t h e face of la p s es
in t h e deviant’s conduct. Par son s c a lls t h is t h e s t a g e o f ‘s u p p o r t ’.
Us in g t h e le ve ra ge o f t h e m a t e r ia l a n d e m o t i o n a l b e n e fi t s t h e
d evia n t enjoys in t h e r e la t io n s h i p t h a t h e wo u ld lo s e if it b r o k e
down , th e soc ializer now d e m a n d s c o n fo r m i n g c o n d u c t i n t e r m s
of s k i ll s , a t t it u d e s a n d p e r fo r m a n c e s . P a r s o n s i m p l ie s t h a t t h e
so cia lizer is n ow fir m ly in c on t ro l o f t h e r ela t io n sh ip a s a role
model w it h whom the former d evian t identifies, for he describes
t h e n e xt s t age a s ‘t h e de n ia l of r e c ip r oc ity ’—th e for m er de via n t
n o w h a s t o give m or e t h a n h e is give n .
Th e fo r m e r d ev ia n t i s t h e n m o ve d on t o th e n ex t s ta ge. His
co n form in g co n d u ct de p en d s n o lon ger m a in ly or ex clu s ively
u p o n h is re la tio n s h ip wit h th e s oc ia lizer . Pa rs on s ca lls th is
fourth a n d fin a l s t a ge ‘t h e m a n i p u l a t i on o f r ew a rd s ’. B ec a u s e th e
form er d evia n t is fu lly so cia lized h e will r es p on d in t h e co n form is t
m a n n e r , ove rw h elm in gly wit h ou t t h e n ec es s ity of co er cive s oc ia l
c o n t r ol. He will re s po n d a pp ro pr ia te ly to th e n on -c oer cive
s a n c t io n s , p os it ive a n d n e g a t i ve , t h a t c o n f or m i s t s o c ie t y app lies
t o fo s te r ce r ta in s k ills , a tt it u d e s a n d t e ch n ic a l a n d m o ra l
p erforman ces a n d s u ppr es s o th er s. He w ill acc ep t t h a t it is r igh t
t h at h e sh ou ld be pr eve n te d from br ea k in g th e r u les . Th a t is
wha t being su ccessfully socialized m ean s. 2 0
Th e ba sic ou tline of Par son s ’ t h e o r y of t h e need for a n d m e a n s
of s e cu r in g s u cces s fu l s ocialization was id e n t ic a l to J o h n Dew ey’s
t h e o r y of edu cat ion, with m ore em ph as is on s o ci et y ’s i n t e r e s t s
t h a n is foun d in Dewey. The tea cher m u s t s t a r t fr o m w h e r e t h e
in d ivid u a l pu pil is. He m u st co-op era te with t he p u pil. Bu t th is
is only to facilitate th e ach ievemen t of the t eac he r’s t as k of
m a k in g t h e p u p i l m o r e com p e t e n t a n d c o -o p e r a t iv e—m o r e u s e fu l
t o h im s e lf a n d ot h er s . Th e t e a c h e r us es h is insight to help
‘or ga n ize t h e cond ition of the experience of the imm atu re’. 2 1 One
of t h e t e a c h e r ’s m o s t i m p o r t a n t l es s o n s , s a y s D e w ey , i s t h a t o f
‘m u t u a l a c c o m m o d a t i on a n d a d ap t at io n ’. 2 2 Dewey had b een
w r it i n g o n ed u c a t io n s in c e 1 8 9 7 a n d w as in t h e in flu e n t ia l ch a ir
of ph ilosoph y at C olum bia U nivers ity from 1 9 0 4 , b u t his type of
‘progress ive’ edu cat ion d id n o t becom e widely in flu e n t ia l u n t il th e
1 9 3 0 s . By 1 9 3 8 h e was e xp r es s in g a l a r m t h a t h i s d oc t r in e s w e r e
b ein g m i s u n d e r s t o od a n d m isa pplied to jus tify teaching which
aba nd oned the ch ild to its own wh at h e ca lled ‘mis-edu cative’
e xp e rie n c es , an d to cond one su ch a child ’s in e vit a b le b a ck w a r d -
n e s s a n d m i s b e h a v io u r . D e w e y i n s i s t s t h a t t h e t e a c h e r , n o t t h e
pu pil, is ‘th e en gineer of the s itu at ion’. 2 3
In t h e 19 6 0 s t h e cent re of gravity of Dewey’s d octrines was
d e c is ively s h i ft e d in t h e d i re c t io n h e h a d a b h o r r e d a n d h a d
warn ed a g a in s t (h e d ie d in 1 9 5 2 ), b u t wh ic h in som e ways th ey
invited—teach er p a s s i vit y o n t h e on e h a n d , p u p i l a im l es s n e s s
a n d s e lf- c en t r e d n ess on th e oth er. Du ring t he sa m e per iod
P a r s ons ’ pa ra digm of socialization , se em ingly imm u ne from
m i s u s e t o ju s t ify a n t i- s oc ia l s e lfis h n e s s , w a s a ls o a lm o s t
c om p l e te ly s u b ve r t ed .
The Revolt Aga inst Respec ta bility

From la t e in t he 19 50 s—let u s s ay from th e pu blicat ion of
No rm a n Ma iler ’s ‘Th e Wh ite Negro’24 —t h e r e was a distinct c h a n ge
in t h e r e c e p t iv en e s s o f t h e p u b l ic t o t h e id e a t h a t w e s t e r n
societies sen tenced everyone to ‘slow dea t h b y c o n fo r m i t y, w it h
e ve r y c re a tive a n d re b ellio u s in s tin ct s tifle d ’. To c om p ly w it h i t s
ru les was to allow o n e s elf t o b e ‘tra p p ed wit h in th e t ot a lita ria n
t is s u e s ’ of s oc iet y. Th e o n ly life-g ivin g a ns wer was t o ‘divorce
on es elf fr om s o cie ty, to ex is t wit h ou t r oo ts , to s et ou t o n th a t
un cha rted journey with th e rebellious impera tives o f t h e self’.
Th e p s y ch o p a t h i n a ll o u r n a t u r e s o u g h t t o b e e n c ou r a g e d .
Ma ile r u s e d t h e s a m e a r g u m e n t t o e s p o u s e t h e c a u s e o f t h e
gr a ffiti artist, wh ose pers ona l exu bera nce a nd creativity defied
t h e im p e r s on a l op p re s s ion of th e fa ca d es th ey d ec or a te d . O ld
fa s h i o n e d s oc io lo gis t s fr o m t h e 1 9 5 0 s c o n t i n u e d t o p r ot es t t h a t
u n c h e c k e d gr a ffiti wer e a c le a r s ign a l to both t h e la w a b id in g a n d
t h e la w le s s th at th e forces of la w a n d or d er we re los in g co n tr ol.
By their da ily stren gthen ing mess age of defian ce, they invited
w or s e la w le s s n es s . 2 5 B u t s u c h i n terp reta tions of wha t was
ha pp en ing wen t ever m ore d eeply ou t of fas hion .
Wh a t i f a p a i r o f 1 8 - y e a r - ol d s , n u r t u r i n g t h e ir p s y c h o p a t h y ,
b e a t t h e b r a i n s o u t o f s o m e o n e s e r vi n g b e h i n d t h e c o u n t e r i n a
swee t -s h o p ? Ma ile r d oe s n o t h e sit a te in h is a n s we r. ‘O n e
m u r d e r s n o t on ly a weak fi ft y - ye a r - o ld m a n b u t a n i n s t i t u tion a s
we ll, one violates p r iva te p ro p er ty , on e e n te rs in to a n ew re la t ion
w it h th e p olic e . .. Th e h ood lu m is t h e r e fo r e d a rin g t h e u n k n ow n ,

a n d n o m a t te r h ow b ru t a l t h e a ct is , it is n ot a ltogeth er cow-
ar dly.’2 6
By 1967 R.D. Lain g’s The Politics of Ex pe rience cou ld be wh at
Myron Ma gn et ca lls ‘a n in s t a n t cla s s ic of élite cu lture’. 2 7 No rm a l
education a n d s o c ia l iz a t io n a m o u n t e d t o t h e m u r d e r of t h e s ou l,
Lain g a s s e r te d . In a m a d s oc i e ty , t h o s e w h o p a r t i c ip a t e a r e t h e
in s a n e on es . Th e t ru ly sa n e e n d u p in m ent al ins titu tions . A
vers ion of Lain g’s d o c t r in e was p o p u la r ly dissem inated when Ken
Kesey’s O n e Fl e w O v e r t h e C u ck o o ’s N e s t w a s m a de in t o a film .
J ack Nic h ols on , p la yin g Ke s ey ’s h e r o , h a s fe ign e d m a d n e s s in
order t o b e t r a n s f er r e d from ja il to w h a t h e t h ou g h t wou ld b e t h e
eas ier l ife o f t h e m e n t a l h o s p i t a l. Th e p a t i e n t s a r e s i m p l y t h e
vict im s o f p a s t a n d p r es e n t o pp r es s io n a nd r ep r es s io n . Th e h e r o
fr om th e prison res tores th em to he alth y hu ma nity by, a m on g
other things, s mu ggling a prost itute in to t h e in s t it u t io n fo r t h e
m a le p a t ie n t s . Th e hosp ital—society—solves t h e problems a s a n e
in te rlo p er po s es by lob ot om izin g h im .
Th e p a s s ive way ou t of society was advocated a n d firs t beca m e
wid ely k n ow n wit h th e pu b lic it y give n t o the s o-called ‘beat
gene ra tion’.2 8 Th e u s e o f ille ga l d r u gs wa s in c re a sin gly repre-
sen ted a s l ib e r a t iv e a n d m i n d - e n h a n c i n g, n o t a d dic tive a n d
s t u p efyin g. In t h e 1 96 0 s t h e e xp a n d in g m ed ia o f t e le vis ion a n d
m a g a zin e s , an d th e recovering bu t cu ltura lly meta morp hosed
m ed iu m of film , we re dis s em in a tin g d ilu te d b u t p er va s ive
vers ions of t h e coun ter-cu lt u r a l mes sa ge. With in a few y ea r s , a n d
a lm o s t a cross th e boa rd, t he a nt i-law an ti-h ero, wheth er p a s s ive
or act i ve , r e p l a c ed t h e m o d e l fa m i l y a n d t h e h e r o ic u p h o ld e r o f
p e rs o n a l vir t u e a n d o f c om m u n i t y va lu e s in t h e cin e m a a n d
t e le vi s io n d r a m a .
In t h e firs t insta nce t h e s e id e a s titillated middle-class int ellec-
t u a ls . I r ec a ll wit h wh a t e nt h u sia s m a youn g vica r r e c om m e n d e d
One Flew Over th e C u c k o o’s N e s t t o m e a s a t ra c t fo r t h e tim e s .
Th ey s p r e a d m o r e gr a d u a l ly , a n d t h r o u g h v a r i o u s c h a n n e l s , t o
one generat ion after anoth er of sch ool children a nd adolescen ts
i n t o th e h ou sin g a re a s w h er e t h ey wou ld d o m o s t d a m a g e t o
pers ona l and local life.
Th e B r it is h un iversities h a d b een gr ea tly expan ded in t h e wak e
of t h e R ob b in s ’ r e p or t o f 1 9 6 3 , s u p p lyin g enlarged au diences
r e c e p t iv e to literat ur e tha t would legitimize their n e w o p p or tu n i-
ties for s elf-centred ‘fu lfilm en t’. Th e n e w m e d i a of co m m u n ica tio n

w e r e avid for ta boo- b r ea k in g (a n d t h er efo re en t e rt a in in g)
m a t e r ia l, wh et h er th e t a bo os con cer n ed re ligion, se x, d ru gs,
edu cat ion, ‘a r t ’ o r p olitic s . Civil rights a n d t h e V ie t n a m w a r w e r e
r a dic a lizin g Am e r ic a ’s white ca m pu s es a n d t h e Afr ic a n -Am e r ic a n.
To s u p p l em en t h om e- gr own co u n te r- cu ltu re s , film s a n d te levi-
sion program mes consu med in Britain were b ein g fed b y pro-
dru g, anti-police events a nd attitu des in th e United Sta tes.
Police a u thorities increas ingly foun d th ems elves, th erefore,
confronted b o t h i n t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s a n d t h i s c ou n t r y with new
aca dem ic, ch u rc h , p olit ica l-p a rt y a n d s oc ia l-s er vice s es ta b lis h -
m e n t s . Th e s e e s t a b l is h m e n t s t o o k a m u c h l ow e r vie w t h a n h a d
their p r e d e c e s s o r s o f t h e w o r t h of their own society as compa red
with the k nown or poss ible alterna tives.
But to t h e extent t h a t t h e ‘deviant’ cult ur es of c r im e a n d d r u g s
w e r e j u s t i fi a b le , a n d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e ‘co n fo r m i n g’ c u l t u r e
wa s the incorr igible origin of ma dn ess, h omelessn ess, t h e
a n n ih ila t in g w a rs o f n a p a lm a n d a g e n t or a n g e , p o lit ic a l c or r u p -
tion, economic exp lo it a t io n , p o lic e b r u t a lit y, ra c ia l o p pr e s s io n ,
t h e s u b ju ga tio n of wom en , a n d n eo -c olo n ia l is m , w h e r e d i d t h e
d u ty of th e socializing tea cher , clergyman , a n d s o cia l worker lie?
At th e ve ry lea s t it la y in pr ot ec tin g th e m is -la b elle d de via n t in
t h e ‘perm issive’ p h a s e o f s oc ia liza t io n —in ju s tif y in g the con du ct
of t h e devian t t o t h e w id er s oc iet y, n ot in a lt e rin g i t (b u t w i t h t h e
s a l a r y of the s ocia l wor k er , wh o h a s tu rn ed h is fu n ct ion in s id e
o u t , s t i ll b ein g p aid b y th e law-a bidin g citizen). Every ab u se of
police a u t h o r i ty , e ve r y m i s d e m ean our b y any individu al police
o ffi ce r , every exa m ple of p olic e b r u t a lit y, a n d of cours e all cases
of proven a n d a lleged p o lic e co r r u p t io n w er e t r ea t e d a s eviden ce,
n o t fo r t h e u n d i s p u t ed n eed for specific reforms an d rem edies,
bu t simp ly as grist for the a nti-police mill.
From th e mid-1 950 s, ther efore, the police foun d th ems elves
b oth los in g t h e ‘litt le platoons ’ of the com mu nity which ha d been
r e s p o n s ib le m or e t h a n th ey e ver co u ld be for k ee p in g b a s i c la w
a n d o r d e r a n d o pe ra t in g m o r e a n d m o re wit h in a n é lit e c u lt u r a l
environmen t wh i c h w a s u n fr i en d l y t o t h e m (a n é l it e c u l t u r e
wh ich t h e u n d e r c la s s c r im i n a l, t h e r io t er , a n d d r u g a d dict
s i le n t l y en d or s ed wit h de ligh t). Th is wa s s o, eve n th ou gh a m on g
t h e gene ra l pu blic, an d a ccord ing to t h e i r v a lu e s ( t h a t w e r e
c er ta in ly e r o d in g , b u t l e s s q u i c k ly t ha n t h o s e o f t h e c u l t u r a l
é lit e s ), t h e p o l ic e c on t i n u e d t o c om m a n d s u p p o r t t o a fa r higher
degree t h a n a n y o f t h e p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e n e w vi ew o f t h e
deviant—wheth er th os e p ro p on en ts we re a m on g th e n ew s oc ia l
w or k er s , th e p ro gr es s ive c ler gy, u n iver s ity a n d po lyt ec h n ic
s oc iolog is ts , or a n ti- p olic e jou rn a lis ts or po litic ia n s .
Police fo rc es i n p a r t c h os e t o a d a p t, a n d in pa rt we re lega lly
requ ired to a d a p t , a n d in a n y c a s e h a d n o opt ion b u t to adap t, to
t h e n e w e n v ir o n m e n t o f t h e b l u n t i n g of t h e o ld i n s t r u m e nts of
s oc ia liza tio n a n d s o c ia l c on t r o l , a n d t h e s h a r p e n i n g o f t h e
weapon s of those at tack ing the police.
In t h e f a c e o f g r ow in g c r im e , t h e wea ken ing of othe r m ean s of
s o cia l co n tr ol, a n d a h os tile in te llec tu a l cu lt ur e, t h e police could
sca rcely bec o m e m ore con se n su a l or p er m iss ive th a n th ey h a d
been u n d e r t h e old cir c u m s t a n c es . But they co u ld h a r d l y e s c a p e,
e it h e r , becom ing i n c r e a s i n gl y r e c e p t iv e t h e m s e lv es t o t h e voices
th a t we re u n de rm in in g th eir le gitim a cy.
In im p o rt a n t respects t h e t ra d it io n s of t h e B r it is h police officer
in par ticu la r creat ed a s pu rious a nd deceptive congruen ce
between w h a t h e h a d a lw ays t rie d t o d o a n d th e d em a n d s of h is
a t t a ck e rs . P o li ce o ffi ce r s h a v e a lw a y s b e en a w a r e t h a t o ve r -
rea ction c a n e x a c e r b a t e th e situ at ion or e ve n t t h e y a r e t r y in g t o
co n tr ol. ‘Min im u m f or ce ’ h a s b e en a lea d in g r u l e of B r it is h police
forces ever since Sir Robert Peel est ab lishe d th e first of th em on
m o d e r n lin es in 1 829 . Th e tend ency of B r it is h co lon ia l policy wa s
a lwa ys in favou r of w h a t is n ow ca lled sen sitivity to th e ‘com m -
u n it y’ a n d m ore gener ally and str ongly ‘mu lti-cultu ra lism ’, an d
t h is policy fed b ack into p olicing a t h om e, ju st as Peel’s vision of
‘ke ep in g th e p ea ce b y pe a cefu l m ea n s’ fed int o colon ial p olicy. 2 9
Bu r gl a r y a n d th eft a cc ou n t for a b ou t t h re e- qu a rt er s of a ll
recorded c r im e . B et w ee n 1 9 5 4 a n d 1 9 9 4 th e clear -u p r at e for
t h e s e two offen ces ha lved. Du ring t he sa m e per iod th e odd s on
a convicted criminal being sent t o pr ison fe ll b y 8 0 p e r c e n t .
‘Qu ite simp ly, it beca me sa fer for crim inals to com mit cr ime.’3 0
S o lo n g a s a l l p o lic e fo r ce s m o ve d in t h e s a m e direc tion, it wa s
n o t on ly techn ically, it was in principle, im p o s s i b le to tell whethe r
p e rm i s s ive policing was m or e s u cc es s fu l th a n les s -p er m is s ive
policing in co n tr ollin g cr im e an d disorder . It was qu ite possible,
t h e re fo re —a n d it cou ld n ot b e t es t ed a n d sh own to b e either t r u e
or u n t r u e — t h a t a l t h o u g h c r im e w a s r is in g r a pid ly d u r in g t h e
per iod of t h e cu lt u r a l c h a n g es d i s cu s s e d a b o v e, c rim e w a s b e in g
k e p t a t t h e s l o w e s t p o s s ib l e r a t e of increas e in s o fa r a s it cou ld
b e c on tr olle d by a n y a ct ion s wit h in th e p owe rs of th e p olic e.

But in t h e e a r ly 1 9 9 0 s s om e p o lic e for c e s bega n t o qu est ion
t h e e ffe c t iv en e s s o f t h e p o li ci n g th a t ha d becom e comm onplace.
Thos e who d id so we re en cou ra ged b y a n ew gen era tion of so cial
s c i e n t is t s w h o w er e t a k i n g a h a r d l oo k a t t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y
scen e—which a m ou n te d, es pe cia lly in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t o t h e
w re ck a ge of the p hysical fabr ic of su bst an tial parts of formerl y
great cit ies , t h e e xp los ion of d ru g u s e b eyo n d a lco h ol a n d
nicotine, an d th e more-or-less u nrem itting growth of crime. 3 1
Ever m or e p e o p le fe lt e ve r m o r e c on f id e n t t h a t t h e y w e r e
correct in their feelin g t h at c r im e was a n in c re a sin g problem, a n d
wondered wheth er th e p olice were, ind eed, doing as m uch as
they cou ld to comb at it. Stu dies b egan to a pp ear of the effects of
‘n ew’ (or of reinstitu ted p re-19 60s ) policing tr ad itions, e s p ec ia lly
t h o se t h a t explored t h e p o ss ib ility t h a t one way to redu ce ser iou s
c r im e w a s t o a t t a c k s u b - c r im i n a l s o c ia l d is o r d e r . 3 2
Th e following con trib u tions are a ss essm ents of the n ew
con s en s u s o n t h e cu rre nt ser ious ne ss of the p roblems of crime,
d r u gs , an d qu ality-of-life offences , not least fo r t h e h e a l t h o f t h e
eco n om y, an d a ccou nt s of t he wa ys in which different police
forces h a ve envisaged a n d acted u p o n (or r em a in s c ep t ic a l a bou t)
policing tha t is, or is once a ga in , low -le vel, co n fide n t, a n d wh er e
pos sible t olera nt , bu t wh ere c alled for m inim ally robu st .
Th e intent ion of this volum e is not to pre ss a ca se. Like other s
in the s eries, it is to st art a discu ss ion which b r in g s o p en m i n d s
t o be a r o n th e a s ce rt a in a b le d a ta of a n egle c t e d m at ter of
emerging an d u rgent pu blic concern .
Cri m e i s Do w n in Ne w Yo rk Ci t y :
Bla m e t h e Po li c e
William J . Bratt on
N E W YORK City, a city th at only th ree yea rs ago h ad a

rep u ta tion a s ‘t h e c r im e c a p it a l of th e w or ld ’, is n ow b ein g
laud ed as one of the sa fest b ig cities in th e world. How d id t h is
quick t u r n a r ou n d h a p p e n ? B la m e it on th e police. The m en a nd
women who m a k e up the New York City Police Depart men t
(NYPD) a r e p r i n c ip a l ly r es p o n s i b le for t h e dram atic c r im e declin e
t h a t continu es t od a y in New Yo r k City. Over t h e p a s t three ye a r s ,
t h e C it y’s c r im e r a t e h a s d r o p pe d b y 3 7 p e r ce n t . Th e h o m i cid e
r a t e a l o n e h a s p l u m m e t e d o v er 5 0 p e r c e n t .
To tr u ly a p p re cia te th e s ign ifica n ce of th e d ra m a tic cr im e
d ec lin e in Ne w Yo r k Cit y, it is im p o rt a n t to ta k e a w a lk b a ck
th rou gh time to u nd er s t a n d h ow Ne w York Cit y ga in ed its
rep u ta tion a s t h e ‘c r im e c a p i t a l o f t h e w o r ld ’ i n t h e fi r s t place. It
is a ls o im p or ta n t to u n de rs t a n d h o w Am e ric a n po lic in g h a s
cha nged over th e p a st qu a rt er cen tu ry to effect t h e d ec lin e in th e
c r im e rate presently b ein g experienced in cities a c r os s t h e nation .
T h e P r o fe s s i o n a l E r a
D u rin g th e 2 6 yea rs I h a ve b ee n in volve d in Am er ic a n la w
e n f or c e m e n t , ther e ha ve been s e ve ra l v er y s ign ifica n t c h a n ge s in
policing th ro u gh ou t t h e U n ite d St a te s . I en te re d po licin g d u rin g
t h e 1 9 7 0 s , a tim e in Ame ric a wh en th e Viet n a m Wa r w a s s till
r a gin g. Hu ge d em on st ra tion s w er e oc cu rr in g. We ha d ju st com e
th rou gh t h e r a c e r io t s a n d r e s u l t a n t c iv il r ig h t s e r a of t h e s ixties
a n d were fa s t b eco m in g a m u ch m ore pe rm iss ive s ociet y.
Coupled wit h th is wa s th e n a tio n wid e p h en o m en o n of m o vin g
p a t i e n t s o u t o f o u r m e n t a l in s tit u tion s , m a n y of wh om b ec am e
t h e ‘hom eless’ p opu lat ion s o f ou r in n er citie s. Sim u lta n eou sly,
29
Am e r ic a n so ciet y a n d it s c ities ’ st re et s w er e b eco m in g m or e

d i s or d e r ly an d fear-indu cin g. Am e r ic a n policing was a ls o m ovin g
i n t o a n ew era called ‘Th e Pr ofes s ion a l Er a ,’ whic h iro n ica lly
redu ced police p resen ce a n d con trol of t h e streets simu ltaneou s ly
w it h th e n ew soc ial disor der pr oblem s t ha t wou ld p r ovid e s o
m u c h fe a r a n d cr im e in t h e 1 98 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0s .
Th e Pr ofes s ion a l Er a of p olic in g is be s t d efin ed a s th e t im e
police re lied on wh a t I c a ll t h e 3 R ’s : Ra p i d Re s p o n s e , R a n d o m
Pat rol a n d Rea ct ive Inves tigation . As we b e ga n to t a ke a d va n t a ge
of emerging tech n olog ies like the 9-1-1 system 1 a n d c o m p u t e r -
aided disp atch , police also began to rely up on m otorized pa trol,
r ep la c in g th e foot pa trol officer in m o s t Am e r ic a n cities. The ever
e xp a n d in g n u m b e r o f 9 - 1 - 1 c a ll s r e qu i r ed u s t o ta ke p olice off
wa lk in g p os t s a nd p u t t h em in to ca rs s o office rs co u ld ra p id ly
r e s p o n d . When n ot on ca ll, t h es e c a rs wou ld ra n d om ly p a tr ol,
h op efu lly preventing a n d d et er r in g crime. An d a s they h a d alway s
done, o n c e s o m e t h in g d id h a p p e n , p olice r e a c t e d a n d i n v e s t i -
g a t ed .
T h e r e was an old television s h ow ca lle d Dr a gn e t th a t b e s t
epitomised t h e P ro fe s s io n a l E r a of Polic in g. D ra gn et ’s m a in
c h a r a c t e r , S ergea nt J ack Webb , was fam ou s for h is s tyle of
qu est ionin g a witnes s or ta king a citizen co m p la in t . H e w a s b es t
k n ow n for one fa m ou s lin e: ‘J u s t t h e fa c t s , Ma ’a m , ju s t t h e fa c t s .’
Th is lin e w a s t y p ic a l of t h e Profess iona l Era which called for n o
per s o na l tou ch an d r equ ired little p ers ona lity. The alm ost
compu ter-genera ted voice which th e fictitiou s S e r ge a n t We b b
u s e d ironi c a l ly fi t te d t h i s p e r io d ’s e n v ir o n m e n t , c h a r a cterized b y
a n in c r ea s in g u s e o f c om p u t e r s th r o u gh o u t t h e p o lic in g pr ofe s -
s ion . Th e p olic in g s ty le of t h e 1 9 7 0 s wa s goin g to be th e e n d -a ll
p o l ic i n g m eth odology; objective, det ach ed a nd imp ers ona l.
D u rin g t h e Pr ofe s siona l E ra , b y fo cu s in g o n p r oc es s a n d n o t
r e s u lt s , police w e r e goin g to fin a lly b e a b le su cce s s fu l ly to c o n t r ol
c r im e u s i n g m o d er n t e c h n o lo gy , r a p id r e s pons e an d better
m a n a g em e n t s ys t e m s .
Wh a t h a p p e n e d , however, was qu it e d iffe r ent. Th is n e w t yp e of
m o d er n - da y policing was ill-prepared for th e l a r ge volu m e of c a lls
t h a t w e re ge n e r a t e d b y the 9 -1-1 syst em. Most ma jor Amer ican
cities we r e over wh elm ed . As ot h er city s er vices wer e d eclin in g,
t h e police b ec am e the ca tch -all. D ia l 9-1-1 a n d they wou ld com e.
Police h a d m ore a n d m ore ca lls a n d le ss tim e t o in ves tiga t e, les s
CRIME IS D OWN IN NE W YORK CITY: BLAME THE POLICE 31
clearan ce a n d s olvin g o f c r im e . An d p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y,
t h e p o li ce h a d l e s s t i m e t o in t e r a c t i n a p os i t iv e w a y wi t h
mem bers of the commu nity.
An d th en ca m e t h e 1 9 8 0 s , a t i m e c h a r a c t e r i s e d in t h e United
Stat es by th e growing p he nom en on of d r u g s . Dr u gs, p a r t i cu l a r l y
co ca in e a n d th e em e rgin g crack co ca in e, ca m e in to vogu e in th e
m i d- 1 98 0 s . Wit h t h e d r u gs c a m e gu n s , in c r ea s in gly m o r e
powe r fu l weapon s su ch a s sem i-autom atics with fifteen an d
seventeen rou n ds ins te a d o f th e old th irt y-eigh t w it h five or s ix
r o u n d s of a m m u n itio n . D ru g-r ela te d gu n viole n ce , e s p ec ia lly
a m on g you th , b eca m e a m ea n re a lity. In wh a t we on ce t h ou gh t
w e r e sa fe area s of our cities ar ose ran dom violent crim e. When
New Yo r k City e x p e r ie n c e d t h i s in t h e l a t e 1 9 8 0 s a n d e a r l y
1 9 9 0 s , it b e ga n to s c a r e ever ybo dy. Th e problems a n d violen ce of
th e ghe ttos s u d d e n l y s e e m e d t o be everywhere. Nobody seem ed
sa fe. As n o t e d by George Kelling, co-au thor of the brok en
windows art icle, we h a d e ffe c t u a l l y d e - p o li ce d t h e st reet s of ou r
c it ie s .2
T h e E vo l u t i o n of Co m m u n i t y P o li c i n g
Th e la t e 1 9 80 s s a w s om e po lic e r es e ar ch er s a n d p o l ic e le a d e r s
b egin n in g to re alize th at som e of the b as ic assu mp tions beh ind
t h e Pr ofes s ion a l Er a we re flaw ed . Th e e ffect s of ra p id ly r es p o n d -
in g to crimes were m u t ed b e ca u s e resea rch sh owed it took p e op le
a lm o s t 1 0 m in u tes to decide to call the police in the first place.
An d police r id in g in a ir- co n d itio n ed s qu a d ca rs , r a p id ly goin g
from c a ll to c a ll, d id n o t m a k e p e o p le fe e l s a f e r . I n fa c t , it fu r t h er
sepa rated t h e p o l ic e fr o m t h e p u blic, the con su mer s of police
s e r vic es .
F o r t u na tely, th e res ear ch ers an d p ra ctition ers did n ot s top
their w o r k a t fi nd in g w h a t wa s n o t w or k in g , b u t b e g a n t o lo ok a t
h o w t o t h ink different ly abou t crime an d disorder an d develop
s t r a tegies tha t would work. From this evolved th e conce p t of
c om m u n ity po licin g. It b e ga n a ll over t h e c o u n t r y in litt le bits a n d
pieces c u l m i n a t i n g i n a p r o c es s a t H a r v a r d Univers ity’s J ohn F.
Ke n n e d y Sc h ool o f C r im i n a l J u s t i c e w h e r e , th r o u g h a f e d e r a l
gr a n t ove r a pe rio d of s eve ra l yea rs , p olic e le a d e rs , a c a d em i cs ,
c om m u n i ty le a d e r s , m e d i a a n d p olit ic ia n s c a m e t oge th e r to ta lk
a b ou t p olic in g a n d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f co m m u n i t y p olic in g. Th e
p r i m a r y focu s w a s p re ven tion . Policin g h a d com e fu ll cir cle ,
r e t u r n in g to th e con cept of being a pa rt of th e com m u nity, n ot

a p a r t fr om i t, wit h a n e m p h a s is o n p re ve n t in g cr im e , n o t ju s t
r e s p o n d i n g t o it .
C om m u n i ty policing is a con ce p t t h a t yo u h ea r a gr ea t d ea l
a b o u t . T h e r e is a c o n t i n u i n g d eb a t e a s t o w h e t h e r c om m u n i ty
polic i n g is a ph ilosoph y, style of policing or programm e an d
wheth er it is tou gh or soft on crime. However, I ha ve a lwa ys
discu ss ed c om m u n i ty policing in s i m p ler t e rm s . J u s t a s t h e t h r e e
R’s bes t d es cr ib ed th e P ro fes s ion a l Er a , c om m u n ity po licin g is
defined b y t h r ee P’s: Pa rtn ers hip , Prob lem S olving, Pr event ion.
Remem ber in t h e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0 s p olice said: ‘If you give us
a d d it io n a l pers onn el, equipm ent a nd resou rces we’ll tak e ca r e of
your p r o b le m s a n d c o n t r o l c r im e ’. Th i s d id n ’t h a p p e n b e c a u s e
t h e r e w a s n o p a r t n e r s h i p wi t h t h e co m m u n it y t o jo in t ly id en t ify
t h o se pr ob lem s . B y wo rk in g in pa r t n er s h ip with th e co m m u n ity,
other in s t it u t io n s of gove r n m e n t a n d t h e c rim in a l justice system ,
police c a n h a ve a s ignifican t impa ct on cr ime a nd disord er. This
is th e ba sic p rem ise b eh ind com m u n it y policing and , when
p r o p e r ly a pp lied , it is to u gh er on cr im e t h a n a n yth in g els e we ’ve
eve r t rie d . Ne w York Cit y’s ex p er ien ce is pr oof p os itive of th is .
C h a s in g a fte r t h os e t h ou s a n d s of 9 -1 -l c a lls m ea n t p u tt in g
ban dages o n th e s ym p tom s of t h e problem s ge n e ra t in g th e ca lls .
We were not ta king effective action to solve the pr ob le m t h a t
generat ed the ca ll in th e first place. Repeat ca lls br ought police
back t o t h e s a m e s t r e e t c or n e r t i m e a n d t i m e a g a in t o k i c k t h e
s a m e gr ou p o f r ow dy k id s off t h e c or n e r o r a d d r es s t h e s a m e
dom e s t i c violence problem. Du ring the Profess iona l Polic in g E r a ,
police m a n a g er s h a d fo cu s e d m o r e o n m e a s u r i n g r e s p on s e t i m e
a n d time sp ent on calls. Efforts were focus ed m or e on p r oc es s
v er s u s t h e results of p reventing a n d re du c in g c r im e a n d disorder .
P o li c e n ee d ed to wor k h a rd er a n d m or e s tr a te gica lly a t s olvin g
t h e problem. Com mu nity policin g ena bled police to refocus
resou rces on t he m ost b a s ic r e a s o n f or o u r b e i n g. Th e p r i m a r y
rea son tha t Lond on Metropolitan Police fo r c e wa s c r e a t e d b y S i r
R ob e r t Peel in 1 82 9 wa s t o p re v e nt c r im e f r om o c c u r r i n g in t h e
fir s t p la c e (s e e p . 1 2 6 ).
In t er es t in gly, p o li ci n g ’s s h i ft fr o m t h e P r o fe s s i o n a l E r a t o
c om m u n i ty p olicin g d id n o t in volve a complete c h a n g e o ve r . It wa s
m o r e a m e ld in g of id e a s a n d s t ra t egie s . Th e th r e e R ’s s t ill h a ve
their plac e for cert ain crim e situ at ions , b u t n o t a ll a n d n ot a s a n
ove ra ll c r im e c o n t r ol m et h od ology. Ble n d in g t h e b e n e fit s o f r a p i d

r esp on s e a n d r a n do m pa tr ol a s well a s to p n ot ch in ves tiga tive
wor k with t he developm en t of str ong com m u nity p a r t n e r s h i p s to
s olve pr oblem s t ha t lead to c r i m e red u ction an d p reven tion
descr ibes t h e fo u n da tion of policing in America in th e 1 9 9 0 s a n d
in New York Cit y in pa rt icu la r.
P ol i c i n g i n Ne w Y o r k C i t y i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s
Th e cover of Tim e ma gazine ca lling New York City the Rotten
Ap p le a n d t h e ‘D o Someth ing Dave’ hea dline in the Ne w York
Post, beggin g th en Ma yor Da vid Din k in s to ta k e a ct ion a ga in s t
r i s in g c r im e a n d d i s o r d e r , ch a r a c t e r is e d t h e st at e of fru st ra tion
in New York Cit y in 19 9 0 .
How d id New York Cit y get s u ch a n ega tive im a ge? How did it
becom e a cit y s o s ee m in gly ou t o f con tr ol? In New Yo r k Cit y over
t h e pr evio u s tw en ty yea rs , a s a re s u lt of police cor ru pt ion
s c a n d a ls in t h e 1 9 70 s , t h e Cit y co n s cio u s ly op te d to re m ove its
police fr om d ea lin g wit h a n y t h i n g w it h t h e p o t en t i a l fo r co r r u p -
tion. Police were preclud ed from enter ing licensed p rem ises a n d
from givin g cit a tio n s or su mm onses on m an y disorder-related
street cond itions for fea r of c or r u p t io n . Th e d ir e ct r es u l t o f t h e s e
res trict ions a s well a s th e im p a ct of th e P ro fes s ion a l Polic in g
model were th at th e NYPD s e em e d to wit h d r a w from con trolling
b eh a viou r on t he st reet s of N ew Yo r k a n d c o n d it io n s w or s e n e d .
G r a f fi t i a n d other s ign s o f d is o rd e r a b ou n d e d . In t h e 19 7 0 s a n d
m o s t of the 1 980 s, th ere wa s n o t a s u b w a y c a r in t h e Cit y t h a t
was not com p l e t e ly co ver ed wit h wh a t s om e in a p p ro p ria te ly
descr ibed a s a n u r b a n a r t fo r m , gr a ffiti. Su b way s t a tio n s b e ca m e
s h a n t yt ow n s for t h e hom eless a n d a ggr essive begging increa sed,
e x a c e r b a t i n g a clim at e of fe a r , c o m p o u n d e d b y a s i gn i fi ca n t a n d
notorious decline in th e qua lity of life as a wh ole.
Wh en I firs t c am e to New Yo r k City from Bost on in 1 9 9 0 a s t h e
n e w Chief of Police for the C ity ’s Tra ns it Police Depar tm ent , I
rem emb er d r i vin g from La G u a r d i a Ai r p or t down t h e highwa y in to
Ma n h a t ta n . G r a ffit i, b u r n e d - ou t c a r s a n d t r a s h s e e m e d t o b e
everywher e . It look ed like s om et h in g ou t o f a fu tu ris tic m ovie .
Th en a s y ou e n t ered Man ha ttan , you met t he u nofficial greeter
for th e City of New Yor k, th e Squ eegee pest. Welcome to New
Yo r k City. This gu y h a d a dirty ra g or squ eegee an d wou ld was h
your wind ow wit h s om e dir ty liq u id a n d as k fo r o r d em a n d
m on ey. Pr oc ee d in g down Fift h Aven u e, t h e m ile of des igner s t o r es

a n d fa m o u s b u i ld i n gs , u n l ic e n s e d s t r e e t p e d d le r s a n d b e g g a r s
wer e ever ywh er e. Th en do wn int o th e s u bw a y wh er e eve ryd a y
over 200 ,0 0 0 fa r e e va d e r s ju m p e d over or u n d e r tu rns tyles wh ile
sh ak edown artists vand alised t u r n s t yle s a n d de m a n d ed t h a t
p a yin g p a s s e n g er s h a n d over th e ir t o k e n s t o t h e m . B e gg a r s w e r e
on every train . Every platform s eemed to h a v e a c a r d b o a r d c i t y
w h e r e t h e hom eless h a d ta k en u p re s id en ce . Th is was a city t h at
h a d s t op p ed ca r in g ab ou t its elf. The re wa s a sen se of a p e rm i s -
s ive society allowing certa in things t ha t would n ot ha ve been
perm itted m a n y ye a r s a g o . Th e C i t y h a d l os t c o n t r o l. It w a s t h e
e p it om e of wha t Sena tor Dan iel Moyniha n h ad d escribed a s a
p r oc es s of ‘de finin g so cia l de vian cy down ’— e xp la in in g a wa y b a d
b e h a v i ou r i n s t e a d o f c o r r e ct i n g i t .
T h e B e g i n n i n g : H ir i n g A d d i t i o n a l P ol i c e O ff i c e r s
In 199 0, Mayor David Dinkins an d th e City Coun cil realised
s om e th in g ha d to b e don e an d, w it h pub lic su pport, en acted
legislation to hire a n a d d itiona l 7,000 police. This h iring was
designed to s u p p o r t t h e com m u n ity policing p r ogr a m m e t h a t wa s
b ein g implemen ted in th e New Yor k City Police Depart men t
(NYPD). H o we ve r , t h en Police Comm issioner Lee Brown wa nted
t o d e d ic a t e t h e s e 7 , 0 0 0 n e w y o u n g p o li ce o ffi ce r s t o 1 , 5 0 0 b e a t s
th rou ghou t the City. The a verage kid joining the NYPD a t t h a t
t i m e was a 2 2-year -old, wit h only a high sch ool (12 years )
edu cat ion.
• Ma n y o f t h e n e w h ir e s h a d n e v er h e ld a j ob u n t i l they ap plied
to the NYPD.
• Many ha d n ever even d riven a car.
• Ma n y l iv ed o u t s i d e t h e C i t y a n d h a d n e v e r in t e r a c t e d w i t h a
m in o rit y p er s on .
• Ma n y w e re u n d e r 2 1 a n d n o t even old en ou gh to lega lly d rin k .
An d t h e s e we r e th e 7 , 0 00 you n g police officers wh o were
su pposed to s olve t h e p r o b lem s of New Yo r k City, one of t h e m os t
complex cit ies in th e w or ld , a fte r o n ly six m onth s of police
a ca d em y t ra in in g. Th e y w e r e s i m p l y n o t e q u i p p e d t o d e a l w it h
t h e c it y ’s p r o b l em s o f r a c e, c r im e a n d d i s o r d er .
Alt hou gh legislating the hiring of 7,000 add itiona l police
o ffi ce r s in the e a r ly 1 9 9 0 s wa s a st a rt a n d c rim e b ega n to go
down slowly, more was n eeded. When I be ca m e P olic e C om m is -
sioner i n J a n u a r y 1 9 9 4 , a w a r e of t h i s d e fi ci en c y in t h e pr evious
a d m in is t ra t io n ’s a p p ro ac h , I un dertook a stra tegic r e-engineerin g
of t h e N YP D t h a t s i g n ifi ca n t l y contribu ted t o t h e d r a m a t i c c r im e
red u ction an d qu ality-of-life im provemen t t h a t co n tin u e s in Ne w
York City t od a y.
R e -e n g i n e e r i n g t h e O r g a n i s a t i o n
Like m a n y p r iv a t e co r p o r ations t h a t h a v e ch o s e n t o r e - en g in e e r ,
t h e NYPD wa s a n or gan isa tion t ha t wa sn ’t living u p to it s
pot e n t ia l. The process of re-engineering requ ires the s ettin g of
clear-cut goa ls , t h e r es tr u ct u rin g of the organ isation to m eet
t h o se g oa l s a n d p r i or i t ie s a n d m a xim u m involvement of Depar t-
m e n t p er s on n e l a n d ou ts ide exp ert ise. In st ead of being sat isfied
w it h i n c r e m e n t a l declines in c r im e, we s et ou rs elves th e m iss ion
of d r a m a tic a lly r ed u cin g cr im e, dis or d er a n d fea r. We r e- en gi-
neered th e NYPD in to a n or ga n is a t ion c a pa b le of s u p p or tin g
thes e goals. We created 12 re-en gineering tea ms covering area s
c ru c ia l to a ch ievin g s h o r t - a n d lon g-t er m cr im e r ed u ct ion goa ls
s u ch as trainin g, equipmen t an d tech no logy re -e n gin ee rin g
t e a m s . W e t a p p e d e x p e r t i s e fr o m i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e t h e D ep a r t -
m e n t to wor k on goa ls a n d i m p l em e n t a t i on s t r a t e g ie s t o m e e t
t h e s e go a ls .
De c en t r a li z a t i on
In 1 9 9 4 , p r ec i n c t c om m a n d e r s h a d v e ry lit t le a u t h o r it y t o d o
a n yt h in g u n l es s h e a d q u a r t e r s d e m a n d e d i t . W e c u t t h r o u g h t h e
‘w ed d in g ca ke ’ of cen tr a lise d h iera rc h ica l bu re a u cr a cy a n d p u t
t h e focus of c r im e prevention a n d d i s o r d er red u ction back on th e
police in t h e p r ec in c ts . In other w or d s , we de ce n tr a lis ed po licin g
in New York City.
We p u s h e d re s p on s ib ilit y a n d a c co u n t a bili t y d o w n , b u t n o t t o
t h e new, inexp erien ced b eat cop, a s t he pr evious ad m inist ra tion
h a d done, b u t rath er to th e p r e c in c t c om m a n d er leve l, s o t h a t we
r ea lly h a d 7 6 m in i a t u r e p o l ic e d e p a r t m e n t s . I n vi ew o f t h e
complexity of m a n y of New Yo r k City’s pr ob lem s t h e earlier policy
h a d been s e tt in g t h o se n ew ly-h ire d youn g m e n a n d women u p for
fa ilu r e b y p u t tin g them in ch a rge of pr ob lem -s olvin g effort s . We
c h a n g e d t h e fo cu s f r om t h a t y o u n g offic e r to a m o r e m a t u r e (b y
fift ee n years on a verage), co l le g e - e d u c a ted, veteran police
com m a n de r wh o k n ew h ow t o p olice t h e cit y.
We dem an ded t h a t precinct com m a nd ers p lace du al emp h a s is

on qua lity-of-life or signs of crime a s well as on ser iou s crime.
New Yo r k Cit y gover n m en t h a d n ot p a id a tt en tion to t h e qu a lity-
of- life dr in k in g a n d m in or s tr ee t c rim e t h a t c itize n s h a d ex p er i-
e n ced every day for over 25 year s. As a resu lt the police ha d
stopp ed enforcing m an y of the City ordinan ces which we r e
in t en d ed to prevent th ese violations. I set the m acro-level goal of
c r im e redu ction an d en ha ncing qu ality of life, bu t th en let
precinct com m a n d in g o ffi ce r s m a n a g e a t t h e p r e c in c t o r m i -
cro-level b y d et er m in in g h ow b es t t o d o t h is . In ad dition t o
d ec re a sin g fe lo n y c r im e , t h i s l ed t o a s u cc es s fu l cit y-w id e e ffo r t
t o re d u ce a n d pr eve n t gr a ffiti a s we ll a s a n on goin g elim in a t i on
o f t h o s e i n fa m o u s s q u e e ge e p e s t s .
E s s en t i a l to po lice en forc in g qu a lity- of-life la ws for t h e fir s t
t i me in 25 years was p ub lic an d political su pport. New Yor k
fortu na tely h a d th is . In 19 9 4 th e n ew ly ele ct ed Ma yor Ru d olp h
Giu lia n i h a d c a m p a ign e d o n t h e i s s u e o f c r im e a n d d i s o r d er .
Upon h is e le ct io n , u n l ik e h is p r e d e c e s s o r s , h e a u t h o r i ze d t h e
police a n d t h e ir new P olice Comm iss ioner to de velop an d
im p le m en t s t r a t e g ie s t o d e a l wi t h identified problem s. As Ma yor,
h e t h e n c o - o r d in a t e d t h e a c t ivities of other city agencies to
su pport t hes e crime contr ol strategies.
S t r a t e g i c Cr i m e Fi g h t i n g
Over a two -yea r p er iod, th e p olice d evelop ed eigh t crim e con trol
stra tegies to a d d r e s s d r u g s , gu n s , y ou t h c r im e , a u t o t h e ft ,
cor r u p tio n , t r a ffic , d om es t ic vio le n ce a n d qu a lit y- of- life cr im e
th rou ghou t the City. We developed a geograph ically-based
stra tegic d r u g r e d u c t io n in i t ia t iv e t h a t h a s b e e n i m p le m e n t e d in
t wo a r ea s of Ne w Yor k Ci t y w it h s u cc es s fu l p r elim i n a ry r e s u lt s .
We c re a te d a n in n ova tive s ys t e m to m ea s u r e t h e s u c c es s o f t h e
cr im e con trol goals called t he Com ps ta t Proc ess . Com p s t a t
s t a n d s for Compr ehen sive Comp ut er Sta tistics. It incorp orates
fou r b a s i c p r e m i s e s : t im ely a cc u ra te in te lligen ce da ta ; r a p id
r e s po n s e o f r e s ou r c es ; effective tactics a n d r e le n t le s s fo llo w- u p .
In t h e N YP D , a t twice-we e k ly C om p s t a t m e e t i n g s , t h e D e p a r t -
m e n t ’s top executives meet. Each c om m a n d p r es en t s t h e r e s u l t s
of t h e i r e ffo r t s i n t h e p r e v io u s m o n t h com pa red to th eir pla n for
the s am e period of time.
C h a n g e s a t t h e P r e c i n c t Le v e l
B e fo r e I became Police Com m is s ion er , t he em p h as is on com m u -
n i t y policing h a d resu lted in police b ein g as signed t o b ea t s in t h e
n e igh b ou r h oo d w it h t h e r e s p o n s ib ilit y t o s olv e a l l c r im e p r o b -
le m s . New po lice o ffi ce r s , m a n y n o m o r e t h a n 2 0 o r 2 1 ye a r s o ld ,
w e r e expected to u s e p ro b lem -s olvin g meth odologies as sociated
w it h com m u nity p olicing t o ad dr ess an y crim e pr oblem , from
y ou t h s loitering on s t r eet cor ne rs to ra m pa nt dr u g dea ling on
t h eir b e a ts . Th i s a p p r o a c h w a s n o t w o r k in g . S om e n e i gh b o u r -
hood s were s o crim e-ridd en th at th ese youn g officers cou ld n ot
cope with su ch com plex problems a nd issu es.
Precinct co m m a n d in g office rs h a d litt le c on tr ol o ve r t h e s e
o ffi ce r s wh o we re a s s ign ed via a s tr ict ly en forc ed co m m u n ity
p olicin g deployment fo r m u l a from Police H ea d q u a r t er s . Moreover,
resou rces were more d ifficult to allocate a pp r o p r ia t e l y u n d e r a
rig id p la n t h a t pla c ed a u t h or it y a n d a c c ou n ta b ility a t m u lti-
fu n c t io n a l an d poorly co-ordinated higher leve ls . To c or re ct th is
s it u a tio n , as previously men tion e d , I d e c id e d t o fo c u s a c c o u n t -
a b ility a n d a u th or ity a t t h e p re cin ct co m m a n d er leve l. Th is
m e a n t th at pr ecinc t com m an der s cou ld d ecid e h ow m a n y a n d
h o w bes t to u se b eat officers . Th ey w e r e cha rged with develop in g
pr ob lem-s olvin g in itia tive s b e ca u s e precinct c om m a n d in g officers
h a d t h e experience a n d k n owle d g e to s olve complex c r im e is s u es .
Wor k in g w it h i n t h e fr a m e w o r k of t h e D e p a r t m e n t ’s eight s trat e-
gies a n d C o m p s t a t p r o c e s s , t h e y de velo p ed pr ob lem -s olvin g
tactics a n d d e p loyed officers a ccording to a str ategy they
developed s pecifically to work on problems in their precinct .
C o m m a n d i n g O f fi c e r A u t h o r i t y a n d A c c o u n t a b i l i t y
Be a t officers were ju st one exam ple of comm an d in g o ffi ce r s ’ la ck
of a u t h o r i ty over th e m en a n d wom en wh o wo rk ed in th eir
precinct. Specia lis ed u n i t s, s u ch a s d e te ct ive s , narcotic u n it s a n d
a n ti- cr im e un its, were also controlled by other police m a n a g e r s
a t h e a dq u a r t er s . P re cin c t co m m a n d e rs d id n o t h a ve au thority or
in flu e n ce over t h e a s s ign m e n t a n d m a n a ge m en t of thes e o ffi ce r s .
Th eir ha nd s were tied u nd er a one-d imen siona l, fu n ction-
orientated h i e r a r c h ic a l p ol ic e s t r u c t u r e . P r ec in c t c o m m a n d e r s
h a d be en de n ied gre a te r a u th orit y a n d a cco u n ta bility b ec a u s e it
was fe a r e d t h a t t h e r e w a s a r i s k o f c o r r u p t i on i f h e a d q u a r t e r ’s
over sigh t could n o longer be a chie ved th rough specialised

services p r o vi d ed t o t h e p r e c in c t s , p a r t i c u la r l y i n t r ad i t ion a lly
c or r u p t io n -p r on e a r ea s .
I ens ur ed t h a t c om m a n d in g o ffi ce r s w e r e p u t in c h a rge of t h eir
pers onn el a n d t h e i r a s s i gn m e n t s . T h e y w e r e gi ve n t h e a u t h o r i t y
t o p u t together a co-ordina ted a n d f o cu s e d p l a n t o a t t a c k c r i m e
in th eir pr ecinc t. The y were a ble to ide nt ify crim e ‘hot s p o ts ’ a n d
a s s ign ne ces sa ry pa trol officer s , d e t e c ti ve s , u n d e r c o ve r a n d
na rcotics officer s to t h e s e p r ob le m s . I ga ve precinct com m a n d in g
o ffi ce r s the a ut hority and ma de th em a ccoun tab le. Prec in c t
c o m m a n d e r s co u ld b r in g s u fficie n t de te rr en t s t o b e a r on d ifficu lt
c r im e a r e a s , r e s o u r c e s c o u l d b e r e -a l lo c a t e d fr o m o n e ‘h o t s p o t ’
t o a n o t h e r w i t h i n t h e p r e c in c t , r e s u l t s co u ld b e m e a s u r e d w it h
great er con siste ncy a nd reliability, an d th e precinct w a s a l a r g e
enou gh u nit to su pport its own specialised forces.
T h e Co m p s t a t M e e t i n g
As precin ct com m an der s b eca m e th e focal poin t for ca rryin g out
t h eir ow n an d t h e D e p a r t m e n t ’s c r i m e - r e d u c t i on s t r a t e g ie s , t h e
C om p s t a t meetings a nd as sociated a c t i vi t ie s b e c a m e t h e en gin e
for t h e effort. They were a produ ct of the favourite four -step
p h ilo so ph y fo r a c tio n of J a c k Map le, Depu ty Com m iss ioner for
C r im e Con tr ol St ra te gies a n d O pe ra tion s. This ph iloso ph y h a s
becom e a man tra in t h e Departmen t: (1 ) accura te timely inform a -
tion, (2 ) r a p i d , fo cu s e d d e p lo ym e n t , (3 ) effe c t iv e t a c t ic s , (4 )
r e le n t le s s follow-up an d a ss ess m en t. Twice-week ly Comp st at
m eet in gs requ ire precinct c o m m a n d e r s to b e r e a d y to review th eir
u p - t o - d a t e co m p u te r- gen er a te d cr im e s t a tis t ic s a n d re la t e w h a t
they are going to be doing to achieve crime red uct ion. Thes e
m eet in gs a r e h e ld a t H e a d q u a r t e r s in t h e Dep a r tm e n t ‘Wa r Room ’
which co n ta in s la r ge compu ter-fed s c re en s a n d oth er d evices for
d is p la yin g st at istics . On e rep orte r s itting in a Com ps t a t meet in g
d e s cr ib e d it a s fo llo ws :
M a p le called the p recinct com ma nd ers to th e front of the room in
t u r n , ques tioning, prod ding, ca joling an d oc ca sio n ally te as in g
i n fo r m a t i on out of them . They discus sed on- going in vestiga tion s,
s p e cia l ope ra tion s a n d a n y u n u su al cr imin al a ctivity. W h e n t h e m e n
a n d women fr o m t h e 8 1 s t Precin ct got t he ir call, th e pr ecinc t com -
m a n d i n g offi ce r a n d h i s s t a f f w e r e a s k e d t o e x p la i n a r e c e n t s p a t e of
s h o ot in g s .
W h a t ’s going on , M a p le w a n t e d t o k n o w. Wh y a r e th es e sh ootin gs
h a p p en in g? I s it a t u r f w a r ? No? Well, s o m e b od y ’s n o t h a p p y . M a yb e
t h e y ’r e c r a n k y ‘c a u s e i t s h o t ou t sid e, b u t s om eth ing’s h ap pen ing.
When t h e s h o o t in g l oc a t i on s w e r e p u t u p o n th e h u g e m a p projected
on t h e w a l l, a l on g w it h t h o s e of d ru g co mp la ints in t h e pre c inc t, t h e r e
was a clear o ve r la p . M a p le as ked w h a t was be in g d o n e a b o u t t h e d r u g
s p o t s , an d one of the n arcotics officers sa id it was a tough area
b e ca u s e t h e b u s i n e s s was don e i n s id e a n d th e re w e re lots of lookou ts .
T h a t ’s fine, Maple s aid. Th at ’s wh y we’re de tectives. Tell me wh at
tact ics we c a n em ploy to p en etra te t h e s e locat ions . Th e d etectives s a id
th ey wou ld try som e b u y - a n d -b u s t oper at ions a n d m a y b e get a c ou p le
of guys b ehin d th e Plexiglas to ra t when an ar re st wa s h an gin g over
th eir hea ds. Ma ple was n’t satis fied. I wa n t you b ack h ere next week
w it h a plan , he s aid to th e Precinct Ca pta in. Norma lly each precinct
comes in once every four to five weeks. 3
In o r d e r t o r es p o n d t o t h e k in d s of q u es t io n s p os e d a t Co m p s ta t
m eet in gs, p r ec in c t co m m a n de r s began bringing with t hem
r ep r es e n ta tives fr om other b u rea u x, s u ch a s detectives who were
a s s igned t o t h e ir p r e c in c t s . C o m p s t a t m eet in gs t hu s en cou ra ged
inte r-b u rea u fun ction al co-or din at ion.
Ma k i n g D ru g A r r e s t s
We a ls o cha nged t h e Departmen t’s pos ition a ga in s t police officers
m a k in g d ru g arr est s. In th e pa st , it was deem ed t oo risk y for
street officers to m a ke dr u g a r r es t s . Since t h er e w a s a gr ea t d ea l
of c a s h i n v ol ve d in d r u g t r a n s a c t i on s , i t w a s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e
r is k of corru ption was too great. Heavily sup ervised s pec ia l
s q u a d s h a d p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b il it y fo r e n f orcing dr u g laws. We
cha nged this p olicy a n d even e nc ou ra ged officers to s eek ou t
dru g arrest s du ring peak d ru g dealing times .
In t e rn a l Af fa i r s In ve s t ig a t i on s
Sim ilar ly, I c h a n ge d t h e w a y In t er n a l Affa ir s wer e c on d u c t e d in
t h e NYPD. P rio r t o m y te n u re , t h e H ea d of th e In te rn a l Affa irs
B u r ea u an d th e Police Com m is s ion er we re s om et im es th e o n ly
two people wh o h a d o ver a ll kn owled ge a b o u t c o r r u p t i on i n v e s t i-
ga t io n s in t h e D e p a r t m e n t . I ch a n ged th is po licy a s we ll, n ot in g
t h a t yo u h a ve to h ave co n fid en c e a n d b e a b le to tr u s t t h e
integrity of t h e c om m a n d s t a ff a n d precinct c om m a n d e r s . NYPD’s
7 6 precinct co m m a n d e r s i n e s s e n c e r a n 7 6 m i n i - p o li ce d e p a r t -
m e n t s . Not tr u s tin g th em wit h on -go in g in ves tig a tio n s o c cu r r i n g

or involvin g m e m b e r s of their precincts weaken ed t h ei r a u t h o r i t y
a s w e ll a s s e n d i n g a n e g a t iv e m e s s a g e a b ou t t h e i r t r u s t w o r t h -
in e s s . In clu s ion b ec am e a very strong team b u ild e r a n d m o tiva -
tio n to ol.
C om p u t e r A c c e s s f o r De t e c t i v e s
B e fo r e m y te n u r e , d e te ct ive s were n ot allowed to us e a n um ber
of compu ter system s beca us e it w a s t h o u g h t t h e y w ou l d je o p a r -
d is e t h e i n t egrity of other investigations. In oth er words, th ey
were not tru sted. Thes e system s includ ed s u c h b a s ic inve st iga-
t o r y t o o ls a s t h e c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d r o b b e r y s y s t e m , n a r c o t ics
dat aba ses a n d o n - li n e w a r r a n t s y s t e m . I ga v e t h e d e t ective s
a cc es s to t h e s e com pu ter syst ems . Integrity was n ot jeopar dised
a n d t h e NYPD continu es to experience s o me of t h e s te ep e s t c r im e
declines in the co u n t r y . Du r in g m y t en u r e , vio le n t cr im e wa s
redu ced b y 3 8 p er c e n t a n d t h e m u r d e r r a t e d ec lin e d b y 5 1 per
cent.
Give the Police th e Credit

H o we ve r , eve n a s th e c rim e n u m b er s co n tin u e t o d ec lin e t o d ay
a t u np reced ent ed ra tes a cross th e ent ire city, t h er e a r e t h e
s c ep t ic s . S o m e a r e c r im in a l ju s t ic e r es e a rc h er s , o th e r s a r e
p olit ic a l p u n d it s . Th ey cite th eo ry a fte r t h eo ry a s to wh y cr im e is
fallin g e xc e p t t h e one t h a t is of t h e m os t s ign ifica n ce in New Yor k
Cit y: b et te r, s m a rt er a n d m or e a s s er tive po licin g in p a rt n er s h ip
with the cr iminal just ice system a nd the comm un ity we serve—
com m u n ity p olicin g.
To t h e s e c r i t ic s I u n e q u i v oc a l ly c a n s a y t h e c r im e ra te d id n ot
fall b e ca u s e of t h e weat h e r . It d id n o t dr op d u e to c h a n gin g socio-
-d em ogr a p h ic tren ds. Crime is n ot down a s a resu lt o f c h a n ges
in th e e con om y. Th e d ec lin es m a y h a ve been a ffe ct ed s om e wh a t
b y h igh er pr is on er in ca rc er a tio n ra te s , b u t t h e d ro p in cr im e in
t h e City ha s been s o pr ecipitou s over s u ch a s h o r t p e r i od o f t i m e
t h a t th e tr ad itiona l cau ses of crime, or wha t we b e lie ve d to h a ve
been t he p rinciple caus es of crime increa ses or r e du c t io n s , ju s t
d o n ’t a p p ly .
In J a n u ar y 199 4, a ll the you ng k ids in th e city did n ot
s u d d en ly be co m e o ld . All c r im i n a l s d i d n o t s u d d e n l y m a r c h i n t o
ja il. 1 9 9 5 wa s one of th e m i l d e s t w in t e r s i n N e w Yo r k C it y
h i s t o r y: 1 9 9 4 w a s o n e o f t h e w o r s t . C r ime wen t d o w n d r a m a t -
ic a lly in bo th yea rs , s o t h e w ea th er did n ot h a ve a s ign ifica n t
impa ct on cr im e. Mu r d e r i s n o t a c r im e t h a t c a n b e c ov er e d u p
or o v e r- r e p or t e d . Th e m u r d e r r a t e h a s d e c l in e d b y o ve r 5 0 p er
cent in New York City becaus e we fo u n d a better wa y of policin g.
We are res ults-focus ed. We are decen tralised. We are c o- or d in -
a t e d . W e h a v e e n o u g h c o p s a n d w e a r e u s i n g t h e m m o r e e ffec -
tive ly. We have par tner s. We have sh own i n Ne w Yo r k C it y t h a t
police ca n ch a n ge b eh a viou r, ca n co n tr ol b eh a viou r an d , m os t
i m p o r t a n t l y, c a n prevent crim e by their a c t i on s — i n d e p e n d e n t l y
of o t h e r fa ctor s. We h a ve, in su m m a ry, to a ga in qu ote Geo rge
Ke llin g , ‘r e -p o lic ed o u r cit y s t r ee t s ’.
In re sp on se to t h e cr iticis m th a t t h is n ew p olicin g is t oo
a s s e r t iv e an d th at citizens are b ein g a b u s e d i n s i gn i fi ca n t l y
greater n u m b e rs , I a m c om f or t a b le in s a yin g th e re is n o s u s t a in -
a b l e eviden ce to su pport t hes e ass er t io n s . In resp onse, I poin t t o
t h e 166 ,737 fewer vic tim s o f vio le n t cr im e in t h e th r e e- ye a r
per iod 199 4-96 u nd er our new policin g s t r at egies, with ou r
e m p h a s is o n p r e v e n t io n r a th er th a n re a ct ion , a n d on pu b lic
order m a i n t e na nce a s a way of cha nging beha viour t o redu ce
crime. D id c om p la in t s a ga in s t p olic e in c r ea s e? Ye s t h e y d id , b u t
it s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e o ve r 3 8 , 0 0 0 p o li ce o ffi ce r s
m a k in g o ve r 30 0 ,0 0 0 a r re s t s a n d is s u in g m illions of s u m m o n s e s
ea c h year . Comp ar e th at a ctivity to th e ap proxima tely 9,000
cit izen co m p la in ts th a t w er e filed in 19 9 6 .
New Yo r k e r s a r e r e p o r t in g t h a t they a r e feelin g s a f e r . Resid en -
t ia l an d comm ercial real estate m a r kets are boom ing. The
econ om y h a s s t a b i lis e d . To u r is m i s s k yr o ck etin g. Ne w York Cit y
is s lowly r evit a lis in g it s e lf. Th e r e a r e s till s e r io u s c r im e problem s
in New York City t h a t will r equ ire a dd ition a l st ra te gizing a n d
r e s ou r c es . H o we ve r , a s i ll u s t r a t e d b y t h e in i t ia l s u c c e s s o f t h e
newly-imp lemented geo gr a p h ica lly-ba sed ra th er t ha n fu nc tion-
ally-bas ed dr u g re du ct ion st ra te gies in t h e Br ook lyn Nor th a n d
t h e u ppe r Man ha tta n a rea s of the City, t h e p o lic e c a n h a ve a n
impa ct on even lon g-s ta n d in g cr im e pr oblem s. Th e NYPD, or for
t h a t m a t t er a n y s u cces s fu l policing orga nis at ion, c a n n ot s olve a ll
problems or a ll crim e. H oweve r, th ey s h o u ld b e r ec og n is e d fo r
w h a t th ey c a n do a n d h ow w ell t h ey a re do in g it t od a y. F a ir i s
fair . We sh ouldered m ost of the blam e when c r im e went u p . Give
u s som e of the cred it when it goes down —and sta ys down a s I

confiden t l y p r e d i c t it will in New Yo r k City. An d t h e good news is ,
‘i f y ou c a n m a k e i t in N e w Yo r k yo u c a n m a k e i t a n y wh e r e ’.
A n d Fi n a l l y . . . A W or d A b ou t ‘Z e r o T o l er a n c e ’
Ma n y police, policy a n d p olit ic a l lea d e rs h a ve adop ted t h e p h r a se
‘z er o tolerance’ to cha racter ise t h e model of policing I in i t ia t e d in
New York City—a ph ras e us ed in th e title of this b ook. While t h e
p h r a s e is u s ed m or e w id ely in Britain th an in the Un ited S t a te s ,
it h a s gained s om e cu rren cy ther e as well. Th e p h r a s e is t r o u b le-
s om e .
Th r ou gh ou t m y ca r e er a s a p o li ce o ffi ce r a n d p o li ce a d m i n i s t -
r a t o r , I have been imp ress ed by th e com plexit y of, fi r s t , t h e
problems p o lic e fa c e a n d , s e c on d , police respon ses t o problems .
Th is was n o t a lwa ys a p p ar en t in Am er ic a n policing where, within
m y mem ory, it was believed tha t pa trol officers h an dled ‘simp le’
i n c id e n t s with rote r es p on s e s—r id in g in c a r s , r e s po n d in g r a p id ly
t o calls for service, an d a rres ting offend ers . My own experience
a s a y ou n g p o lic e offic e r in B o s t on , e s p ecia lly wit h e ar ly va r ia -
tions of c om m u n i ty policing—ca lled n e igh b ou r h oo d t ea m policing
d u r in g th e late 19 70 s—con firm ed for m e wh a t a gen era tion of
police resea rch h as sh own: there is n othing rote ab out p olice
work , it is inc red ibly comp lex.
Phra ses s u ch a s ‘z er o tolerance’ s e n d p o we r fu l m es s a ge s . Th a t
is w h y th ey ca tc h on so qu ick ly. Clea rly, ze ro t oler a n ce c on veys
a fo rc efu l m es s a ge a bo u t t h e im po rt a n ce o f civility an d o r d e r in
complex societies an d ab out t he n eed for police to restore an d
m a in t a in or d er . B u t it s en d s ot h er m es s a ges a s we ll, a n d th is is
wh at worries m e ab ou t th e equ at ion of ‘New York -s ty le’ polic in g
with zero toleran ce.
F ir s t , th e p h ra s e s m a ck s of ove r- zea lou s n es s —a re a l d a n ger
when com m u nica ting exp ecta tions ab ou t policing. No on e
fam ilia r with t he bu sin ess of or d e r ma intena nce rea lly believes
t h a t complex problems su ch a s p ros tit u tion , a ggre ss ive be ggin g,
d r u g d ea lin g, teen d r in k in g, a n d other s a r e goin g to b e eradicated
in s o c ie t y. Th e c a n b e m a n a g ed : t h a t is , they c a n b e r e d u c ed a n d
their social costs lessen ed, b u t s u ch p r ob le m s h ave be en , an d
a lwa ys will be with u s. Sec ond , it is n ot a cr ed ib le p olic y: it
comm un icates to political le a d er s a n d th e ge n er a l p u b lic a n
un realistic view of w h a t police c a n a c co m plis h . M or e o ve r , it is n ot
cr ed ib le t o t ro u b le- m a k er s . Ma n y k n ow t h e lim ita tio n s of p olic e

power a n d a u t h o r i t y. For t oo lon g, p olic e a n d ot h er cr im in a l
ju s t ice a g e n c ie s h a v e s e n t ‘t o u g h ’ m e s s a g es t o o ffe n d e r s a n d
miscreants a n d th e n h a ve n o t been a b l e to d e li ve r , either beca u s e
of lim it a tio n s o n t h eir p owe r (lim ita tio n s th a t a re given in
d e m oc r a cie s ) or b ecau se of lack of resou rces a n d fac ilitie s . Th ird ,
a n d fin a lly, zero tolera nc e as a s logan belies t he com plexity of
p olice wor k . Th e id ea , wh ich s om e u n th in k in g p olic e a d m in is t -
r a t o r s h a ve p u t f o r wa r d , t h a t ‘T om o r r o w we w il l a d o p t a z e r o
tolerance or “brok en wind ows” ph ilosoph y’ an d follow it u p wit h
a few gen er a l ord er s, do om s o rd er m a in te n a n ce. Revivin g o r d er
ma intena nce a s a n in t e gr a l as pect of policing requ ires lea d er s h ip ,
p la n n in g, tra inin g, guida nc e an d on going m a n a ge ria l d ir ec tio n .
Given its p oten tial for crim e pr event ion a n d th e imp rovem en t of
t h e q u a l i t y o f u r b a n l ife , it is well w or th th e e ffort . Im p ro p er ly
a n d u n t h in k i n gly done, however, o r d e r m a i n t e n a n c e h a s
co n s id er a b le p o t e n t i a l fo r t r o u b l e , e s p e c ia l ly in t h e form of
im pr op er , d isc rim in a tor y, or a bu sive po licin g.
Con se qu en tly, z er o to le r a n c e is n e i t h e r a p h r a s e t h a t I u s e n or
one t h a t c a p t u r e s t h e m ea n in g o f w h a t h a p p e n e d i n Ne w Yo r k
C it y , e it h e r i n t h e s u b w a y s o r o n t h e s t r e e t s .
Ze ro To le ra nc e :
Sh ort-te rm Fix, Lon g-term Liability?
Ch arl e s Po ll ard
I N ONE Amer ican city, cuts in cr ime ha ve been ach ieved which
wou ld h a v e b e en t h o u gh t m ir a c u lo u s on ly a fe w ye a rs a go .
Murd ers h ave fallen by 4 1 pe r c en t s i n c e 1 9 9 3 , r ob b e r ie s b y 3 6
per c e n t . An d i t ’s n o t ju s t v io le n t c r im e t h a t h a s b e e n a f fe c t ed :
bu rglaries a n d ve h icle- re la te d c rim e h a ve b o t h fa l le n b y ov er 4 0
per cent. This an d other good news on crim e ha ve been a t t r ib -
ut ed to a pr ogre ss ive s tyle o f policin g a do pt ed by t h e Police Ch ief
a n d a c t i ve ly s u p p o r t e d b y a w id e v a r ie t y of s e c t io n s o f t h e
c om m u n i ty. His p r ogr a m m e of r es t ru c tu r in g h a s created a po lice
d ep a rt m en t more res p on s ive t o t h e d em a n d s of t h e p u b lic. Th e
city? San Diego, California, of course.
When he took over as Chief o f P o li ce , J e r r y S a n d e r s s e t o u t t o
p r o vid e a r e s p o n s i ve , lo c a ll y- b a s e d s e r vi c e , with local police
c o m m a n d e r s re sp on sib le for c o-or din a tin g a n d m a n a gin g th e
priorities of their comm un ities. Part ners hips b etween citizen s
a n d p o li ce le d t o gr e a t e r police accou nta bility, and better
as sista nce fo r t h e p olic e fr om t h e cit ize n r y. Th e em p h a s is w a s
placed on res olving problems long-term , by working with oth er
agencies a n d orga n i s a t io n s . D r u g a n d g a n g p r o b le m s w e r e
tack led b y s u c h m e a n s a s g a l va n i s in g or d in a r y p e op le to join in
r e s id e n t s ’ a s s o c i a t i on s , p a r t n e r s h i p wi t h t h e Hou s in g Co m m is -
s ion to evic t p ro b lem re s id en ts , a n d re d es ign in g p u b lic a r e a s t o
redu ce crime.
‘S h o r t l y a ft er h is a p poin t m e n t , J e r r y Sa n d e r s d e ve lo p ed a n
a m b itiou s a g en d a to r estru ctu re th e entire Depa rtm ent to b etter
c o n fo r m police pra ctices to c om m u n ity s t a n d a r d s a n d p r in c ip le s ’,
s a ys S u s a n Gold in g, Ma yor o f Sa n Die go. ‘If cu rr en t t re n d s h old ,
t h e Neighbou rh ood Polic in g pr ogr a m [S a n d e rs ’ in itia tive] will h a ve
redu ced cr ime m ore th an 50 p er cen t bet ween 1 989 an d 19 96.’
44
ZERO TOLERANCE : SHORT - TER M FIX , LONG - TERM LIABILITY? 45
Wh y h a ve I s t a rt ed t h is e s s a y b y reference to San Diego, when

it is s u p p os ed to be a b ou t p olic in g in New York ? It is t o c o r r e c t
a com m on m is con cept ion a bou t New Yo r k which seem s to p r eva il
on this s ide of the At l a n t i c , th a t s om eh ow w e t oo c ou ld br in g
down crime if only we copied th e New York st yle clos ely en ou gh .
Le t ’s be clear: crime is fallin g in New Yo r k a n d t h a t is good n e ws .
Bu t cr ime is falling els ewh ere in Am erica too.
I h a ve pa r tic u la r ly c h os e n S a n Diego b e c a u s e t h e f a ll in c r i m e
t h e r e is d ire ctly c om pa ra ble in sc ale to t h at of New York ; an d
b e ca u s e t h is h a s b ee n a c h i e ve d t h r o u g h a s t y le o f p o li ci n g th a t
is i n s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o th a t in th e ‘Big App le’. Th e S a n Diego
app roach is t o wo r k w ith com m u n itie s ; to imp lement a compr e-
h e n s ive , holis tic ap proa ch t h a t pa ir s la w e n f or c e m e n t w i t h m o r e
pr event ion a n d in t e rve n t io n p ro gr a m m e s fr om t h e b u s in e s s ,
edu cat ion a n d p r iva t e s e ct or s ; a n d t o plan for the m e d i u m a n d
long te rm s rath er th an ach ieve m e r ely a s hor t-te rm , qu ick fix.
Th is a p p ro a ch goe s to th e h ea rt of wh a t p olic in g is —o r s h ou ld
b e —a l l a b o u t .
Th e co n tr a s t b et we en th is a n d New York ’s ‘Zer o Tole ra n ce ’ is
s u b s t a n t ia l. Wh a t e ve r h a s a c t u a ll y h a p p e n e d in th e policing of
New Yo rk —a n d t h e th eo ry be h in d th is is de s cr ib ed lu cid ly in
Willia m B r a tt on ’s pap er ‘C r im e is Down in Ne w Yor k C it y: B la m e
t h e Police’—the rh e toric a b ou t w h a t ha s ha p p e n e d h a s co n ce n -
trat ed on t he sim plistic n otion of ‘Zero Tolerance’. W h a t e v er t h e
n a t u r e o f t h e re fo rm s , the em otion u n d e r l yin g t h e m s e e m s t o b e
concen trat ed on a ggr es s io n : on r u t h le s s n es s in dea ling with low-
leve l criminality a n d d i s or d e r lin e s s ; of ‘r a p i d resp onse’, ‘sea rches ,
s w e ep s a n d a r r es t s ’ a n d ‘d oin g a ve rt ic a l’ (r a id in g a n a p a rt m en t
b l o c k a n d a rr es tin g a ll th os e w h o c a n n ot a cc ou n t for be in g
ther e); of confronta tiona l accou nt ab ility sys tem s with in NYPD
bas ed on t h e Com p s t a t m eet in g, k n ow n a s t h e ‘wa r room ’; a n d on
t h e sin gle-min ded pu rs u it of sh o r t - t e r m r esu lts. There is limited
e m p h a s is on t h e n e e d t o work closely with a nd in comm un ities;
n o r d o es t h e p a r t n e r s h i p s t r a t e g y s e em a im e d s o m u c h a t t h e
local governm ent a gencies (su ch a s edu cation, social services,
h e a l t h a n d p la n n in g) a s a t t h e o t h e r l a w e n fo r c em e n t p a r t n e r s
s u ch a s p r os e cu t o rs , th e co u r ts a n d p ris on s . Th er e is s ee m in gly
n o fo cu s o n m e d iu m - o r lo n g- te r m n ee d s .
It is im p or ta n t t o h igh ligh t t h e se d is t in c t io n s of s t yle b ec a u s e
t h e p u b lic deba te on policing is in dan ger of being hi-jacked by
t h e su per ficial, h igh pr ofile prom otion of ‘Z er o Toleran ce’. Th is is

t h e t er m a s c rib e d b y p olit ic ia n s a n d th e m edia to th e policing of
New York , with ou t pr oper an alysis of w h a t it m e a n s a n d w h a t i t
h a s —o r ha s n ot—ach ieved. Alth ou gh William Bra tton h im s elf
does n ot u s e t h is de s cr ip tio n in h is es s a y, h a rd ly a da y goes b y
with ou t reference to New York’s ‘Zero Tolera nce’ in t he n ews-
pa per s, on th e ra dio or on t e le vi s io n . C o m m e n t a t o r s l a t c h o n t o
it as th e late st fash ion a b le la b el t o p re s cr ib e t h e s olu tio n to a ll
policing problems.
In fa c t ‘Z e r o T ol er a n c e ’— or r a t h e r , t h e c o n c e p t o f ‘B ro k en
Wind ows’ from which it is d e r iv ed —is a h u gely importan t con cep t
in p o li ci n g ; b u t it is n o m ore t h a n on e f u n d a m e n ta l p rin c ip l e of
s e v e ra l t h a t n e e d t o be carefully and s ens itively woven together
if po licin g is to wor k we ll. To ge t t o t h e r oot s of th is is s u e, a n d to
u n d e rs t a n d t h e New York exper ience an d its wider im plicat ions
for po licin g, I w ill in th is pa p er firs t e x p lo r e a n d c o n t r a s t t h e
theories of ‘Br oken Wind ows’ an d ‘Zero Tolera nce’. Secon dly, I
will e xa m in e a n d a n a lys e t h e New York experience a s pr esen ted
b y Willia m B r a tt on in h i s own e s s a y ‘C r im e is D o w n in N e w Yo r k
City: Bla m e t h e Police’. Fina lly, I will ident ify th e dis tinc tions
b e t w e e n po licin g in New York , a n d po licin g in th e U n ite d
Kingd om ; a n d I will explore the less ons we in th is coun try can
l ea r n from New York from th e deba te on ‘Ze r o To ler a n ce ’—a n d
wh at New York can learn from u s.
‘Z e ro T o l e ra nce’ and ‘B roken Wind ow s’

—T h e T h e o r y
W h ils t ‘Z er o To le r a n c e ’ is p r e s e n t e d b y t h e m e d ia a s a n ew idea
invented in New Yo r k, it actua lly stems from th e Amer ican
a c a dem ic th eory of ‘Broken Wind ows’, 1 de velop ed by G eor ge
Kellin g a n d J a m e s Q . Wi ls o n b a c k i n 1 9 8 2 . I w e ll r em e m b e r i t s
impa ct o n m y o wn t h in k in g—w h ic h st ill a p p lie s t od a y—w h en I
stu died it for t h e fir s t tim e a t th e P olic e S ta ff Colleg e, Br a m s h ill,
15 year s a go.
Th e essen ce of ‘Broken Wind ows’ is t h a t m in o r in civilit ies (s u ch
a s dru nk enn ess , begging, vand alism , d is or d e r ly b e h a v io u r ,
gr a ffiti, litt er etc.), if un checked an d u ncon trolled, produ ce an
a t m o s p h e r e in a com m u n it y or on a street in which m o r e ser iou s
c r im e will flou r is h . Th i s i s e p it o m i s e d b y t h e id e a t h a t i f a
n e igh b ou r h oo d a p p ea rs to be u n te n d ed a n d u n ca re d for—if
‘br ok e n windows’ an d other propert y are left broken an d
u n r e p a ir e d , an d d isord erly beh aviou r is a llowed to go u n-
ch ec k ed —t h en a cy cl e o f cr im e w ill d ev el op a n d fee d off it s el f.
Wh a t w ill h a p p e n is t h a t th e n e igh b o u r h oo d will a c t a s a
m a g net fo r m o r e s e r io u s c r i m e . D r u g s d e a l e r s a n d p r o s t i t u t e s
will move in. Yo u n g s t e r s on t h e s t r ee t s , sen sing the lack of order
a n d con trol, will sta rt c om m itting cr ime t he m selves , or tu rn to
m o r e s er iou s cr im e s u ch a s s tr ee t r ob b er y. P ro p er ty pr ice s will
fall. Respecta ble, law-ab iding people will move ou t. Po s s ib ly t h ey
will be replaced b y less r espon sible citizens , some o f wh o m s ee
t h e area as a h aven for crime. So th e cycle will cont inu e. As t h e
n e igh b ou r h oo d goes downh ill, so crime, disord er an d fear s p ir a l
upwards.
Th e ‘Broken Windows ’ p r in c ip le is fund am en t a lly s o u n d . Wher e
however it becomes m o r e complex a n d d ifficu lt is in t h e solu tion s
it p r op o s es , a n d it is h e r e t h a t we need to identify t h e distin ction s
from ‘Zero Tolerance’.
Th e expr ess ion ‘Broken Win d ow s ’—a n d t h e th eor y b eh in d it—is
e s s en t ia lly a b ou t id en t ifyin g a n d describing a com plex problem;
b u t w it h som e broad ideas a bou t how to solve that p roblem
which I will ou tlin e s h or tly . ‘Zero Toler a n ce ’, o n t h e ot h e r h a n d ,
is concern ed pu rely wi t h s o lu t i o n s . T h e e xp r e s s i o n i m p a r t s b o t h
t h e idea of tack lin g low-level cr im e a n d d iso rd er ; a n d o f doin g so
in a p a rt i cu l a r wa y, n a m ely th rou gh aggressive, u n c o m p r om i s in g
l a w en f or c e m e n t .
Th is is the n ub of the iss ue. The ‘Br ok en Win d o w s ’ t h e o r y
envisages a s olution which includ es the en forcemen t of th e law,
th r ou gh ar res t a nd pr osec u tion w h e r e n e ce s s a r y; b u t it w ill only
b e eff ectiv e if a pp lied in con jun ction w ith a w ide va riety of other
police ta ctics . F u r t h e r i t is o n ly lik e ly t o im p a c t s u cc es s fu l ly a n d
e n du r in gly on th e problem if p u rs u ed in p a rtn ers h ip w ith— a n d
com ple m en ta ry t o — th e w ork of o th er s ocia l a ge n cie s . Th e r e a r e
two iss u es h er e a n d I will d ea l with th em ea ch se pa ra te ly.
The Police Role in Tack ling Disord erly

an d Unte nd ed Neighbourh oods
D ea lin g with t he m inor in civilities as socia ted with ‘Broken
Wind ows ’ is m u ch m o r e complex t h a n it seem s on t h e su rface. In
t h e first place t h e la w in thes e area s is often un clear. Condu ct
which is an ti-social, s u c h a s va gr a n t s lyin g o n t h e e d ge of a

p a ve m en t whe n t he re is s till plenty of room f or p ed e s t r i a n s t o
p a s s , or r o wd y y ou n g s t e r s co n gr ega tin g on pr ivat e p rop er ty o p en
t o a n d a b u t tin g th e r oa d , m a y n o t b e techn ically un lawful, even
if i t ca u s e s o ffe n c e t o o th e r s . People wh o h a ve b een dr in kin g bu t
a r e not dr un k—or, sadly, those wh o are m enta lly distur bed a nd
a c tin g in s t ra n ge wa ys —m a y c a u s e a n xiety to o t h e r s b u t a r e n o t
n e c e s s a r i ly a ctin g illeg a lly. App lyin g t h e la w to t h e d iffe re n t t yp es
of incivility is not th erefore a s traight-forward exercise; n o r, in a
dem ocracy in which p e op le ’s r ig h t s a r e d ee m e d t o b e i m p o r t a n t ,
sh ou ld it be s o.
An d if police do ‘go in h eavy’, w h a t a r e t h e implicatio n s ? E v er y
a r r e s t i n t h e U K t a k e s t h e a r r e s t i n g offi ce r o ff t h e s t r e e t s fo r u p
to fou r h ou r s : is t h a t a s en s ib le u s e of police time? An d w h a t ca n
t h e c o u r t s d o w it h t h is type of offend er: fine them , when they
h a ve little or no mon ey? Or sent ence th em t o im p r i s o n m e n t ,
when t h e p r i s o n s a r e a l r ea d y fu ll, an d a t h u g e c os t to th e
taxpa yer? An d wh a t im p a ct do es h ea vy-h a n d ed po licin g—goin g
righ t u p to t h e lim i ts , or beyon d t h e lim its , of legit im a cy—h a ve on
t h e c o m m u n i t y ; o r o n t h e v a lu e s a n d s t a n d ard s of the police
o ffi ce r s r e qu i re d to ca r r y it ou t ? Is it l ik e ly t o in c r ea s e t ru s t
between police and pu blic, or rath er to destr oy th e very rela tion-
sh ips th a t a re n eed ed for effect ive po licin g?
In fact, t h e policing of ‘in civilit ies ’ requ ires s e ve ra l th in gs. Fir s t,
it requ ires police o ffi ce r s on foot pa trol: m ob ile o ffi ce r s in c a r s a re
insu lated fr o m t h e s t r ee t a t m o s p h e r e a n d u n a b l e t o s ee th e
problems clearly, let alone d eal with th em. Secon d, it requires
t h a t o ffi ce r s on foot pa trol s hou ld be loca l, ident ifiable com m u -
n ity offic e r s who re gu la rly pa trol ‘their p a tc h ’. Only then c a n t h ey
get to know th e people, the problem s a n d th e o ffe n d er s c a u s in g
t h e i n c iv il it i es . T h ir d , i t r e q u i r e s t h a t t h os e o fficer s a re in
s u fficien t nu mb ers—an d pa rt of the sam e ide n t ifiab le p olic e
tea m—to h ave a visible, cons isten t imp act on th e prob lem.
F o u r t h , it requires th e officers to exer c i s e the ir disc ret ion
firm ly a n d effec tive ly. P er s u a s ion will oft en a ch ieve th e d es ire d
outcom e. Wilson a n d Ke ll in g in ‘B r o k en W in d o w s ’ d e s c r ibed h ow
good c o m m u n i t y o ffi ce r s c r ea te th eir own in form a l po licin g
re gim e fo r d ea lin g w it h in civilit ie s , a n d I c a n d o n o be tt er t h a n
qu ote from th eir e ss a y:
Th e people on th e street were ma de u p of ‘regular s’ an d ‘stra ngers ’.
R e gu l a r s includ ed both decen t folk an d som e dr u n k s a n d d e r e li ct s
who were a lwa ys th ere bu t who k new th eir place. Stra ngers were,
well, s t r a n g er s , an d viewed su sp iciou sly, s om etim es ap pr eh en sively.
Th e officer—call him Kelly—kn ew who th e regular s were, an d th ey
kn ew h im . As h e s a w h is job , h e w a s t o k e ep a n e y e o n s t ra n g e rs , a n d
m a k e c er ta in t h a t t h e d i s re p u t a b l e r e gu l a r s o b s e r ve d s o m e in f or m a l
b u t w id e ly u n d e r s to od r u l es .
D r u n k s a n d ad d ic ts cou ld s i t on t h e s t e p s, bu t cou ld n ot lie down .
Peop le cou ld d rin k o n sid e s t r e et s , b u t not at th e m ain int ers ection .
Bottles h a d t o b e in pap er b a g s . Talk in g to, bot h erin g, or be ggin g fro m
pe op le wa itin g at th e b u s s top wa s s tr ict ly fo rb id d en . .. If a s tr a n ge r
l oi te r ed , Ke lly w ou ld a s k h im if h e h ad a n y m e an s of s u p p or t a n d
w h a t h is b u s i n e s s w a s ; if h e ga ve u n s a tis fa c tory a n s w e rs , h e w a s s en t
on his wa y. Persons who br oke th e informal ru les, espec ially th ose
who both ered pe op le w a it in g a t b u s s t o p s, w e re arr ested for va gr a n cy.
Noisy teen agers were t old to keep qu iet. 2
Th e e s s e n c e o f p o li ce t a c t i cs s u c h a s t h e s e i s t he r e gu l a r ,
visible presen ce of th e s a m e p olic e o fficer s on foot pa tr ol, u s in g
their power s of a rr es t a n d pr os ec u tio n in co n ju n ct ion wit h th eir
disc ret ion u n d e r t h e la w , a c t in g fi r m ly b u t f a ir ly a n d u t ilis in g
t h e ir ‘people skills’. They will of cours e ma ke ar rest s a n d
p r o s e c u t e p e o p le ; b u t t h a t will b e only for overt or persisten t
brea ches o f t h e law an d u su ally as a last resort wh en oth er
m et h od s ha ve failed. They will liaise effectively with other
agencies ; a n d w o r k c lo s e ly wi t h o t h e r s p e c ia l is t p o l ic e d e p a r t -
m e n t s c h a rge d w it h inves tigatin g an d p reven ting m ore s eriou s
c r im e s u ch a s d ru g de a ling, bu rgla ry a n d r ob be ry, b y p r ovid in g
t h e c r it ic a l in t e llig en c e a n d i n fo r m a t io n t h e y n e e d .
Policing and Partne rship

Th e s e c o n d i s s u e i s a b o u t p a r t n e rs h ip. No m a tt er h ow e ffect ive
t h e police a r e in t a ck lin g t h e s e problems on t h eir own, t h e r e s ults
a r e u n lik ely to b e s u cces sfu l or las ting u nles s t he y work in close
par tner sh ip with t he oth er pu blic service agencies.
Th is is b e ca u s e t h e vis ib le sign s of d e ca y a n d d is o rd e rlin e s s in
a ne ighbou rh ood often ha ve ma ny in ter linked cau ses , all of
which need to be ta ckled in a co-ord ina ted way. Police efforts on
their own will h a ve lit tle im p a ct if t h e y d ea l e ffe c t iv el y w it h t h e
d r u n k s , th e vagran ts a nd th e an ti-s oc ia l gr ou p s of you t hs , b u t
t h e n e igh b ou r h oo d is still sca rred with broken win d o ws , bo a rd ed
u p b u i ld i n gs , d e r e li ct c a r s , g r a ffi t i a n d l i tt e r .
Th is re qu ire s clos e w or k in g r ela tio n s h ip s be tw ee n th e p olic e
a n d a l a r g e n u m b e r o f ot h e r a g e n c i e s : t h e local refu se c ollection
service; t h e h igh wa ys a u th orit y; th e edu cat ion a n d youth d e p a r t -

m e n t s ; th e ga s a n d ele ct ric ity u tilit ies ; t h e s oc ia l s e r vic es a n d
pr oba tion d e p a r t m e n t s ; th e p la n n i n g d ep a r t m e n t ; a n d m a n y
o th e r s .
But t h e p u r p o s e i s n o t j u s t to ens ur e tha t th e ph ysical
en vironm ent is a tten ded to pr op er ly. Ma n y of t h e problems of th e
n e igh b ou r h oo d will be e xa cer ba te d b y ot h e r is s u e s : t h e la c k o f
s u i t a b le a m e n it ie s , p a r t i c u la r l y for youn g people; p oor light in g a t
n i g h t , pa rt icu lar ly in a re as wh er e p eop le feel u n sa fe; t h e p re s -
ence of in d ivid u a ls or fa m ilies with sp ecial pr oblem s; or of
n e i gh b o u r s w h o a r e c o n s t a n t l y ‘a t w a r ’ w it h e a c h o t h e r ; t h e
failu re t o a p p ly crim e pr event ion p rinc iples in th e des ign of
b u ild in gs or of op en s p a ce ; or th e fa ilu re of s om e loc a l pu b lic
s e r vic es , t h r ou g h fe a r o r d is o rga n is a t io n , to p r o vid e t h e com m u -
n i t y s u p p o r t t h a t is n e e d e d .
T h e r e a r e a w h o l e r a n g e of i s s u e s t h a t c a n o n l y b e t a c k le d if
agencies po ol t h eir in form a tio n , a n d join to get h er in s ee k in g
com m on, c ons istent s olutions. This is the clas sic problem-
oriented a p p r o a c h t o p o lic in g a s e xp r essed b y t h e h igh ly in flu en -
t ia l Amer ican a cadem ic Herman Goldstein in h i s b oo k Prob lem
Orie n te d Policin g. 3
T h e r e are th erefor e im p or ta n t contra s t s o f e m p h a s i s a n d s t y le
between ‘Zer o Tole ra n ce ’ a n d p ro b lem -o rie n te d p olic in g. Th e
form er im p lie s em p h a s i s on st ron g law en forcem en t a nd u se of
t h e forma l crim ina l jus tice system; th e latter sees the p olice
u s in g a m u ch wider variety of tactics to a c h ie ve t h eir ob je ct ive s ,
w or k in g closely in h ar m ony with th e local com m u n it y a n d
a gen cie s , s ee k in g th e u n d er lyin g ca u s es of p ro b lem s a n d tr yin g
t o solve them for th e longer term , r a th e r t h a n m er ely d ea lin g
s u p e r fi ci a ll y w it h t h e s y m p t o m s . Th i s , in f a c t , is t h e p h ilo so ph y
which we pu rsu e in my own force, the Tham es Valley Police: we
call it, simp ly, ‘problem- s olv in g po licin g’.
It is now app ropriate to look more closely at th e New York
experience, to a na l ys e w hich of these s trat egies h ave been
a p p lie d , a n d t h o s e fa c t o r s w h i c h h a v e in f lu e n c e d t h e r e d u c t i on s
in c r im e a n d t h e improvements in p u b l ic safety a n d reas su ran ce.
T h e Ne w Y o r k E x p e r i e n c e
An y com m en ta ry on policing in New York m u st s t a r t w i t h its
u n i qu e n e s s . ‘Th e Big Apple’ is an exception ally lar ge city, and a
v er y complex one, b y a lm o s t a n y m e a s u r e one cou ld wish to us e.

Its police force, the NYPD, is a v a s t o r g a n i s a t i on w h i c h b y vi r t u e
of its v er y size a n d n a t u r e is bou nd to tend t o wa r d s bu reau cracy ,
long lin e s o f a c co u n ta b ilit y, a h ie ra r ch ica l s t r u c t u r e a n d a
c u l t u r e r es is t a n t to cha nge. Th is is a b ig c h a llenge for a n y n ew ly-
a p p o i n t e d C om m i s s io n e r .
When W illia m B r a t t o n t oo k ov er in 1 9 9 4 , cr ime a nd disorder
w e r e s u ch t h a t it a p p ea r ed a c it y o u t of c on t r ol. Th e cr im e p ea k
of th e 19 80s , which he in her ited, was hi gher t h a n a n y w h e r e else
in Am e r ic a . H e vivid ly r e co u n t s in h i s ow n es s a y t h e p er va s ive
a t m o s p h e r e of d e ca y, disorder a n d c r im i n a lit y w h ic h greeted h im
when h e a rrive d to h ead th e City’s Tran sit Police in 1 990 , a
s it u ation which still prevailed fou r y ea r s later on h is a p p ointm en t
t o t h e C o m m i s s i on e r p o s t .
Th e NYPD itself, too, was in a s tate of inefficiency a n d co n fu -
sion . Wh ils t i t h a d r e c e n t l y been fun ded to re cru it an ad dition al
seven t h ou s a n d police officer s , it was still riddled with m a n y lazy ,
in effect ive a n d — in s om e c a s e s —c or r u p t s t a ff, wh o for fa r too lon g
h a d be en u n a cc ou n ta ble a n d d em ot iva ted . Th e Mo llen Com m is -
sion h a d r e p o r t e d o n t h e i n s u l a r cu lt u re a n d m isplaced loyalties
p r eva le n t a m on g its police officer s . Th e D ep a rt m en t w a s a ls o in
a c on f u s e d state followin g t h e va lian t bu t u ns u cces sfu l efforts of
Bra tton ’s p r e d e c e s s o r s to in jec t c om m u n i ty policing in to e ve r yd a y
working practices.
Bra tton was faced with a crisis. Wha t was need ed wa s
in s p ir a t io n a l le a d e r s h ip , a h u g e s h a k e - u p o f a t t i tu d e s a n d
accou nta bilities a n d a m u ch c lea r e r sen se of direc tion. Bra tton
provided all thr ee in large meas ur e.
Or ga n isa tion a lly, h e in tr od u ced r e fo r m s to b r in g t h e NYPD in to
t h e 1 9 90 s . All o f h is r eforms concern ing organisationa l stru c-
tu res a n d lin es of resp onsibility—devolvement of r e s po n s ibility to
precinct c om m a n d e r s , t h e r e- a lignm en t of resou rces u n d e r t h os e
c om m a n d e r s , a n d t h e i r a c c e s s ib i li t y to in for m at ion a bou t
in t e rn a l investigations within their precinct s—were mea su res
which po lice forc es in t h e UK, a n d m a n y in th e US, h ad intr o-
d u ced m a n y ye a rs be fore . Th ey w er e lon g ove rd u e a n d h e d id
t h e m q u i c k ly .
In t e r m s of mot iva t io n , B ra t to n m ove d t o in s t il t ru s t a n d
emp owermen t in h is o ffi ce r s which were la ckin g. Und er p reviou s
régimes, d r u g a r r e sts on th e street h ad b een discou raged
b e ca u s e of the fear of p olic e c or ru p tio n s h ou ld po lice officer s b e

allowed clos e c on t a ct wit h d r u g d ea le r s . S im ila r fea r s la y b eh in d
t h e d enial to detectives of access to ma jor compu ter syst ems
co n ta in in g inform a tion a n d intelligence which wou ld a s s is t them .
Th e s e policies e p i t om i s e d t h e n o n - i n t e r v e n t io n i s t a t t it u d e
towa r d s dru g dealing, van dalism a nd low-level disorder which
pervaded th e NYPD. Bra tton moved fa s t to c h a n ge th e s e a r o u n d .
To im pr ove a cco u n ta bility, B r a t t o n i n t r o d u c e d t h e C o m p s t a t
m e e t i n g. Th is i s t h e gr a n d t h e a t r e w h e r e p r ec in c t c o m m a n d e r s
a r e called to acco u n t for their recen t w or k , a n d encou raged (s om e
wou ld s a y browbea ten) to furth er e ffo rt s . Th e C o m p s t a t meetings
a ls o reflect th e em ph as is on st at istica l an alysis which Bra tton
br ou gh t to NYPD. Th ere are c le a r benefits to t h is results-oriente d
style, n o t l ea s t o f wh i c h i s t h a t it con c e n t r a t e s t h e m i n d o n t h e
m a n t r a of Ja ck Ma ple (Brat ton ’s c h a r i s m a t ic De p u t y): in fo rm a -
tion, d e p lo ym e n t , t a c t ic s a n d follow- u p. Th ey a re a n effect ive
m e a n s o f d i r e ct i n g a n d c o n c e n t r a t i n g p o li ce e ffo r t .
Th e fin a l lin k in B r a tt on ’s r e fo rm s w a s t o give NYPD m ore
confiden ce in its elf, an d a m uch clearer sen se of purp ose. He
defined the ta sk of NYPD as ‘to redu ce crime, d is or d er a n d fe a r ’
a n d ens ur ed everyone knew it. There is no m ore su ccinct way of
s e tt in g a police miss ion , an d indeed thes e are th e words wh ich
we n ow u s e in Th a m es Valle y Police a s pa rt of ou r o wn or ga n is a -
tio n a l ‘Aim’.4
Th e significance of t h is des cript ion of t h e police role s h ou ld n ot
b e overlooked. Ma n y p e op le—inclu din g ma ny p olice office r s —s ee
t h e fun ction of the p olice as b eing almost ex clu sively focu sed on
d e t e c t in g c r im e a n d c r im in a ls . Th is wa s ep it om is e d b y t h e
b la n d —a n d w r o n g—s t a t e m e n t i n t h e r e c e n t W h it e P a p e r on
Police R e fo r m t h a t ‘t h e m a in j o b of t h e p o li ce is t o c a t c h c r im -
in a ls ’. 5
Th e k e y elements of the NYPD and Tham es Valley Police
‘m is s io n ’ statem ents a r e that, firs tly, both u s e th e te rm ‘r ed u c in g
crime’. This of cours e includes within it the detection of crime,
b u t it a ls o in clu d es cr im e pr eve nt ion a n d b roa d er m et h o d s of
r ed u c in g cr im e. Se co n d ly, b ot h in clu d e t h e c r it i ca l n e e d ‘t o
redu ce disorder a nd fear’. These tw o t h in g s a r e , o f c o u r s e , t h e
k ey p r o b l em s a s s o c i a t ed with t h e ‘Broken Wind ows’ th eor y. Th ey
reflect t h e d e b i li t a t in g fea r o f c r im e a n d d i s o r d e r —a s o p p o s e d t o
its act u ality—th at m an y people feel, a l b e it s uch fear is often
d i s p r o p o r t io n a t e to t h e a ct u a l ris k o f bec om in g a cr i m e vict im .

Th e NYPD m i s s io n s t a te m en t is t h er efo re a ll e m br a cin g a n d goes
to t h e ver y h ea rt of policin g.
T h e r e c a n b e n o d ou bt th at , th rou gh h is reform s, Br at ton
br ou gh t en ergy, comm itmen t, accou nta bility, higher mora le a n d
a sen se of direction b ack into NYPD. An i n s p i r a t io n a l le a d e r , h e
ga ve t h e o rg a n is a tio n a h u ge s h a k e- u p . Ne w York wa s in cr is is ;
t h e r e wa s h ea vy politica l pr es su re for ch an ge; a n d s h or t - t e r m
r e s u l ts — p re fe r a b ly big ones —were needed. His ‘no n onsen se’
app roach an d su perb ch arism atic s k ills with t h e m e d i a pr ovided
t h e s t r o n ge s t p os s i b le le a d t o h i s p oli ce o ffi ce r s , a n d i n d e e d t o
t h e people of New York. Br a t to n pr o vi d ed j u s t w h a t N e w Yo r k
ne eded at th e tim e an d s hou ld be c ongr at u lated on d oing s o.
T h e r e a re h owe ver tw o q u es tio n s wh ich s till r em a in to b e
an swered a bou t t h i s u n d o u b t e d s u c c e s s . H ow fa r d o the figur es
reflect tru e improvemen t s i n t h e c r im e r a t e a n d i n c o m m u n i t y
s a f e t y? An d w h a t a r e t h e fu t u re im p l i ca t i o n s fo r t h e N YP D of t h e
reform program me?
W h a t D o t h e F ig u r e s Me a n ?
Wh ils t n o - o n e c a n d o u b t t h a t t h in gs h a ve im p r o v ed s i gn i fi ca n t l y
a n d qu ick ly in New York —re co rd ed leve ls o f c r ime h ave fallen
a n d p e o p le d o fe e l s a f e r —I h a v e t o e xp r e s s d o u b t s a b o u t t h e fu ll
significance o f t h e s t a t i s t ic s . Th e r e a r e m a n y s oc ie t a l fa c t or s , a s
we ll a s p olic in g, wh ic h a ffect cr ime levels, a nd it is difficult t o be
s u r e wh ich ch a n ges h a ve b ro u gh t w h ich re s u lt. For ex a m p le, it
is s u gges te d by s om e c om m en ta to rs th a t c h a n ges in t h e c r a ck -
co ca in e m ar ket ha ve influen ced t he pos ition in New Yo r k . I lea ve
t h a t d e b a t e t o t h o s e m o s t q u a l ifi ed t o c o m m e n t .
T h e r e is however an other is s u e, a n d t h a t is a bou t th e a c cu r a cy
of t h e c r im e figur es . Cou n tin g crimes is a n o t or io u s ly un scientific
p r oc es s . Th e r e a r e a l wa y s d i ffe r e n t w a ys o f i n t e r p r et in g c r im e
d efin it io n s e ve n w i t h t h e b e s t of in te n tio n s . B u t, a d d itio n a lly, in
NYPD t h e re h a s b ee n a h u g e p r es s u r e for sta tistically-based
r e s u l t s driven by an un compr omising, ru thless ma na gement
style, epitomised b y th e C om p s ta t m ee tin g. Wh ils t it is es s en tia l
t o h a ve e ffe c t iv e p r o c e s s e s w it h which to h old operational police
c o m m a n d e r s to account, t h e r e a r e h u g e r is k s a n d d a n g e r s i f i t is
overdone.
Th is r e m i n d s m e o f m y o w n e a r l y s e r v ic e in L on d o n i n t h e
1 9 6 0 s , w h en a s im ila r cu l tu r e p er va d e d t h e Me tr op olit a n
Polic e—p u tt in g t oo m u c h em p h a s is o n qu a n t i t y r a t h er t h a n
quality, on in t e rn a l accounta bility rath er t h a n wider a c c ou n t a b i l-
ity to the p ub lic. My firs t effort as a pr obationer con sta ble at
r e c or d in g a c r im e wa s a va lu a b l e le s s on in r e s u lts -oriented
g a t h e r in g of police stat istics. Trem u lous ly entering th e ha llowed
d om a in of t h e CID office, I was fixed with a glare b y the Detective
I n s p e c t or . ‘Wh a t do yo u wa n t ?’ h e d e m a n d e d . ‘I a m ju s t p u tt in g
a t h e ft in t h e C r im e B oo k , Sir’. ‘Is it d e t ec t e d ?’ c on t i n u e d t h e DI.
‘No, Sir’ I replied. ‘Well, son, we only put detect ed c r im e s in m y
c r im e b o o k . I d o n ’t n e e d y o u r r e p o r t , t h a n k y o u ’. Th a t w a s i t .
Since t h a t t im e , I a m g la d t o s a y, ethical sta nd ard s h ave risen
t o a ve ry h igh s t a n da r d w it h in t h e Metrop olitan Police. However,
wher e t h e r e i s s u c h c l e a r p r e s s u r e t o p r o d u c e a s p e c i fi c r e s u l t ,
for e x a m p l e a n i n c r e a s e i n d e t ection s or a fall in recorded crim e,
t h e r e will be a com m en su ra te te m pt at ion t o ma nipu late figures
in order to ach ieve the ‘right’ res u l t . ‘T h e n u m b e r s g a m e ’, a s i t is
c a lled b y m a n y New Yo r k o ffi ce r s , m a y produ ce t h e figur es wh ic h
su ggest a d e s ir a b l e outcom e. But t h e e m p h a s is on t h e figur es , a s
oppos ed to th e ou tcom es, is th e prob lem.
Th is i s p a r t ic u l a r ly d a n ge r ou s i n a n y fo r ce t h a t h a s h a d a
problem w it h c o r r u p t i o n : t h e c o n fr o n t a t i o n a l a t m o s p h ere of
C o m p s t a t , wit h it s ‘wa r r oom ’ a n d its s h or t c ycle s of re view , is
n o t likely to encou rage accu rate a nd ethica l r e p or t in g . Th is is
p a r t i cu l a r l y s o wh en th er e s ee m s to be n o s et of co m p en s a tin g
orga nis at ion a l va lu e s , in c or p or a tin g t h e vita l qua lities of h o n es ty
a n d i n t e gr i t y, a r t i cu l a t e d a n d c o n s t a n t l y e m p h a s i s e d fr o m t h e
top a n d d r i v en d o w n t h r o u g h th e or ga n is a t io n ’s m a n a ge m en t
stru ctu re. I f i t is c o m m o n l y t h o u g h t t h a t s o m e s e n i or o ffi ce r s
overlook m inor t ra ns gres sion s in re co rd in g cr im e, wh y s h ou ld
jun ior officers n o t fin d it a c c ep t a b le to b en d t h e ru les when givin g
e vi d e n c e in c o u r t ?
Ma n a ge m e n t a ccoun tab ility is somet hing we ha ve been
gr a pp lin g with in my own force, where we too h a v e r e c e n t ly
in tr od u ced n e w p r o c e s s e s . In a d d i t io n t o d e t a iled performa nce
in for m a t i on p u b l i s h e d e a c h m o n t h , P o li ce Ar e a C o m m a n d e r s
r ece ive a d a y - l on g v is i t e ve r y fo u r m o n t h s f r o m t h e As s i s t a n t
Chief C on s t a b l e (Te rr it or ia l Policing) who g oes th rou gh t h e Ar ea ’s
performan ce in gr ea t d et a il. Th is i s n o t jus t ab out cr ime levels
a n d d e t e c t io n r a t e s , a l t h o u g h t h a t i s o f c o u r s e i m p o r t a n t . It
c o ve r s th e wh ole r a n ge of po licin g, p a rticu larly crim e red u ction

a n d p a r t n e r s h i p in i t ia t i ve s , t o ge t h e r wit h co n ce rn s s u c h a s
c om p la in t s a ga in s t po lice , s ick n es s leve ls a n d t h e m a n a ge m en t
o f b u d g et s .
How the Police Area h as performed is lin k ed to th e Area
C o m m a n d e r ’s per son al a nn u al a pp ra isa l: however, a m ajor
difference fr o m Ne w Yo r k is t h a t t h e s yst em is n ot a ll on e wa y.
Th e Area Com ma nd er can expect p e r s o n a l c o a c h i n g a n d h e l p t o
ach ieve t h e A rea’s objectives, an d pra ctical sup port a nd ‘best
pra ctice’ ad vice are ava ilable from th e var ious H ea d q u a r t e r s
C o n s u l t a n c y De p a r t m e n t s .
Th e issu e of accou nta bility leads us back to the s econd k ey
qu est ion. Wh a t a re th e im p lica tio n s for t h e o ver a ll s t y l e of
policing in t r odu ced by the NYPD reforms ; and is improvemen t
s u s t a i n a b l e fo r t h e lo n g er t e r m ?
W h a t a r e t h e P ol i c i n g Im p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e F u t u r e ?
Wh ils t s o m e o f t h e fo r m a l po lic ie s o f NYP D a r e c le a r ly a im e d a t
c om m u n i ty policing, t h e rh etor ic beh ind th e ch an ges d oes n ot
ma tch u p with t he d eeds . I h a ve a l r ea d y d e s cr ib e d th e em p h a s i s
on en forcem en t a nd aggres sive policing; of confron ta tiona l
a c c o u n t a b i li t y system s; an d th e o v e r- e m p h a s i s o n q u a n t i t a t iv e
s t a t is t ic a l m e a s u r es wit h ou t c om p e n s a tin g qu a l it a t ive d a ta . No
ma tter h o w fa r t h e w r i t t e n p o li ci es t a l k a b o u t c o m m u n i t y
po licin g, if the valu es an d syst ems o f t h e organ isa tion d o not
s u p p o r t it—or worse, as app ears to be th e case in NYPD, they
a c tu a l ly con flict with it—then a com m u nity s tyle of policin g is
doomed to failure.
Th e consequ e n c e s of th a t c ou ld b e s er iou s. Fir st ly, a lth ou gh
st ron g en forc em en t t a ct ics ob ta in good re s u lts in th e e a rly
s t a ge s —a s t h e y c le a r ly h a v e in Ne w Yo rk —t h e re co m es a t i m e
when t h o s e s e c t i on s o f t he c o m m u n i t y w h o fe e l t h e y b e a r t h e
b r u n t will b ec om e a lie n a t ed fr om t h e police. La w enforcemen t on
its own h a s on ly lim ite d capacity to d e a l with crime, d i s or d er a n d
fe a r . O n e c a n go s o fa r i n a p p l yi n g ‘Z e r o T ol er a n c e ’ b u t t h e t im e
will com e wh en it is n ot e n ou gh , a n d it is s een n ot t o b e en ou gh .
Th en ‘Zer o Toler a n ce’ will be com e p os itively co u n t e r -produ ctive.
It m a y t h e n b e too late. Firstly, the police will have lost tou ch
w it h t h e com m u n i t y. Co n fid e n ce will h a ve d ra in e d a wa y.
Ten s ion s will h a ve r is en . It will t h en n e e d o n l y a s p a r k t o ig n i t e
ser ious d is o r d er , a s h a p p e n e d i n L os An g e le s fo ll ow in g t h e
Rodney Kin g c a se . We kn o w a b ou t t h es e t h in gs i n E n g la n d t o o .
Th ey ha ppen ed in ou r own in n e r cities in t h e 1 9 8 0 s , a n d we h a ve
le a rn e d h a r d le s so n s o f o u r o wn . 6
Se con dly, t h e c u l t u r e of t h e o r ga nisation is a ll im p or ta n t to th e
va lu e s of in d i vi d u a l p o li ce o ffi ce r s . If t h e p r e s s u r e fo r r e s u l t s
b r in gs d u b io u s p r a ct ic es in t h e r e c o r d in g o f c r im e , w h a t i s t h e
ne xt st age? Sim ilar pr oblem s will spr ead to oth er a sp ects of
po licin g. It w ill s p ill ove r in to th e w a y in wh ich po lice officer s
r eg a r d an d tr eat th e comm u nity. In th e words of a New Yor k
Police Se rge a n t: ‘Th ey’re yellin g a n d p oin tin g finger s a t m e a t
H ea d q u a r t er s . I come b ac k a n d y e ll a n d p o i n t fi n g er s a t m y
people. They th en go on th e str eets an d do t he s am e th ing’.
But it will p r o b a b ly go furth er th an th at . It will lead inexor a b ly
to t h e fa ls ifyin g of e vid e n ce in c ou r t . Co rr u p t io n will s t art, a n d it
co u ld s p r e a d li k e a c a n c e r t h r o u g h t h e o r g a n i s a t i on . I t is n o t a
qu est ion of ‘if’, bu t rat her a ques tion of ‘when ’.
Th is , th en , is th e c h a llen ge fa cin g New York for th e fu tu re . If
t h e NYPD is to s u s ta in its im p ro vem en t—a n d if it is to a void th e
r is k of co m m u n ity dis or d er a n d of in te rn a l cor ru p tio n —it w ill
need to look ca refu lly at its or gan isa tiona l cu ltu re , a t it s s tyle
a n d it s m e th o d s of w or k in g. If the p olice on th eir own seek to
t a k e t h e cr e dit n o w fo r r e du c t io n s in c r i m e — if t h ey u s e th e
te rm in ology ‘I’ or ‘we the p o l ic e ’ r ath er th an ‘we the police
w or k in g w it h our com mu nities’—so they will be th e ones t o
a tt ra ct th e b lam e if it a ll goes wro n g.
I n o w t u r n t o c on s id e r w h a t w e i n t h e U K c a n le a rn fr om t h e
experience o f ‘Z er o Toler a n ce ’; b u t t o d o t h a t it is n e ce s s a r y fir s t
t o c on t r a s t p olic in g in New York wit h th a t of t h e U K.
T h e Di s t i n c t i o n s B e t w e e n P ol i c i n g
i n Ne w Y o r k a n d t h e U K
Th e fi r s t a n d m o s t s i gn i fi ca n t d iffe r e n c e is t h e e n v i r on m e n t i n
which p o lic in g ta k e s p l a c e . T h is i s o f c o u r s e v e r y d i ffe r e n t i n t h e
US, quite a p a r t from t h e s p e cia l c on d i tions of New York . Not onl y
a r e socia l prob lems on a d i ffe r e n t s c a l e b u t t h e whole n at u re of
p olicin g is s k e we d b y t h e a va ila b ilit y a n d le ga lit y o f fir e a rm s .
Th u s t h e i n n e r - c it y p r ob l em s o f cr i m e a n d d i s o r der i n t h e la r g e
u r b a n c onu rba tions are even m ore deep -sea ted t ha n ou r own;
a n d t h e pr open sity for violen t cr ime—a nd fear of crim e—is on a

completely different scale.
As w e h a ve s ee n , t h e p r o b le m s f a c in g Ne w Yo r k in 1 9 9 4 w e r e
even bigger th an th at . By way of exam ple, in c o m p a r i s o n w it h
Lo n d on (a city of similar size), New York h ad n ine times a s m a n y
m u r d e r s ;7 a n d t wic e a s m a n y rap es a n d r ob b e rie s .8 Th e feelin g of
vulnerability a n d insecurity of New York’s citizens was ju s t i fia b ly
h igh .
In ter m s of policing re sou rces too, New York ha d m an y mor e
police office rs a va ila b le t h a n Lon d on . Th a t w a s s o e v en b e f or e
New York gained a fur ther 7,000 officers in th e e a r l y 199 0s . At
t h e time Bra tton took o ve r , of th e UK forces only the Roya l Ulste r
Con st a bu lar y—a force faced with policing a c om m u n i ty in a s ta te
of vir t u a l civil war — h a d a s i m i la r r a t i o o f p o li ce o ffi ce r s t o
pop u lation (1 : 200 ). The Metrop olitan Police ha ve one o ffi ce r t o
e ve r y 2 5 3 m e m b e r s of t h e p op u la t io n .9 F u r th e r a fie ld , in Th a m es
Valle y w e h a v e o n e o ffi ce r fo r e ve r y 5 3 3 m e m b e r s o f t h e p op u la -
tion. Remem b e r t o o t h a t U K p ol ic e fo r c es c a r r y o u t t h e e xt r a
roles provided in the US by a plethora of other a gencies su ch a s
t h e F B I, D E A, ATF, Secr et Se rvice a n d o th er s. So t h es e a re h u ge
va r ia t io n s i n t h e r a t i o of p o li ce t o p o p u l a t io n . C le a r l y t h e r e is a
direct lin k b et we en t h e in t e n s i t y o f r e s ou r c e s a v a ila b l e to police
c o m m a n d e r s an d th e efficacy o f t h e policing solutions th ey
imp leme nt , wh at ever s tyle of policing th ey ad opt .
Th e o t h e r fu n d a m en ta l differ en ce be tw ee n US a n d En glis h
policing is in t r a d it io n . P er h a p s th e cle a re s t re flect ion of th is is
t h a t if o n e s p e a k s t o U S p olic e offic e r s , t h e y w ill o ft e n d e s c rib e
them selves a s b e i n g ‘i n la w e n f or c e m e n t ’, in c o n t r a s t t o t h e
t r a d it iona l UK view of police a s ‘k e e p e r s of t h e pea ce’. The ide a of
t h e ‘Sove re ign ’s p ea ce ’ ca n be tr a ce d ba ck to th e d a ys of Kin g
Al fr e d a n d t h e p r e s e r v a t i on o f t h e pe a ce h a s b ee n t h e t a s k b o t h
of com m u n ities a n d o f police to t h is d a y.
Th e m os t s u cc in ct s ta te m en t o f wh a t c om m u n ity po licin g
m e a n s in t h e 1 9 90 s is p ro vid ed b y t h e O p e r a tio n a l Polic in g
Review:
Br itish t r a d i t io n a l p o li ci n g is r e la t ively low on n u m b e r s , low on powe r
a n d high on accou nt ability; it is u nd erta ken with pu blic consen t
which does not m e a n a cq u ie s ce n ce b u t a br oa d tole ra n ce in dic at in g
a s a t i sfa c t i on w ith b o th t h e h elp in g a n d enforcemen t roles o f policin g.
Its stru ctu re allows the p ub lic to expres s t h e ir p o li ci n g wa n t s a n d
need s a n d th rou gh ch an ges in so cia l at tit u de s a n d m et h od s o f soc ial

contr ol may occu r, th e cultu re of policing rema ins in tact .
Th a t cu ltu re is e pit omised b y t h e s in g l e c o n s t a b l e , c lo s e t o t h e
com m u n ity, pa tr olling t h e b e a t w ith t h e cons ent of t h e ge ne ra l p u b l ic,
ar me d on ly with la wful power s a nd th e u se of dis cret ion. 1 0
Alt hou gh w e in B r i t a in w e n t t h rou gh t h e ‘p r ofe s s io n a l e ra ’ a s
descr ibed by Bratton —more officer s t a k in g t o c a r s , m o r e r e m o t e
c o m p u t e r is e d comm an d an d contr ol systems —the local touch
n e ve r d is a p p e a r e d .
Le s t B r it i s h p o li ce o ffi ce r s s h o u l d fe e l t o o s u p e r io r , we sh ou ld
be a ware th at it is ou r tra ns atla nt ic cous ins wh o h a ve provided
m o s t of th e in n o vative thinking ab out com mu nity policing over
t h e la s t two d e ca d e s . It w a s Ke llin g a n d Wilson , a s we h a ve seen ,
who d e ve lo p ed t h e id e a s b e h in d ‘B r o k e n W in d o w s ’ a r o u n d t h e
fictitiou s c om m u n i ty b e a t officer ‘Kelly’ in New a rk , Ne w J er s ey in
19 82 ; an d Pr ofessor Herm an Golds tein , from Ma dison , Wiscon -
s in , is the ‘father’ of problem-oriented policing w h i c h is n ow
r a p i d ly ga in in g cur rency in t h e US, a n d to s om e extent in t h e UK.
It is t h er efo re so m ew h at ir on ic th a t th e c on c e p t o f ‘Z er o To le r -
an ce’—which h a s lit tle of t h e d ep t h an d in t egr ity of eith er of
t h e s e tw o p h ilos op h ies —s h ou ld b e th e on e t h a t h a s c re a te d t h e
cu rr en t m ed ia d eb a te a bo u t p olicin g.
Th e s ign ifi c a n c e of ou r d iffere n t p olic in g tr a d itio n s is th a t, in
a lim it e d s e n s e , ‘Z e r o T ol er a n c e ’ h a s a l w a ys b e e n p a r t o f t h e
E n glis h policing tr ad ition. As we h ave s een ab ove, ‘Zero Tole r -
a n c e’ in New York su ggest s t a c k ling low-level disor der an d
in civilit ie s , albe it th rou gh a na rrow, aggres sive an d u nc om pr o-
m is in g la w e n forc em en t a p p ro a ch . Ta ck lin g ‘b r ok e n win d o ws ’ is
s om e th in g th at h as alwa ys h a p p e n e d i n E n g l is h p o li ci n g : i t is
j u s t t h a t w e u s e a differ en t w a y of ex p la in in g it. In En gla n d it is
e n s h r i n e d in t h e c o n c e p t of ‘t h e B o b b y on t h e B e a t ’.
Wh y is it t h a t e ver yon e w a n ts to s ee th eir loca l ‘Bob b y’? It is
precisely be ca u s e t h ey d ea l wit h th e in civilit ies, th e low-level
disorder a n d va n d alis m th at u nd erm ine qua lity of life. Citizens
feel rea s s u r ed wh en th ey see him or h er on foot patrol becau se
they s e n s e t h a t t h in g s a r e in co n tr ol, t h a t in civilit ies will b e d e a lt
w it h e ffe c t iv el y a n d s t r e e t s k e p t s a f e. Th ey s en s e t h a t t h eir
p r e sen ce, wit h s u fficien t n u m b er s a n d re gu la rit y, w ill h e lp
redu ce the likelihood of crime.
Wh a t th ey d o n ot wa n t t o s ee , h owe ver , is police officers who
feel no a llegiance t o the ir comm u nity, wh o ap p ea r to h ave n o

disc ret ion ab ou t a rre st ing or p ros ecu ting offen d e r s , a n d w h os e
‘Z er o Toler a n ce ’ a tt itu de is dic ta to ria l, in flexib le a n d o pp re s s ive.
It is t h e s e v ery fea tu re s wh ich , wh en th ey h a ve o cc u rr ed in
B r it is h policing history (for exam ple, in th e 198 0s), have alien-
a t e d t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d r e s u l t e d i n c or r u p t i on a n d r i ot s .
In fa c t t h e ‘B o b b y o n t h e B eat’ h a s t h i s la s t y ea r b e e n a m e d ia
s t o r y too; but n o-one ha s conn ected th e issu e with ‘Zero Toler-
a n c e’. It h a s b ee n of m e d ia in t e re s t b e ca u s e of t h e c on s t a n t
d em a n d b y t h e p u b l ic fo r m o re p olic e offic e r s to b e p r o vid e d b y
governm ent for vis ib le p olice pa trol, reflected in t h e comm itmen ts
of b o t h m a i n p o li t ic a l p a r t i es t o in c r e a s e t h e p o l ic i n g bu dget. It
is a con st an t th em e in t he m ind s of c h i e f const ables a s th ey
s t r u g g le t o b a la n c e t h e d e m a n d f or p olic in g a m on g t h e m a n y
pres su res they face. An d it is reflect e d in t h e debate generat ed b y
t h e re ce n t Au d it C om m is s ion pu b lica tio n ‘St re et wis e’, 1 1 which
d e a lt with the wh ole iss ue of the ‘Bobbies on th e Beat’, why they
a r e s o i m p o r t a n t a n d t h e e f fe c t iv en e s s o f t h e ir d e p l oy m e n t .
Th e k e y t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e li n k s b e t w e e n ‘B o b b ie s o n t h e
B e a t ’ an d ‘Zero Toleran ce’ is to ana lyse wha t ha ppen ed in New
Yo r k . ‘Zero Tolerance’ p r o b a b l y d i d p la y a p a r t i n a r ed u c tio n in
crime, in t h e s en s e t h at wh a t h a d p r e s u m a b l y b e e n a l lo w e d t o
occur on th e s tr ee ts , in te rm s of in civilitie s a n d d is o rd e r, wa s
v er y serious an d n eeded to be a ddres s e d. In d eed t he lack of
con trol of the s tre ets was at crisis poin t, m ar ked ly more ser ious
t h a n a n y c om p a r a b l e situation in t h e UK, even ta kin g accou nt of
ou r mos t difficult inner city areas . When Br a t t o n a p p lie d b a s ic
m a n a ge m en t p r i n c ip l e s t o s h a k e u p t h e NYP D , t h e r e fo r e , t h e
scop e to m ake im provemen ts ou t on th e streets was h uge an d
excellent r es u lt s th a n k fu lly—a n d p e r h a p s in e vit a b ly —o cc u r r e d .
But t wo th ings m u st not be forgott en . Firs tly, Bra tton ha d a t
h is disp osa l a h u ge nu m ber of police o ffi ce r s . Th e p r o b lem o f t h e
p a s t was th at th ey ha d n ot b ee n m ot iva te d or dir ec te d in a n y
k in d of co-ordinated wa y, s o t h e fa ct of u tilis in g them m u ch m or e
effect ively brou ght th e desired res ult. Bu t it is import an t to get
t h is in p e r s p e ct iv e. An e x t r a 7 ,0 0 0 police o ffi ce r s is a n en orm ou s
n u m b e r: I wond er wha t th e Metropolitan Police in London wou ld
ach ieve with 7 , 0 0 0 e x t r a Bobbies p a tr ollin g t h e str eets of London .
Sim ila r ly in Th a m es Valley, a proportionate in c r ea s e of 8 7 0 e x t r a
o ffi ce r s on t op of ou r exist ing 3,8 00 wou ld pr ovide en orm ou s
pot e n t ia l to increas e pu blic sa fety and redu ce crime mu ch
furth er t h a n w e h a v e a l r ea d y a c h ie ve d —a l m o s t b e yo n d m y
wildest ima gina tion!
Th e second point is tha t an y imp roveme n t s , p a rticu larly on
s u ch a p e a k of h igh crime an d disorder , are likely to be g ov er n e d
b y t h e l a w of d i m i n is h i n g r e t u r n s . A p o w e r fu l i n je c t io n o f s t a f f,
m ot iva tio n a n d d ire ct ion is bo u n d to h a ve a po s itive im p a ct in
t h e e a r ly s t a ge s , b u t a s t h in g s im p r o ve s o it b ec om e s m o re a n d
m o r e difficu lt t o ach ieve fu rth er ga ins . For p o lic e fo r ce s s e e k in g
i m p r o ve m e n t s fr o m a m u c h l ow e r ba s e of c r im e a n d d is o rd e r (a s
in t h e UK), with few e x t r a r e s ou r c es , t h e p ot en t ia l is o b viou s ly fa r
m o r e lim i t ed .
Co n c l u si o n
Th e con clus ions to b e dra wn from m y a n a lys is of ‘Z er o Toleran ce’
in New York a re th re efold .
Fir s tly, Willia m B ra t to n is t o b e c on gr a tu la t ed on w h at h e
ach ieve d in New Yo r k . Wh ils t t h er e a re do u b ts a b ou t h ow fa r h is
p o li cy of ‘Z e r o T ol er a n c e ’ c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e d u c t i on s i n c r i m e
a n d d i s or d e r ly b e h a v io u r , t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t h is in s p ir a tio n al
le a de rs h ip h a d a d i r e c t im p a ct o n t h e N YP D a n d , t h r o u g h t h a t ,
t h e s a f e t y a n d q u a l it y of l ife o f N ew Yo r k e r s .
But the r eas ons b ehind the imp rovement s a re c om p lex.
Polic in g wa s o n ly on e o f n u m er ou s va ria b le fa ct or s a ffect in g
c r im e leve ls i n Ne w Yo r k ; a n d B r a t t o n h a d v a s t r e s o u r c e s w i t h
which to do it. Tha t is n ot to ta ke a nyth ing awa y fr om him for
s h a k in g u p a n o r g a n i s a t i on c le a r l y in n e e d o f s t r o n g le a d e r s h ip .
But it d oe s ra is e t h e q u es tio n of wh et h er ‘Zer o Tole ra n ce ’ its elf
was a key fa c t o r , or in d e e d a fa c t o r a t a l l. Th e im p r oved m a n a g e-
m e n t , m otivation an d a c c ou nt ab ility of su ch a la rge n u m ber of
police o ffic er s m a y w ell h a v e b r ou g h t th e s e r e s u lt s r ega r d le s s of
which policing style was a dopted.
Bra tton s h o u l d a ls o b e c o n g r a t u l a t e d o n c r e a t in g t h e m e d i a
d e b a t e abou t ‘Zero Tolerance’. Whilst it is a very im p r e cis e t e r m
w it h differen t m e a n i n g s fo r d iffe r e n t p e o p le , it h a s fo c u s e d t h e
p u b l ic im a gin a t io n on a n im p or ta n t a s p ec t o f po licin g. In
p a r t i c u la r , it d oe s n o h a rm to re m in d po lice officer s in th e UK of
t h e rationa le behind th e Bobby on th e Beat, an d th e importa nce
of dealing effectively with low-level incivilities a nd disor der .
Se con dly, wh ils t Bra tton a n d t h e N YP D r e s p o n d e d w e ll t o t h e
c r is is of confiden ce a fflictin g policing in New Yo r k , t h e r e a r e h u ge

c h a llenges for t h e futu re. Th is for m e is t h e m o s t s ign ifica n t is s u e
of t h e w h o le d e b a t e . Th e s u c c e s s s o fa r h a s a c h ie ve d p ow er fu l
s h o r t - t e r m r es u lt s , a n d th is h a s b r o u g h t t i m e a n d s p a c e t o
develop complemen tary, comm un ity-bas ed s t ra t egie s fo r t h e
futu re. In f a c t , t h e r e fo r m s car ried ou t s o fa r m a y b e a s n ot h in g
compa red t o t h e r e fo r m s n e ed ed n ow to ke ep th e NYPD w or k in g
c lo s e ly in h a r m o n y w it h i t s c o m m u n i t y .
Th a t p a rt of t h e ‘Z er o To le r a n c e ’ p r in c ip le c h a r a c t er is e d b y
a ggr e s s ive p o li ci n g , c o n fr o n t a t i o n a l m a n a g e m e n t , o p p o r t u n i s t i c
s h o r t- te r m is m a n d u n d u e e m ph a s is on ‘t h e nu mbers ga m e’ pos es
a n e n o r m o u s t h r e a t t o t h e fu t u re . If t h i s cu l t u r e is n o t t a c k le d ,
th en —on th e ba sis of t h e Br it is h e xp e rie n c e—t h e ris k of seriou s
co rr u p tio n a n d in n er -c ity dis or d er in th e fu tu re is re a l.
F in a l ly , t h e a n a l ys i s o f ‘Z er o To le r a n c e ’ c o n fi r m s m y t h e sis a t
t h e b egin n in g of th is pa p er . O f th e d iffere n t s ty les of p olic in g
b eing app lied b y police departm ents in t h e United S t a te s , it is th e
‘problem-oriented po licin g’ app roach lik e t h a t in Sa n Diego wh ich
h a s m o s t to offe r in t e r m s of a n e n du r in g, lo n g- te rm a p p ro ac h to
im p ro vin g comm un ity sa fety. Ind eed w it h lim it ed r es ou r ce s a n d
eve r- in cr ea s in g d e m a n d s u p o n u s , i t is t h e o n l y on e t h a t p olice
l ea d e r s c a n p u r s u e w i t h c on f id e n c e fo r t h e fu t u r e .
Th a t is w h y we in Tha m es Valley w ill con tinu e to d evelop
‘pr oblem -solving po licin g’ w it h d e te rm in a t io n , in n o va t io n a n d
vision. Ide n tifyin g a n d t a ck lin g t h e root c a u s e s o f c r im e , d is o r d er
a n d fe a r in c on ju n c t io n wit h o u r pa r t n er s in t h e com m u n ity,
rath er t h a n re pe a te dly a n d s u p e rfic ia lly t r ea t in g th e s ym p t om s ,
is th e b es t wa y of policin g a s we m o ve in t o t h e n e xt m ille n n iu m .
Co n fi de n t P o li c in g
in Hartle poo l
Norm an De nn is an d Ray Mallon
T HIS C H AP TE R a n d th e n ex t a re a n a tt em p t t o s et po licin g in
a p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t wi t h in w h i c h i t h a d to w o r k , a n d t o
a s s e s s th e im p a ct th a t p olic in g, a s a s p ec ia lized a n d lim ite d
s o cia l fu n c tion , c ou ld m a ke an d did m ak e a s th e con text
changed.
Th ey a r e a c om b i n e d effo r t . Th e s p ecia lis t con trib u tion from
t h e s o c i ol og is t i n s o m e p a r t s will be a s ob vious t o t h e r ea d e r a s
t h e specialist contribu tion of the p olicem a n in oth ers. Bu t
e ls e w h e r e in the m ixture of our ideas, experiences a n d interpre-
ta t io n s ou r c on tr ib u tio n s will b e in d is tin gu is h a b le, es p ec ia lly a s
we des cribe an d r eflect u pon Har tlepool its elf, a town local to u s
both as Coun ty Durh am men . 1
In Ha rt lep ool t h er e a re n o b ig- t im e criminals. Serious crimes
a r e rare. Wea p on s , for ex a m p le, a r e s eld om u s ed —b y Am e r ic a n
s t a n d a r d s or t h e s ta n da rd s n ow of th e E n glish big c ity. 2 Three
recent crim ina l cas es a ttr act ing n at ion- wid e a t t e n t i o n w e r e t h e
m u r d e r of a ch ild b y a p a e d o p h i le , a n d t h e d e a t h of 7 7 -ye a r- old
who distu rbed a youth a t te m pt in g to ste a l h is m o t o r c a r fr om h is
h om e . Th e t h ie f r eve rs e d a t s p ee d a n d kille d h im . 3 In December
1 9 9 4 a 16 -year -old Har tlepool youth was k illed b y th e da nger ou s
d rivin g of a 21 -year-old car th ief, who received a five-yea r
sen tence. A y ea r later indignation w a s s t ill h i gh , w h e n a 2 5 , 0 0 0 -
n a m e petition was h an ded to th e town’s MP calling for hea vier
sen tences fo r s u c h c r im e s . 4 In t h is t ow n of 9 0 , 0 0 0 a t ota l of
1 2 , 8 0 0 c r im e s w e r e r e c o r d e d b y t h e p o l ic e in t h e year Mar ch
1 9 9 5 t o Ap r il 1 9 9 6 . 5
But give n t h e r ela t ive p et t in e s s of it s n or m a l c rim e s a n d
d i s or d e r , from s m a ll b egin n in gs their growth, a s in New Yor k , h a s
been s t ee p s in c e t h e m i d- 1 95 0 s , a n d e s p ec ia lly fr om t h e 1 9 70 s ,
62
CONFIDENT POLICING IN HARTLEPOOL 63
u n t il p u l le d b a ck b y p o lic e a c t io n a n d ot h e r fo cu s e d a n ti- cr im e
m e a s u res in t h e m id - 19 9 0 s . Th e p olic e’s fa ile d a n d s u cc es s fu l
in it ia t ive s h a ve been s u r p r i s in g l y s i m i la r i n t h e t w o p la c e s b o t h
in conten t a n d tim in g, to s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t W il li a m J . B r a t ton ,
t h e New Yo r k p olice comm issioner (199 4 - 1 9 9 6 ), t h ou g h t it w o r th
wh ile to pa y a visit to Ha rtlep ool to ex a m i n e t h e p o li ce w or k
ther e.
Coinciden t w it h cha nged police strategy an d ta ctics, crime in
both New Yo r k City, Har tlepool a n d in other p la ces was cu t in th e
1990s.
Ac c or d in g to po lice figur es, in New Yo r k ser ious c r im e d r o p p ed
b y 27 p er cent from 1 993 to 1995 . In 1995 ther e w e re 3 5 , 4 0 0
street robberies; in 199 6 th ere w e r e 3 0 , 4 0 0 . Th e r e co r d of 2 , 2 0 0
m u r d e r s w a s s e t in 1 9 9 0 . In 1 9 9 6 t h e t ot a l was u nd er 1 ,00 0 for
t h e fir s t t im e s i n c e 1 9 6 8 . 6
Har tlepool’s c r im e figur es w e r e a ls o cut. C o m p a r in g 1 9 9 4 w i t h
1 9 9 6 , t h e t ot a l of reported c r im e s w a s d o wn b y 2 7 per cent, from
1 5 ,6 0 0 t o 1 1 ,3 0 0 . 7 The volu m e cr im es th a t m os t d irec tly a n d
s e r io u s ly im p a ct u p on t h e lives o f in d i vid u a l s in a p l a c e lik e
Har tlepool are d omes t i c bu rglar y an d ca r cr imes . Thefts of
vehicles were down b y 5 6 pe r c e n t . 8 D o m e s t ic b u r g la r i e s we r e
down b y 3 1 p e r c e n t . 9 Thefts from veh icles wer e down by 15 per
c e n t .10
Th e ser ious ne ss of the r at e of growth of crime which th e town
h a d experienced in t h e year s prec ed in g 1 9 9 4 is s h ow n b y t h e fa ct
t h a t even t h e s e dram atic su ccesses h a d d r iv en r e c or d e d cr im e in
s om e m o n th ly p er io ds on ly ba ck d own to th e le vels re co rd ed in
1 9 9 1 .11
Th e police ar e to s om e exten t in c ont rol of t h e i r own st ra te gy
a n d tactics; bu t th ey are to som e extent in con trol (o r p ot en t ia lly
in control) of the ind ices of their own s ucces s a lso, nam ely , t h e
figur es of re co rd ed cr im e. It is t h e r e for e e s s en t ia l t o p r es e n t a n
acc ou nt t h a t i s s u ffi ci en t l y fu l l for the rea der to ma ke h is or her
own a s s e s s m e n t o f w h e t h e r c r ime did rise in Har tlepool, and
wheth er it wa s re d u ce d in th e 1 9 9 0 s . If cr im e d id ris e a n d fall,
t h e read er mu st b e ena bled to ma ke h is or her own b est jud ge-
m en t o n th e m os t r ea s on a b le, if pr ovis ion a l, expla na tion o n t h e
b a s is of the b est da ta a vailable. After t w o ye a r s ’ e x p e r ie n c e o f i t ,
t h e local jour na li s t s, c e r t a in l y , w e r e q u it e c o n vi n c e d of t h e
su cce ss of th e cr im e s tr a te gy.
Anyone living in t he t own in th e last two year s can not h ave failed t o
notice t h e n o - n o n s e n s e d e t e c t iv e, n o r ign o r e t h e s p e c t a c u la r r e s u l t s
h e a n d h i s t ea m h a v e notch ed u p. H is u n iqu e cr ime -be at ing s tr at egy
h a s c u t cr im e levels in Har tlepool ... by a m as sive 30-p er-cen t-plu s ...
wit h th e nu mb er of recorded bu rglaries in J uly looking to ma ke a
r e c or d brea king plu mm et to less th an 100 . In a town wher e h o u s e
b u r gla r ie s on ce t op p ed 3 0 0 a m on t h , it ’s a s t a t is t ic t o b e p r ou d of. 1 2
The Rise in Crim e

Th e figu r es for t h e Har tlepool Division of Cle vela n d C on s t a b u la ry
a r e n o t a lw a ys s e pa r ately available in th e Chief Const able’s
An n u a l Re p or t s (w h i c h d a t e fr o m 1 9 8 3 ) b u t t h e t r e n d o f t h e
Har tlepool figur es , when they a r e given, is in lin e wit h th a t of t h e
whole Clevelan d Cons tab ular y area.
Be tw ee n 19 8 0 a n d 19 9 2 , in a p eriod of only twelve year s, th e
c r im e fig u r e s fo r Cle ve la n d C o u n t y m o r e t h a n d o u b l e d , a n d i n
1 9 9 2 in C le v e la n d C ou n t y a lo n e t h e re w a s a l m o s t ex a ct ly t h e
s a m e n u m b e r o f c rim e s r e co rd e d a s h a d been recorde d in th e
w h ole of E n gla n d an d W a les nin et y y ea rs be fore —8 0 , 0 0 0 in
C le ve la n d C o u n t y in 1 9 92 a s co m pa r ed wit h 8 1, 00 0 in E n gla n d
a n d W a le s in 1 9 0 1 .
T h e r e w e r e m o r e t h a n t h r e e t im e s a s m a n y b u r gla r i es i n 1 9 9 2
t h a n t h e r e h a d been on ly tw elve y ea r s before. (In 1 9 8 0 t h e r e were
4 , 3 0 0 r ec or d ed c a ses of h ou s e b u r g l a r y i n t h e C le ve la n d C o u n t y
p olice area . By 1992 th ere were 13,20 0.) In nine of the e leve n
y ea r s 1 9 8 3 - 9 4 t h e c r im e rate r os e yea r- on -ye ar, th e highes t r is es
b ein g 2 2 p e r ce n t , 1 4 p er c e n t a n d 1 2 per cen t. Th e r a te fell on ly
twice, an d by m uch lower percen tages, s even per ce n t a n d thr ee
p e r c e n t .13
In th e four m on th s b efore Ra y Mallon took over a s ch ief of
cr im e s tr a te gy a t H a rt lep ool t h e m on th ly crime figure h ad r isen
b y 3 8 p e r ce n t (t o 1 ,6 0 0 cas es). B u r g la r y h a d r is e n b y 3 1 p er
cent.
Har tlepool s p e n d s h a lf o f it s b u s - s h e l t er m a i n t e n a n c e b u d g et
on r epa iring th e res u lts of deliber at e des tru ction . 1 4
In 1 9 9 6 C le ve la n d F ir e B r ig a d e was offered a govern m en t loan
for a ‘com m u nity ed u cat ion p r o g r a m m e ’ b e c a u s e o f t h e gr owin g
n u m b e r of m a licio u s fals e a l a r m s . Th e r e w e r e o ve r 5 0 0 m o r e
fals e em er gen cy c a lls in 1 9 9 6 t h a n t h e r e h a d been in 1 9 9 5 . (Th is
brou ght t he t otal to m ore th an 3,30 0.)1 5
Near certain r esident ial areas of the town , acts of sh eer

des tru ction as well a s crimes for gain in som e of the n ew
in d u s t r ia l a re a s we re a we igh ty dis in ce n tive to firm s m a k in g
d ec is ion s a b ou t c om in g to or re m a in in g in Ha rt lep ool.
Som e firm s in t h e J u t la n d Road a r ea , for exam ple, s i m p ly ga ve
u p in d efeat. They foun d facilities sm as hed up as soon a s th ey
were insta lled. In other in d u s t r ia l a r e a s , s u c h a s t h e G r a y t h o r p
In d u s t r ia l Esta te, a f t er a p e r io d o f d e fe a t i s m d u r i n g w h ic h fi r m s
ceased to r e p o r t t h e s e em in gly en d l e s s in c i d e n t s a n d t h en p u lled
o u t , the u sers organized t h e i r own sec u rity pa trols an d in tro-
d u ced oth er p ooled m eas u res to c om b a t va n d a lis m a n d theft. By
t h e mid-19 90s , every n ew developmen t in th e town, dom estic,
co m m er cia l or ind u st rial, wa s s cru tinized from the p oint of view
of its crime-prevention p otentialities.
Har tlepool is on e of a h an dfu l of loca l a u t h or ities selected
n a t ion a lly fo r t h e s o - c a ll ed ‘O n e S t o p S h o p I n it i a t iv e’, a n d a t a
w e ek ly meet in g of t h e variou s a gencies a n d au thorities c o n c e r n ed
w it h developmen t ap plications , the police repres enta tive gives a
view o n t h e s e cu r i t y a s p e c t s of r e s id e n t ia l a n d in d u s t r ia l
p r op o s a ls .
C on f i d e n t P ol i c i n g
When w e t u r n t o the p eriod when s trat egy an d ta ctics in Hartle-
pool wer e h ea vily s ta m pe d w ith th e in flu en ce of wh a t w e h a ve
term ed ‘co n fide n t p ol ic in g ’, it i s in a p p r o p r i a t e fo r t h e d e t e c t iv e
chief i n s p e c t or p e r s o n a l ly in v o lv ed t o b e t h e r e p or t e r . Th e
acc ou nt of it t h a t follows is t h e r e fo r e t h a t of No rm a n D en n i s , wh o
h a s st u die d t h e evid en ce t o th e b es t of h is a bility a s a n objective
o b s e r ve r . ‘Object ivity’ in s ocial res ear ch m ean s n oth ing m ore (or
le s s ) t h a n s e l f- c on s c i ou s n e s s a b ou t , an d rein ing in, one’s own
pr e-con cept ions an d preferences , an d u sing the m e t h ods of
so ciology, m e th o ds t h a t a r e m a in ly d e s i gn e d t o r ed u c e a s fa r a s
p o s s ib le th e dis tor t io n s t h a t p e r s o n a l h o p e s a n d fe a r s in t r u d e
i n t o b ot h p er ce p tio n a n d d es cr ip tio n . (Th a t effo r t i s a ll t h a t i s
‘scien tific’ ab out ‘social scien ce’.)
Ra y Mallon took u p h is app ointmen t as the n ew h e a d of c r im e
s tr a te gy for th e H a rt lep ool d ivis ion on 18 Apr il 19 9 4 .
A p r i n c ip a l r o le in i t s own r ight for a ny p olice force, of cours e,
is the d etection of crimes a n d t h e a p p r eh e n s ion of su spe cts. Bu t
h e b elie ved th a t t wo r ole s a t le a s t a s im p or ta n t h a d be en los in g
t h e p r o m in e n c e t h e y d e s e r ve d .
One w a s re d u c in g the n u m b e r of crimes to t h e ex te n t t h a t t h is

was wit h in t h e scop e of B r it is h policing m e t h od s . Th e sec ond wa s
r et a in in g or r ec ov er in g t h e c on t r ol of t h e s tr ee ts o n be h a lf a n d
w it h th e con s e n t of th e la w- a b id in g p op u la tio n , a ga in , in th e
B r it is h tr a d itio n of give- a n d -t a k e a n d wit h a ll a llowan ce for
h a r m le s s high sp irits, with tolera nc e of m ere eccen tricity, an d
w it h a ll c om p a s s io n fo r p e rs o n a lit y d is o rd e rs .
Th e police force in Hartlepool would ta ckle thes e objective s b y
s i m p ly pa ying at ten tion t o, n ot ignor ing, a nt i-social b eh aviou r
a n d ‘n u i s a n c e c r im e ’. Th e e ffe c t iv e c o n t r o l o f t h e s i t u a tion is
r a rely s ec u re d by ‘zer o t ole ra n ce ’ in th e s en s e o f an in to ler a n t
a n d ove r- b ea rin g d e m e a n o u r . Br itis h po lice p ra ct ice h a s a lwa ys
recognized t h e e m p ir ic a l im p or ta n c e, in con t r o ll in g t h e s i t u a t ion ,
of preventing th e escalation of the prob lem. All tha t zero toler-
a n c e m e a n t in H a r t l e p oo l, w it h i n t h e s p e c ifi c c u l t u r a l h i s t or y of
wor k in g-c la s s cit izen s h ip th ere, a n d t h e specific lega l fr a m e w o r k,
ru les an d tra ditions of the p olicing, was th at th e p olice wou ld
‘r e t u r n peace to t h e s t r ee t s ’ b y co n tr ollin g m in o r s it u a tio n s in th e
interest of the ‘decent ’ an d ‘resp ectab le’ citizen.
Im p licit in t h is stra tegy, t h ou gh n o t a lwa ys a r t ic u l a t ed , was th e
a s s u m p t i on tha t th e idea of the ‘decent ’ an d ‘resp ectab le’ citizen
was not a n a bsu rdity exposed an d exploded by enlighten ed
s t u d e n t s , social workers , philosophers , agony au nts , an d other
p r o p o n e n t s o f p o s t -m o d e r n i s m . It w a s t o b e fu n d a m e n t a l t o
police w or k in Ha rt lep ool. If a p olic e o fficer wa s a ct in g on be h a lf
of t h e decent, la w- a b id in g citizens of t h e town, wit h in t h e la w a n d
a c c or d in g t o go o d Br it is h police pract ice, then he or sh e was
doin g a pr oper job. Beca u se t he Har tlepool division of Cle vela n d
co n s ta b u la ry wa s s m a ll, a n d th e p olic e o fficer s we re pr in cip a lly
dra wn from t h e re s p ec ta b le e lem en ts of th e loc a l wor k in g-c la s s
com m u n ity, th i s w a s n o t a d i ffi cu l t a s s u m p t i on for them to wor k
with. In Har tlepoo l, ben efit in g in t h a t s e n s e from b ein g som ewha t
off th e t ra ck be a te n by fas h ion a b le in te llec tu a ls , it was s t i ll
la r ge ly t a ke n fo r gr a n te d b y t h em .
A cent r a l in tent ion of the s trat egy in Hartlepool was to brea k
i n t o th e vicious sp iral of a d e t eriora ting s itu at ion of pers ona l
s a f e t y, defacemen t a n d d e re lic t io n on t h e s tr e et s ; a r ed u c tio n in
t h e law-ab iding citizen’s con fiden ce in h is own c a p a c i t y a n d th e
capacity of t h e police to con t r ol t h e s it u a t io n ; a furth er d e t e r io r a-
t i on a s t h e con fiden ce of th e u n ru ly elem en ts inc re as es ; an d a
furth er loss of pu blic confiden ce in itself an d th e police.
‘K e e p in g a n Ey e o n T h in g s ’
Th e fe a r genera te d b y law -b re a kin g was to b e lift ed from t h e la w-
a b id in g citizen. On e of t h e m e a n s b y w h ic h t h i s wa s b e a c c om p -
lish ed wa s t h e r em ova l of an on ym ity from de linq u en ts a n d ga n g
m e m b e rs . Polic e o fficer s co m e s im p ly t o k n o w th e m — a n d m a k e
it c le a r t h a t t h e y k n ow th ey kn ow th em . Ha rtlep ool is th e type of
place w h er e th is is s till feas ible. Anoth er mea ns , when ever
a p p r o p r i a t e an d likely to be effective, is not to ignore delibera te,
even if p e tt y, in d ivid u a l de m on s t r a t io n s of d is r es p ec t t o a n d
defian ce of t h e police offic er , lik e a n a d ole s ce n t c on tin u in g in h is
pres ence to ride a bicycle a l o n g t h e p a v e m e n t o r in t h e d a r k
with ou t lights. The po lice officer do es n ot a rr es t t h e t en -ye a r- old
who is swear ing. But h e or s h e get s o u t t h e p olice c a r a n d ‘pa ys
att ent ion’ to th e event, face-t o-face.
Th ere is a Greek m yth a bou t a m a n called Gyges who went in to
a c a ve a n d fo u n d a r in g t h a t h a d t h e power to t u r n h im in vis ible.
He u s e d h is in vis ib ilit y t o e va d e th e gu a r d s a t th e p a la c e a n d
sedu ce t h e q u e e n . H e u s e d i t t o p o is o n t h e kin g s o t h a t h e a n d
t h e qu een cou ld m ar ry. He u sed it as kin g to com m it i n s e c ret
e ve r y a t r ocious c r im e a ga in s t h is su bjects t h a t h e t hou ght wou ld
b e o f a d v a n t a g e t o h i m s e l f. P la t o u s e d ‘t h e r i n g of G y ge s ’ a s t h e
tes t of a pe rs on’s tru e virtu e. ‘Would you a c t in t h a t crim ina l or
im m or a l wa y if you kn ew for c er ta in n ob od y wo u ld eve r k n ow it
was y ou ? ’ H is p o i n t w a s th at in re al life even th e m ost virtu ou s
p e op le need s o me fea r of e x p os u r e a n d s c a n d a l, if they a r e to give
du e weight to th e int eres ts of o t h e r p e o p le w h e n t h o s e i n t e r e s t s
c la s h with their own—‘du e’ weight in p ractice be in g d e fin e d b y
t h e law or b y cu st om a r y v ie w s a b o u t w h a t i s ‘fa i r ’, ‘d e c e n t ’,
‘r i gh t ’, w it h t h e la w a n d c u s t o m o ft e n b e i n g in c l o s e a gr e e m e n t .
One of the s ou rces of angr y fru st ra tion i n t h e t o wn w a s t h a t
vict im s often kn ew only too well who t h e p e r p e t r a t o r s of crimes
a n d qu a lity- of-life offences a ga in s t t h em were—a n d t h a t they a n d
‘t h e a u t h or it ie s ’ seem ed quite in c a p a b l e of b r in gin g them to book .
Bu t DCI Mallon s aw t h a t a n es s en tia l ele m en t in gr owin g cr im e
h a d been t h is as pect of ‘t h e brea kdown of com m u n ity’: an ti-socia l
e le m e n t s w er e fa r le s s lik e ly t h a n in t h e p a s t t o b e k n ow n to th e
p eo p le aga ins t wh om th ey were offend ing. This was , of c ou r s e ,
v er y ma rked in th e big cities. Bu t i t a p p li ed i n m e a s u r e t o s m a ll
towns like Har tlepool too. Knowledge that the offenc e h a d b e en
com m i t t ed b y h im , th a t k n own bo y, wa s d ecr ea sin gly likely t o
feed ba ck t o an yone wh o ha d a ny con trol o ve r h i m . Mo d e r n
s o c ie t y h a d , s o t o sp eak , h an ded to every b oy t h e rin g of G yge s .

The first th ing to do, th erefore, was t o t a ke it a wa y fr om h im .
Confiden t po licin g of low-or d er offen ce s in volve s a t it s m ild -
e s t —b u t a l s o a t i t s ve r y effective—sim ply lettin g th e boy or t he
youn g m a n k n ow t h a t if h e pu sh es h igh s pirits into in tim idat ion ,
if h e s p ra y p a in ts th e b u s s ea ts , if h e s n iffs glu e u n d er th e o ld
r a ilw a y b r id ge , if h e s m a s h es th e seat in the p ark , the ch an ces
h a ve been con s i d e r a b l y r a i s e d t h a t s om eon e will effec tive ly k n ow
t h a t h e w a s t h e c u l p r it .
In ord er t o give police officers th e local focus th a t is neces s a r y
if they ar e to be see n ‘k e e pin g a n eye o n th in gs’ in t h is w a y,
t ea m s were organ ized, e a c h r e spon sible for its own problem
h o u s in g esta te. Th is is n o t th e eye of B ig B ro th e r o n b eh a lf of th e
p a r t y . Th a t is a t yp ic a l e xa ggera tion an d m islead ing a na logy
beloved of a n ti- p olic e p re s s u re gr ou p s . It is a ben evolent e ye on
beh alf of ordinar y people.
Orwell’s n i gh t m a r e of Big Broth er em erged ou t th e ab sen ce of
E n glis h -t yp e la w a n d ord er, n ot out of its existen ce, as a ny J ew
from Na zi G er m a ny a n d an y ‘e ne m y of the peop le’ from Com m -
u n i s t Hu n ga ry wou ld te s tify. Th is is a p oin t George Erd os, a
p a t r i o t ic En glis h m a n wh o ha s h ad deep per son al exp erien ce of
a ll th re e, s tr on gly u rg es in Fam ilies W ithou t Fat he rhood . 1 6
In 1 9 9 5 - 9 6 t h e s e t e a m s d e a l t fo r m a lly wit h 5 9 ca ses of boys
a n d you n g m en h a ngin g a bou t s h o p pin g pr e cin c t s , in t im id a tin g
residents a n d p a s s e r s - b y. Thirty-one of t h e cas es w e r e d e a lt wit h
mer ely b y s e n din g a letter to t h e y ou n g s t e r ’s parents s a yin g wh a t
h e h a d b e e n d o in g . In 2 8 c a s e s t h e yo u n g s t e r w a s a r r e s t ed . 1 7
Th e definition of how far it is ‘reas ona ble in a ll the circu m-
s t a n c es ’ to re lax th e law is a decis ion for t he p olice to ma ke,
wit h in t h e guidelines la id down or a ccepted b y sen ior o ffi ce r s , th e
civil a u t h o r i t ies , a nd p u b lic op in io n , w it h t h e p olic em a n ’s
ex er cis e of dis cr et ion be in g s u b jec t t o s u b s eq u en t s a n ct ion s if
abu sively he avy-h an ded or u nw isely lenien t. The disc ret ion of
w h a t laws a r e ‘r ea s ona ble’, an d wh a t degree of rela xat ion in their
observan ce is ‘a p p r o p r ia t e in a l l t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s ’, is n o t t o b e
exercised by a n y p a rt icu la r p riva te in d ivid u a l a cc or d in g to h is
o w n vi ew o f t h e m a t t e r a t t h e t i m e .
H a n gin g a bou t in a verbally abus ive gang, u rinat ing in th e lift ,
s m a s h in g the ligh ts on t h e fo ot p a t h , s p r a yin g gr a ffit i o n a h ou s e
wa ll, s m a s h in g a s eat in th e pa rk , ar e th e st ar ting p oints of a
c rim in a l career . As DCI Mallon sa id, ‘Boys and young m en don ’t

go s t r a igh t from b ein g c h e e k y to their parents into b u r g la r y—a n y
m o r e th an ch ildren go str aigh t from t h e p r im a r y s ch o ol in t o t h e
un iversity’. Polic e a c t i on a t t h is leve l t h e r e fo r e c a n h a ve t h e effe ct
in s o m e c a s es of clo s in g t h e c rim in a l-c a re er p a th ea rly . In th e
m i d -1 9 5 0 s t h e police oper at ed on t h e a s s u m p t io n t h a t t h e be s t
way to keep cr im e d own wa s t o in te rve n e ea rly a n d c on fiden tly.
C r im e rates were low, and the n um ber of children picked u p by
t h e police declined as the ch ildren ma tu red i n t o their teen s. By
t h e m id -1 9 90 s , b y c on t ra s t , t h e nu mb er picked up by the police
n a t io n a lly rough ly tripled fr o m t h e ir e a r l y t e e n s t o t h e i r la t e
t e en s . 1 8
Anoth er spin-off from p aying atten tion to minor offences
envisaged b y t h i s c r im e s t r a t e g y w a s t h a t i t cou ld lea d to th e
d e t e c t io n o f o t h e r o ffe n c e s a n d s u s p e c t s .
Targe ting t he Burgla r

One focus of Hartlepool’s n ew crime stra tegy, t he refore, wa s on
t h is confiden t policin g of m in or offen ce s a n d s u b -c rim in a l
d i s or d e r . Th e other focus w a s o n h o u s e b u r g la r y . F r om t h e poin t
of view of t h e vict im , w or s e t h in gs c a n h a p p e n e ve n in H a r t le p ool
a s a r esu lt of c r im in a l a c t iv it y. Bu t t o h a v e o n e ’s h o u s e b r o k e n
i n t o is , in t h e n o rm a l c ou r s e o f t h in gs, on e of the m ain com po-
nen ts in ‘th e fear of crime’ in th e town .
Hou se bu rglar s a re b y no m ea n s t op of t h e c rim in a l p ec kin g
order in b ig cities like New York or G la s gow. But in a s ma ll town
lik e Ha rt lep ool t h ey a re . Th e h ou s e b u rg la r is t h e m os t d e t e r -
m in e d of all thos e wh o con trib u te to t h e figu res of vo lu m e crime.
A b u r g lar y is an extrem ely difficu lt offence to com plete. Th e
b u r gla r h a s t o fin d t h e l ik e l y h o u s e ; b r e a k in t o it; get the s tolen
p r o p e r t y ou t; a n d th en get rid of it. If bu rglar s ca n b oas t of
s ucces s, t h e n t h e y c a n i n fl u e n c e b y t h e i r ex a m p l e ot h e r boy s
whose feet are n ot yet on the crim inal ladder.
Hou se b u r g l a r s a r e n o t o p po rt u n i st s . It is on their m in d to fin d
a hou se t o br eak into. Th ey a r e o n t h e l o ok o u t f or w e a k t a r g e t s .
But if t h e y fin d a s t ill w ea k e r o n e, th e y w ill t a ke a d va nt age of
t h a t . Th ey will s t ea l ‘a n yt h in g t h a t is n ’t n a ile d down ’. If t h e p olice
c a n re s tr a in th e h ou s e b u rg la r, th er efor e, a ll t h e other offences
h e w ou ld n or m a lly h a ve c om m itt ed a re re d u ce d a s we ll.
B u r g la r y h a s t h is a d d it io n a l featu re. By t h e 1 9 9 0 s , a s a ma tter
of emp irical fact, th e only volume-crim e offen der nor ma lly sent
t o pr ison was th e con vi ct e d b u r g la r . If h e is ca u gh t a n d c on -

v ic t e d , ther efore, he is pu t comp letely out of circu la t i on . Ab ou t
t w o- t h ir d s of crime is c om m itted by on e-fifth of offend ers . Hom e
Office resea rch su ggests t h a t n a t io n a lly t h e n u m ber of b u r g l a r ies
c o m m i t t e d by offen d er s wh ile s er vin g com m u n ity s ervic e
sen tences r a n ge d be tw ee n t h re e a n d th irt ee n . Th es e c ou ld h a ve
been p r e ve n t e d if t h e b u r gla rs h a d been sen t to prison for a year
in s t e a d . 1 9 Th is is wher e, in th e sen se of the p hr as e as it was
popu larized b y t h e Hom e Se cr et a ry, Micha el How a rd , ‘jail w or k s ’.
It m a k e s it p h ys ic a lly im p o s s ible for the b ur glar to b e either
b r e a kin g in t o h ou s es or co m m it t in g a n y o f t h e o t h er offe n ce s for
which h e would ha ve been resp onsible if he h ad b een a t large.
Th e b a s is o f th is as pect of th e str ate gy was, t h e r e fo r e , t h a t in
a p la c e lik e Ha rtlepool policing t h e b u r gla r co u ld h a ve a c ons ider-
a b l e lim itin g effe ct on a ll cr im in a l a ct ivit y in th e t ow n . Th e
n u m b e r of b u r gla r s m a k es t h e p r ob le m , s o to s pe a k , ‘m a n a g e-
able’. At a ny on e t im e t h e re is a h a r d - c o r e o f o n l y p e r h a p s t h i r t y
or s o . Ta r ge tin g th e b u r gla r co u ld be e ffe c t iv e i n t h e s h o r t t e r m ,
b y pu tting him ou t of bu sines s. It cou l d b e e f fec t iv e a l s o in t h e
longer te rm , b y m a k in g h im i n to a fa ilu r e in s t e a d of a s u c c es s
a n d t h e r e fo r e u n d e r m i n in g h is pos ition a s a p r in c ip a l role-model
for you n g cr im in a ls or wou ld -b e c rim in a ls . ‘Th e m a in p la ye r s in
t h e c r im i n a l fr a t e r n i t y ar e bein g tak en ou t of the gam e becau se
we ar e ta rgeting th em at every opp ortu nity.’2 0
‘Tar get in g’, a n d in p a r t ic u la r t a rge tin g th e s er ia l r ob b er a n d
b u r g l a r , wa s b ein g s im u lta n eo u s ly a d op te d els ew h er e. In th e
B ly t h Va lle y p olic e a r ea o f No r t h u m br ia Con st ab u lary, for
exa m p l e (Blyth its elf is ver y sim ilar to H a rt lep ool in size a n d
in d u s t r ia l a n d s o cia l h i s t o r y), r ob b e r ie s d r op p ed from 9 7 in 1 9 9 5
t o 5 9 in 1 9 9 6 , a fa ll of nea rly 40 per cent . House b ur glaries
d r o p p ed from 2 ,800 t o 2,200 , a fall of over 20 per cen t. Th e
c om m a n d in g officer, Su perinten den t Ala n P a p e, s a id : ‘We h a ve
i n fo r m a t i o n on wh a t t h ey a re do in g. We follow t h em from th eir
h om e s u n til we c a tc h th em re d- h a n de d c om m itt in g a crime’. In
t h e North um bria Cons tab ular y area a s a whole, the reported
c r im e fig u r e in 1 9 9 6 w a s a t h i r d lo w e r t h a n t h e f ig u r e in 1 9 9 1 ,
t h e l on g e s t r u n of c on s ec u t ive fa lls of a n y fo r c e i n t h e c ou n t r y .2 1
Th e ta ctics in Ha rtlep ool in c lu d e d t h e c u l t iv a t io n o f i n fo r -
m a n t s , an d genera lly encour aging informa tion-bas ed police
a c tio n . W it h r is i n g c on f id e n c e in t h e p o lic e , t h e p u b l ic b e ca m e
m u ch m o r e fo r t h c o m i n g . (Al a n P a p e a t B l yt h s a i d t h a t t h e r e,
t h e r e h a d b ee n a n ‘o ve r w h e lm i n g ’ r i s e in t i p - o ffs f r om t h e
pu blic.)2 2 Con s ta b les fed ba ck th eir own dir e c t k n owledge from
their p a t r ols. ‘Crime ha pp ens in t h e com m u n ity, n o t in t h e police
sta tion.’
Th e B r it is h p o lic e m a n h a s t h e le ga l r ig h t t o s t o p a n d ‘in t e ra ct ’
with an yone. If he h as rea son ab le grou nd s for s u s p ic io n h e c a n
sea rch him. Pu blic host ility severely hind ers p olice wor k , a n d
‘s t o p ’ a n d ‘st op a n d s e ar ch ’ p o w er s m u s t b e u s e d with t h e u t m os t
ca re . B u t in a to wn like Ha rt lep ool, th ey c a n be m or e e ffect ively
concen trat ed on kn own m alefactors going ab out t heir bu sines s
a t su sp icious times or in s u sp icious circum sta nces with a su rer
tou ch th a n th ey ca n in t h e b ig city.
W i n n i n g w i t h i n t h e R u l e s —B u t W i n n in g
Howe ve r , if th is str ate gy were to be effectively carr ied out , an d
t h e s e t a c t i cs p r o p e r l y a p p l i ed w it h i n t h e l a w a n d t h e c u s t o m s
a n d exper ience of British policin g, th e s u cce ss of th e s tr a te gy
a im e d at t he Ha rtlepool police force itself was a n es sen tial pre-
requ isite. Sinc e th e cu ltu ra l revolut ion of th e 19 60 s p olice
officers h ad inevitably also been influenced b y the idea t h a t t h e
r ea l cau ses of cr im e we re eco n om ic, a n d c rim e co u ld on ly be
tack led b y at ta ckin g th e ‘root c au ses ’. With t he expa ns ion of
un iversity d epar tm ents of social w o r k a n d s o cia l po licy, a n d wit h
the vas tly increas ed n um bers of stu den ts influenced b y ‘c rit ic a l
s o cia l th eor y’ a n d ‘th e n ew c rim in ology’ in t h eir u n ivers ity,
polytechn ic, Open Un ivers ity, furth er edu cat ion a n d p r ofe s s io n a l
or s e m i - p r o fe s s i o n a l co u r s e s , t h i s id e a b e c a m e t h e s t a p l e o f t h e
ser ious m e dia , a n d gr a du a lly c on s e n su a l in t h e wh ole of Br itis h
so ciet y. An a s s oc ia t ed id ea wa s t h at n o a c tio n r e la t i n g t o c r im e
or c r im i n a ls w a s tr u ly a p p r op r ia t e ex ce p t s ocial- wor k t ype
treatmen t.
Th e re s u lts of for ty yea rs of k n oc k in g a wa y th e in t e l le ct u a l
p r o p s of police w o r k—a pr oces s d ealt w ith in th e Ed itor’s
In t r o d u ct io n —h a d worked th ems elves down into every police
st at ion in Britain. The first th ing that Ray Mallon did, th erefore,
was to atta ck t h e a t t it u d e t h a t t h e police co u ld n o t d o v er y m u ch ,
a n d perh aps were n o t e n t itled to do very mu ch, to affect the
volu m e of crime; the idea th at crim e wa s r e a lly c a u s ed b y t h e
m a s s i ve ‘b a d en vir on m ent’ a n d ‘d ep r iva t io n ’ ou t ther e, which ‘th e
governm ent ’ was too ma lign or too m ean to ch an ge.
On first tak ing up h is app ointmen t, Ray Mallon h ad ca lled

together o ffi ce r s o f a l l r a n k s , t o in f or m t h e m t h a t tolerance a nd
g iv e- a n d - t a k e w h e n ever po s s ib le, bu t m in im a l r o b u s t n e s s
when ever n ec es s a r y, within th e law a nd th e tr ad itions of
con s en s u al En glish policing, cou ld m ak e inr oa d s on ly s o fa r in to
c r im e a n d d is o rd e r, b u t th a t in r o a ds cou ld be m ad e.
Th e m agn itu de of police effectiven ess he pu t in t he region of a
2 0 p er cent cut in crime. Th is figur e was bas ed u p o n h is p r eviou s
experience in t h e p o lic e d iv is i on o f C le ve la n d C o n s t a b u l a r y from
which he h ad b een tra ns fer red to t a k e u p t h e pos t a t Ha rtlep ool,
initially as hea d of the CID.
B e fo r e Ton y Bla ir ha d a nn ou nc ed, a s Lead er of th e Labou r
Pa rt y, t h a t t h e c o u n t r y needed thr ee t h in g s , ed u c at io n , education
a n d ed u ca tion , Ra y Mallon wa s d rivin g h o m e t h e m e s s a ge th a t
t h e t h r ee t h in g s h e r e ga r d ed a s m o s t im p o r ta n t fo r s u c c es s fu l
policing w e r e a t t it u d e, a tt itu d e, a tt itu d e. A cen tr a l fea tu re of h is
w or k , ther efore, was to pr omote ‘the cl e a r m e s sa ge th a t th e
b u s in e s s of th e Ha rt lep ool p olice is to r ed u ce c rim e t h rou gh a
p r ogr a m m e of p os itive po licin g’ a t m ee tin gs t h a t a ll a va ila b le
r a n k s w e r e re q u ir e d t o a t t e n d . 2 3
Ray Mallon, a s c h i e f o f c r im e stra tegy at Hartlepool, regard ed
it as es s ential tha t police officers s hou ld have th eir confidence
restored in b ot h th e le git im a c y a n d th e effica cy of t h eir lim ite d
a n d specific po licin g role. ‘Mora le is eve ry th in g.’ Fro m th e fir s t
d a y of h is appointment, h e set ou t to convince Har tlepool d ivis ion
t h a t wh ile t h ey co u ld n ot ge t a t m a n y of t h e other ‘root c a u s e s ’ of
crime, they cou ld get a t one of t h em , t h e ‘root cau se’ t h a t policing
h a d b e c o m e l ess effective th an it cou ld be. ‘You can ma ke a
differen ce.’ Not on ly cou ld th ey become m ore effective. Wh a t t h ey
w e r e doin g was worth while. ‘We are the good-doers. Assert t h a t ,
don ’t d e n y it . Th a t is w h a t we are . Oth er peop le who c la i m t o b e
d o - go o d er s m igh t b e or m igh t n o t be, b u t we a r e r ea l g oo d - d oe r s .’
‘“W e w a n t m o r e r e s o u r c e s !” Ye s , we w an t more r esou rces. Bu t
for fifteen year s we ha ve soaked u p “r esou rces” like a sp onge,
a n d we h a ve n ’t been a b l e to s h ow ours elves or a n y b o d y e ls e wh a t
we ar e prod u cing with th em .’
I was t horou ghly sick of police officers wh o s a id , ‘We ca n ’t d o it ’. It is
like a footballer who sa ys, ‘we can ’t score a ny goals’. Of c ou r s e h e
won ’t s c or e a n y , a n d h e won’t h elp the t eam . It is better to h ave on e
police officer wh o is pos itive, th an two wh o a re de feat ist . A defea tis t
policeman is n ot s im p ly a b u r d en of o n e on h is own. Negat ivity is like
a n in fect iou s d ise a se . Th er e is litt le n ega tivit y in Ha rt lep ool. In th e

p a r a d e room th e Ch ief Ins pect or in ch a rge of th e un iformed officers
te lls th os e wit h te n yea rs se rvice an d t h os e wit h ju st t h re e m on t h s
service, ‘Get ou t t h er e. Wh en you h ave to b e, b e a ggre ss ive in a
c o n t r o ll ed w a y . W e c a n d o i t ’.
In his a pproa ch to th e ‘hea rts a nd mind s’ of the workforce
itself, Ray Mallon modelled h im s e lf on s p o r ts ’ t ea m m a n a ge m en t
a n d le a d e r s h ip on t h e field . He was a great adm irer of Peter Reid ,
t h e m a n a g er o f S u n d e r l a n d AF C. Reid is determ ined an d
p a s s io n at e—a n d does n o t lik e losing. He had t aken over a squ ad
which was deficient in fo o tb a l le r s of t h e in d ivid u a l ca l ib r e p la yin g
fo r , s a y, M id d l e s b r ou g h or New c a s t le . Bu t b y go od m a n - m a n a ge-
m e n t a n d g o o d or g aniza tion on th e field, he h ad p rodu ced a
s u cces s fu l P r e m ie r Le a gu e team of whole-heart ed, determ ined
a n d w ell- or ga n ize d p la ye r s .
He as ked qu est ion s a n d listen ed to t h e a n s w e r s given b y other
s e n io r o ffic er s .
‘Wh y is cr im e g oin g t h r ou gh t h e r oo f?’
‘Wou ld you like to te ll m e wh a t yo u th in k w e c a n d o a b o u t i t ? ’
Th e s i ze a n d c h a r a c t e r of th e H a rt lep ool d ivis ion m a d e it a
compa ratively fa vo u ra b le en vir on m e n t w it h in w h ic h bo th go od
m a n - m a n age m en t a n d good t ea m tactics cou ld su cceed . Becau s e
of the s ma ll nu mb ers of police and civilian sta ff, the crime-
stra tegy ch ief could in ter act direct ly an d d aily with t he Com -
m an der of Hart lepool Distr ict, to wh om he w a s d i r e ct l y a n s w e r -
ab le, an d with th e h ead s of t h e C ID , t h e u n i fo r m e d o ffi ce r s a n d
t h e specialized s u p p o r t s e r vic es . Of cours e, they h a d to b e willin g
a n d a b l e to wor k a m ica bly t oget h er , a n d s ort ou t a n y difference s
between t h e m s elve s s a tis fa c to rily. Th e p er s on a lit ie s , s k ills a n d
comm itmen t of all of them , as it tu rned out, were equ a l t o t h e
t a s k . T h is e s s e n t i al e le m e n t in s u c c es s c a n n o t a l wa y s b e
r e p lic a t e d .
Th e per son ne l of th e dis trict com pr ised th e Dist rict Com -
m a n d er , a n d u n d er h im thr ee Chief Inspectors . One was the CI
in ch ar ge of Cr im e Ma n a ge m en t a n d C r im e Str at egy. The s econ d
CI wa s in ch a rg e o f Op er a tio n s . H e w a s re s p on s ib le for s ee in g
t h a t t h e c r im e stra tegy was implemen ted. Und er h im w er e n in e
In s p e ct or s , na mely, one fo r e a c h sh ift of th e fou r- sh ift twe n ty-
fo u r h ou r s ; on e for each of the fou r a rea s in to wh ich Ha rtlep ool
wa s d iv id e d fo r t h e p u r p o s e s o f c om m u n i t y p o lic e -t e a m w or k ;
a n d th e Dete ctive Ins pect or in c ha rge of the CID, th e m ost
im p or ta n t se ct ion of wh ich wa s t h e Op er a tion a l Int elligen ce

B ra n c h , u nd er a detect ive ser gean t. The CID was com pos ed of
th ree de tective sergea nt s a nd eighteen detect ive cons tab les.
In a d d i ti on t o C ID o ffi ce r s a n d s u p p o r t s t a f f, a t a n y o n e t im e
a bou t 12 -18 police officers cou ld be e xpect ed t o be a ctu ally on
d u t y in Ha rtlep ool, som e of th em in ca rs , a n d s om e o n foot . Th e
t h i r d of the ch ief in s p ec to rs wa s in c h a rge of t h e P er s on n e l,
Tr a in in g an d Welfare b ran ch. In a ddition, there wa s a sergean t
in c h a rge of Co m m u n it y Affa ir s a n d a s er ge a n t in c h a rge of t h e
C om m u n i ty S a fe ty b r a nc h (e a ch w it h five co n s ta b le s u n d er —a t
t h at tim e —h im ).
Wh a t i s m o r e , on th is scale the p articu lar flavour of ma na ge-
m e n t cou ld infu se t he whole wor kforce. Th e p a rticu lar flavou r of
m a n a ge m en t a t Har tlepool was t h a t of ‘win n in g wit hou t c h ea t in g,
win n in g w ith in th e ru les ’. Win n in g ou t s ide th e ru les rend ered
wh at one was doin g not j u s t u n j u s t o r u n f a ir , b u t m e a n in g le s s .
As R a y Ma l lo n p u t i t :
I com e from a sport ing back groun d. From th e age of 1 1 un til I was 2 2
I s w a m fo u r h o u r s a da y, six days a week . I played s port a t h igh level
u n t i l 2 3 , a s c a p t a i n o f t h e G r e a t B r it a i n u n d e r - 2 0 wa t e r pol o te a m ,
a n d th en on th e s en ior t ea m . Don ’t c h ea t! You a re on ly ch ea tin g
you rs elf!
Team Work and Team Spir it

S u p er vis in g a s ma ll workforce , t h e d rivin g-force of the op era tion
co u ld ta k e a pe rs on a l in te re s t in th e c a re of h is s u b o r d in ates
—‘t r ea t pe op le p rop er ly’. Ra y Mal lo n s a ys e a s i ly a s a s e c r e t a r y
comes u p t o u s , a n d i n h e r p r e s e n c e , ‘I r ec r u i t ed h e r . I will t r y to
m ove h e r c a r e e r a l o n g . C iv il ia n s a r e a s i m p o r t a n t a s p olic e
officers.’
Som e orga niza tiona l stru ctu res a r e too l a r ge to b e a m ena ble to
a n yt h in g bu t qu ite excep tiona l cha rism at ic leade rs hip . Som e
orga niza tiona l s t r u c t u r e s a r e on a s c a l e s m a l l e n o u g h t o m a k e
le a de rs h ip poss ible, bu t lack th e neces sa ry cha r is m a t i c l ea d e r .
I n H a r t le p o o l, fr o m 1 9 9 4 t o 1 9 9 6 (a t l e a s t ), t h e re wa s a s m a ll
hom ogene ou s t e a m , p r e par ed b y t h e pr evious le a d e r s h ip , a n d a n
in n ova tive l ea d e r , w h o s e s t y le a n d a c h i e ve m e n t s co u ld be bu ilt
o n b y h is s u c c e s s o r s .
It a lw a ys h a s t o b e re m em b e re d th a t a ‘policy’ on t h e gr ou n d
d e p e n d s up on th e per s o n n e l wh o op er a te it, a n d th e s p irit in
which th ey do it. It ca n eas ily be imagined th at ‘zero-toleran ce’

policing (e s p e c ia l ly wi t h t h a t t i t le ) c o u l d d r ift i n t o h am -fisted
b u llyin g w e r e it n o t k e p t u n d e r c o n s t a n t s u r v e il la n c e , o r in t o
‘goin g th rou gh t h e m otions ’ in a n over-large, over-bu r e a u c r a t ized
orga niza tion. An e s s e n t i a l e le m e n t i n t h e H ar tlepool s itu at ion
was t h e fact tha t th ere wa s n o friction a t a ll between Ray Mallon
a n d t h e thr ee s u ccess ive Com m a n d e r s of t h e Har tlepool division ,
T er r y Rom ea n es , Pa u l Ga rvi n a n d Ch ris tin e Twig g. P a u l Ga rvin
was Com ma nd er for m o s t of th e p e r io d , fr o m S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 4 t o
Ap r i l 1 9 96 , a n d h e sh owed c ons ta nt cou ra ge an d d eter m ina tion
in d efe n din g t h e in n o va t ive wo rk b ein g un derta ken . ‘He tru sted
m y judgement. He b a ck e d m e u p . ’ F o r a s long a s Ray Mallon wa s
ther e, t h e r e w a s ‘n e v e r a n y li gh t b e t w e e n m e a n d a n y of t h e
C om m a n d e r s , wheth er T er r y Romean es, Pa u l G a r v in or S u p e r in -
tend ent Mrs. Twigg’. Where ther e is n ot t h is s olid a rit y a m on g
sen ior offic e r s , o f c ou r s e , t h e r es u l t s c a n b e ex p ec t e d t o b e
d i ffe r e n t .
Beca u se of th e h om ogene ity of th e ba ckgr ou nd of mos t of h is
o ffi ce r s , from t h e sa m e h ea vy in d u s t r ia l a r ea o f s o u th D u r h a m
a n d Teesside, th e pr oblem was m inim ized of cons cious , or m o r e
often u n c o n s c i ou s , d is p a r i t i es i n w h a t i s t a ke n fo r gr a n t ed a s
s e n sib le a n d d e s ir a b l e over a h o s t of m a t t e r s a n d in a ll t h e nook s
a n d c r a n n i es o f d e c is i o n - t a k in g a n d c o n s e n t .
Te a m - w or k , h e r e a s in a n y ot h e r b u s in e s s or game, d epend ed
on sp ecialization on t h e on e h a n d , a n d sh ared k n o w le d ge a n d co-
o r d in a t i o n o n t h e o t h e r .
Mot iva tin g t h e t ea m , a n d s h a rin g kn o wle d ge a bo u t t h e
o p p o n e n t , t h e r o le o f e a c h m e m b e r , t h e cu rren t con ditions , an d
t h e s ta te of p la y, w a s fos te re d by Ra y Ma llon ’s r e i n forc in g h is
m e s s a ge a t w e ek ly a n d ot h er meet ings. The intelligence br an ch
of the Ha rtlep ool d ivis io n wa s p u t a t t h e h u b o f o p er a t io n s .
Arou nd th e h u b, bu t in te ra ct in g with each oth e r , w e r e t h e c r im e
d e s k , receiving informa tion an d pa ss ing it to the int elligence
bra nch fo r d is s em in a t io n th r ou gh o u t t h e s y s t e m , t h e u n i fo r m
b r an c h , the l oc a l b eat officers (LBOs), CID, and th e specialized
field officer s . As Ra y Ma llon s a id :
They a ll h a v e t o k n ow th eir b it - p a rt s . Th e im p ortan ce of each role an d
of its pa rt in th e overa ll stra tegy is a me ss age t ha t h as to be con -
s t a n t l y r e in f or c e d . I t is a m a t t er of ‘gel lin g’ th e d iffer en t p a r t s of t h e
workforce.
Not s u r p ris in gly t h e b oo k o n m a n a g e m e n t t h a t m os t a p pe a ls

t o h im i s Ma r k H. Mc Co rm a c k ’s T h e 1 1 0 % S o lu t io n ,2 4 for
McCormack is on e o f h is ge n er a ti on ’s g r e a t m o t i va t o r s o f t h e
wor ld ’s top sp ortsm en. ‘I have my officers rea d it. I som etimes
quote p a ra gr a ph s from McCorma ck a t m eet in gs to m a k e a point. ’
You mu st get s tru ct u re righ t [Mallon s a i d ]. You’ve got to get roles and
resp ons ibilities r i gh t . E a c h o f t h e r e li efs , e a c h t e a m , o ve r t h e twen ty-
four h o u r s h a s to b e b a la n c ed a n d b le n d ed a s a t ea m . E a ch t e a m
need s som eon e good w ith inform a n t s . T o b e g oo d w it h i n fo r m a n t s th e
officer ha s to h ave pres ence a nd pers ona lity—perh aps one in five of
CID officers. You n eed som eone wh o is depen dab le in car rying ou t
b a s i c tas ks. If a t all p oss ible you wan t s om eon e with flair. You t ry t o
find a cou ple for ea ch te am wh o h ave th e b as ic skills, an d wh o stick
t o t h e job—the h ewers of wood a n d d raw ers of w a te r. Th e b e s t footba ll
t ea m s a r e t h o s e t h a t d o a ll th in gs r igh t. Th ey h ave m as te re d b as ic
sk ills . Th ey ea ch kn ow wh at th e ga m e-p lan is. Th ey p at ien tly d o a ll
t h in gs compet ent ly. Within t he s t r u ctu re an d th e bas ic skills, when
t h e openin g app ears th ey s u cc ee d w it h fla ir . Yo u ke ep t h e stru ctu re,
sh ape, blend , even when th ings a re goin g b ad ly. A good m an ag er is
one who does n’t lose his n erve and th e faith in h is principles u nd er
t h e pr es su re of failu re . Th e fir st wee k I g ot th er e I s aid : ‘Th is is t h e
s t r a t eg y. It wo r k s . I wo n ’t c h a n ge it . S t ic k t o t h e s t r a t eg y!’
Du r in g h i s 2 2 y e a r s ’ p o li ce s e r v ic e h e h a d s p e n t m o s t of h is
t i m e in th e C ID. ‘Bu t I h a d co m e fr om th e u n iform br a n ch like
e ve r yb o d y else. Som e CID officer s for get th a t t h ey d id too. I won ’t
p u t u p with t ha t. I am pro-u niform, p ro-CID, pr o -p olice .’ In h is
p r eviou s po st , a s a de te ct ive in sp ect or a t S ou th Ba n k, Lan g-
b au gh (1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 2 ), h e h a d worked with u n ifor m ed p olice officer s
m o r e t h a n w it h o t h e r C ID o ffi ce r s . H is s t r a te gy t h e r e h a d
contribu ted to th e red u ction of hou se bu rglaries b y 3 3 pe r c en t
in tw o ye a rs . Th e le s s on h e h a d d ra w n fr om h i s S ou t h B a n k
y ea r s w a s t h a t fa v ou r a b l e r es u lts co u ld be ga in ed from clos in g
t h e trad itiona l gap b etween th e t w o b r an c h e s —e s p e cia l ly b y
c om b a t in g the d e h a u t e n ba s a t t i t u d e o f th e d et ec tive s . H e is
t h e r e fo r e a n a d voc a te of th e e qu a lity o f st a tu s a n d th e h a rm on i-
zat ion of th e work of the CID an d of un iform ed officers. Un i-
fo r m e d c o n s t a b l e s a n d C ID o ffi ce r s p a t r o ll ed t o ge t h e r .
In d e ta il, i n t e r na l mor ale wa s a lso a m at ter of the good
m a n n er s of colleagues in their r e la t io n s h i p s with one a n o t h e r . To
s a y ‘d e ta il’ is n ot to sa y ‘u n im portant’. As t h e G er m a n s a yin g h a s
it, ‘Th e D evil is in th e d et a ils ’.
In v o l v i n g t h e C i t i z e n r y
An effort to re -in tr od u ce th e p er va s ive a n d u n r e fle ct ive (b e ca u s e
tak en for gran ted ) sen se of res pon sibility of all ad u lts for
m a in t a in in g decent a n d r e a s o n a b le good o r der in t h eir own stree t
a n d loca lity, wit h du e a llowa n ce for h igh s pir its , in divi d u a l it y,
a n d with a proper d is d a in for t h e i n t e r fer in g b u s y b od y a n d n o s ey
p a r k e r , was a s ch em e in tr od u ced in 1 9 9 5 - 9 6 . In ‘Rin gmaster’ th e
Har tlepool police, th e pa rticipa nt s in Neighbou rh oo d Watch
s c h em e s , a n d repres enta tives from th e governm ent-fun ded C it y
Ch a llen ge e xc h a n g e d m e s s a ge s t h r o u gh a s h a r e d c om p u ter
n e t w o r k abou t, for exam ple, where th ere h a d been sp at e of
bu rglaries, or whe re t he re wa s a bogu s ca ller or som eon e
b e h a v in g in a s u s p i ci ou s m a n n e r .
As an other way of r e s t o r in g a n d s ym b olizin g local civilia n in p u t
i n t o , confidence in , an d res pon sibility for, th e civil safety of their
own comm un ities, w it h o u t t h e d i s or d e r o f d e s p e r a t e ‘en d of ou r
teth er’ vigilant e m oveme nt s, t wen ty n ew sp ecial con st ables were
recru ited in the two years du ring which DCI Mallon wa s h e a d o f
c r im e s tr a te gy. Th e r es p on s ib ility o f all law-ab iding citizens to
m a in t a in th e con dition s of t h eir own fre ed om to go a b ou t t h eir
b u s in e s s with in th e fra m ewor k a pp rove d b y cus tom a n d p e r m i t-
ted b y la w , w it h o u t t h e f a c t a n d f ea r o f u n l a wfu l d is r u pt ion of it,
was sym bo lized a ls o b y t h e co-oper at ion o f t h e Labou r-con trolled
Bor ou gh Cou n cil in th e r ec ru itm en t o f th es e ‘sp ec ia ls ’. 2 5
Th e id e a of t h e u n ifo rm c ove r in g n ot a m a r t in e t b u t ju s t
an other c ivilia n a t te n din g t o t h e d u ties tha t lay on all citizens
was a s tr on g s tr a n d in th e id eo logy, a n d th er efor e in th e a ct u a l-
ity , of E n glis h s oc ia l con tr ol.
In a c on ve rs a t io n No rm a n D en n is h a d rea son to believe was
fr a n k , a m i d d l e -r a n k i n g p ol ic e o ffi ce r s a i d t o h i m :
Ray Mallon t o ok p osses sion of the crim e problem . Things ch an ged
d r a m a t ic a lly . E ve r yo n e h a d been do in g h is b e s t . B u t t h e re wa s n o
st ra tegy u n til Ra y ca m e. Now th er e a re co-o rd in at ed po lice t e am s
in s t e a d of isolated bea t offic e r s . We a r e t a r g et i n g t h e ‘h a r d b a s k e t ’.
B u r g la r y is the m ost difficult crime, s o t h e b u r g la r t h e r efo r e fi n d s n o
difficu lty an d n o motivation al ba r to com mitt ing lesser crimes . We
d i s ru p t his act ivities, a n d t h at st ops his less er cr ime s a s well. Ra y
edu cated us . We didn’t n eed m uch convincing. We had cr im e review
m eet ings e ve r y W ed n e s d a y a t 2 p. m . Ra y in sis te d t h at ever y a vail a b le
officer w as t h ere—to b e in for m ed , t o b e t old wh a t wa s ex p ec t ed of u s ,
a n d to give motivation s peech es . Th a t h ad n ot ha ppen ed before.

Foot ba ll t e a m ? Absolu tely! Th a t was Ray’s way of gett ing t h e m es sa ge
a c r os s . Hist orica lly th ere’s been a gu lf between u n iform a n d CID. Ra y
created team ha rm ony between us . The CID, a n d p r ob a bly the res t of
t h e police, were mot ivated by th e comm itmen t an d dr ive of Ray
Mallon. T h e r e is n o need to b u l l h i m u p . E ve r yb o d y adm ires w h a t h e ’s
don e—police an d pu blic. Hou se bu rg la ry a n d o ver -a ll cr im e h a ve
fallen m on th by m on th . It’s wor ke d. It’s pr oved to b e r igh t. Th is is
policing in Ha rtlep ool District n ow.
A de te ct ive s er gea n t s a id of a pa rt icu la r in cid en t: ‘Th is is a
t yp ic a l exa m p l e of Har tlepool police a t w or k . It’s n o t ju s t t h e fron t
lin e t h a t tac kles cr ime. We all ha ve the s am e ph ilosoph y an d we
all do our bit.’2 6
P u bl i c Co n f i d e n c e i n t h e P o li c e
Ide a lly, of cou rs e, a so cia l su rve y wou ld h a ve been carried ou t a t
le a s t be fore th e a rr iva l of Ra y Ma llon in t h e H a rtlepool Division
a n d a ft er h e h a d le ft t o g ive a m or e r el ia b le in d ic a t ion of t h e
cha racter a n d d i s t r ib u t i on o f d iffe r e n t op in i on s a n d s ha des of
opin ion. But in th e ab sen ce of s u ch sa mp le-survey data we m u s t
d o wit h wh a t w e h a ve. Norman Denn is entered into casu al
con vers at ion with H a rt le pu d lia n s in order to r a is e t h e t o p ic of th e
Mallon ré gim e. Th er e w er e a few s ce p tic s wh o d en ied th a t c rim e
h a d fa l le n , e s p e c ia l ly wh e n t h e y h a d a r e c e n t t a l e t o t e l l of
them selves or their acqu ainta nces h a vin g b ee n vic tim s . B u t t h e
va s t m a jo rit y s a id t h ey fe lt s a fe r a n d t h a t t h is w a s t h e r e s u l t of
th e n ew c rim e s tr a te gy.
Whatever th e figu re s, wh a t p eop le th ou gh t abou t crime, th eir
fe a r of crime, a n d w h a t th e y t h o u gh t a b ou t p o lic e e ffe ct ive n e ss
on t h e i r b e h a l f, w e r e i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t io n s in H ar tlepool’s
c r im e s tr a te gy. Th e s tr a te gy wa s a im e d n ot jus t at th e law-
brea ker o r t h e s o c ia l n u i s a n c e , n o t ju s t a t t h e w o r k fo r c e , b u t a t
p u b l ic op in ion . Pu b lic opin ion was a ls o a p lace in the old vicious
s p ir a l th at cou ld be b rok en into with ben eficial effects on t h e
other p h a s e s. Ra y Mallon ’s a p po in t m en t wa s t im e ly fr om t h is
poin t of view . Th e p u b lic w a s re a d y to be co n vin ce d by h im th a t
t h e police ou gh t t o a n d co u ld do s om et h in g a b ou t c rim in a ls in
Har tlepool. Th e p u b l ic a n d p olit ic ia n s were u p i n a r m s . Wh a t a r e
t h e po lice d oin g a b o u t i t ? H e h a d b e e n a s k e d b y t h e As s i s t a n t
Chief C on s t a b l e Ken H o r n e r : ‘Ca n you redu ce crime?’ He believed
h e c o u l d , b y b r e a k in g in t o t h e v ic io u s s p i r a l a t a n y p o in t t o t u r n
it in t o a vir tu o u s on e . I m p r o ved p e r fo r m a n c e b y p ol ic e le a d s t o
in creas ed p u b l ic confiden ce in t h e police. Th a t le a d s to in creas ed
p u b l ic su pport for the police. Tha t feeds back into improved
performan ce by police.
On 1 9 April 1 9 9 4 , t h e d a y after h e took u p h is appointment, h e
app roach ed the local newsp aper s a nd sa id tha t th e police ha d
becom e too sa tisfied th at wh at th ey were doing was as mu ch a s
they co u ld do ; in t h a t s ens e they ha d becom e complacen t. He
s a i d : ‘We s h a ll re d u ce cr im e. It w e d on ’t r ed u ce it w ith in tw elve
mon th s, I’ll as k to b e rem oved as Detective Chief Ins pector .’
‘I soon c onclu ded th at p u blic opinion was a cr u cial ma tter . I
decided to go to media at ever y op po rt u n ity. I will t a lk t o t h e m a t
a m omen t’s n otice.’
An inspection of the file shows th e loc a l p r es s co m in g r ou n d
week b y week to h is p oint of view. At first h e is the ‘co n tr ove rs ia l’
DCI, t h e n t h e ‘ou t s p o k e n ’ D C I a n d fi n a l ly a n d p e r m a n e n t l y t h e
‘p o p u l a r ’ DCI. W il li a m J . B r a t t o n w a s C o m m i s s i o n e r of the New
Yo r k Police Depa rtm en t for on ly 27 m ont h s . Th er e wa s s om e
q u e s tio n th a t his popu larity with th e pu blic ha d m ade h im le s s
tha n p opu lar in other circles. Making this point, th e local press
s a id t h a t ‘lu ck ily for Ha rt lep ool, DC I Ma llon is still in place’, wit h
t h e su pport of his th en com ma nd er, Su per in t en d e n t C h ris t in e
Twigg, a n d h i s c o ll ea g u e C h i e f I n s p e c t or Dave Nixon. 2 7 Typ ica l
h e a d lin e s by m id -1 9 9 6 we re : ‘Cr ook s s en d h im h a te m a il bu t
p u b l ic t h i n k h e ’s g r e a t ’, 2 8 or ‘Detec tive mor e th an a m at ch for
yobs ’. 2 9
Th e p r in t e d a n d e le ct r on ic m ed ia , t h a t h a d p re vio u s ly looked
to ‘exp erts’ from th e local polytechn ics or un iversities to i n t e r p r et
a n d co m m en t o n cr im e a n d po lice a ct iviti e s —w h ich t h e y h a d
been doing according to the world-view s t e m m in g fr om t h e
s t u d en t m o ve m e n ts o f t h e 19 6 0 s —n o w p r in t e d a n d br oa d c a s t
m o r e e a s ily th e w or ld -view un derlying th e Hartlepool police
stra tegy. From u nd erm ining confiden ce in the p olice an d
sym pa th y for th e victim, t he n ew me ss ages reinforced b oth .
Ra y Mallon comm ented on t h e in c on gr u en c e between w h a t th e
police we re do in g a n d wh a t t h e c ou rt s we re do in g. He sa w h is
‘pr ofit m a r gin ’, h i s ‘g oa l ta l ly ’, a s b e in g t ie d u p with t he disp osa l
of th e s u sp ect s t h e p olice b rou gh t in to t h e ju dic ial s yst em . ‘I t ’s
lik e a footb all tea m gettin g in fron t of th e go a l—a n d t h e b a ll is
kn ocked o ve r t h e b a r.’30 Rhetorically addres sing the m agistrat es
a n d the jud ges, h e sa id: ‘My “pr ofit” is t he red u ction in in c id en ts

of criminal activity. The p olic e a re pr ot ec tin g th e la w- a b id in g
pu blic. You are failing to do so. You ar e letting th e pu blic down
e ve r y d a y. “In n oc en t u n les s pr ove n gu ilty b eyo n d re a s on a b le
d o u b t ” is a grea t an d pr ecious ru le. But we ha ve the problem of
h o w thos e found guilty are trea ted b y the cou rts .’ He u sed bot h
t h e med ia an d pu blic meetings t o pu t th is mes s age a cross . ‘I
h a ve n o th in g to wor ry a b ou t. Wh a t I s a y is tr u e. I ca n ba ck it u p
with facts .’
It is n ot u n likely t h a t h e im p a c te d on g en e r a l La b ou r p a r ty
t h in k in g on c rim e from m i d -1 9 9 5 . Peter Ma n d els on , t h e local MP
in flu e n t ia l in t h e in n e r cou n c ils o f t h e La b o u r pa r t y, wa s pres en t
a t a p u b l ic meeting a t t h e H a rtlepool civic c e n t r e atten ded b y 1 5 0
p e op le a s p a r t o f a n a n t i - jo yr i din g c a m pa ign . Ray Mallon to ld th e
au dience t h a t it was time for p e op le to ‘s t a n d u p a n d b e c ou n t e d ’.
He s a id t h a t t h e o r d in a r y 1 6 - or 17 -year -old c rim in a l d id n o t c a re
a bou t a n ybody else. ‘He’d sell h is own gr a n dm o th e r for a s h illin g.’
But h e was a c o wa r d who wou ld r u n if h e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e r e wa s
a cha nce t h a t h e wou ld b e locked u p . Th e p olice w er e d oin g th eir
jo b wit h in t h e r u le s . Th e m a gis t r a te s we r e n o t d o in g th e ir s .
A s e n i o r m a g i s t r a t e s a i d t h a t t h e r e m a r k s w e r e ‘u n b a la n c e d ’.
P e rh a p s m is s in g th e p oin t a b ou t s en te n cin g, a n d th e e s s en tia l
u n d e rlyin g t r e n d t h a t b e t we e n 1 95 4 a n d 1 99 4 th e odd s of a
convicted criminal bein g s e n t to prison h ad fallen by 80 per
c e n t , 3 1 h e co n ce n tr a te d o n t h e sepa rate qu estion of the fairnes s
of a n y gu i lt y ve r dic t a n d sa id t h a t m a gis t r a te s ‘lis t en t o t h e
pr osec u tion a nd defen ce, a nd th en com e u p with a d ecision ’.
But DC I Ma llon ’s s p ee ch m et wit h wid e s p r e a d p u b l ic
a p p r ova l. 3 2 ‘Fed-u p r e s i d e n t s a r e g iv in g t h e i r fu l l s u p p o r t t o t h e
town’s top d etective after rea ding a bou t h is cont roversial views
on th e legal system .’
Th e town ’s p opu lat ion is s ingin g h is p r a i s e s . ‘H e h a s s p o k e n f or t h e
town an d I ad mir e h im for d oing s o’, sa id Ted Red din gton , of Ard ros -
s a n C o u r t . ‘I t ot a lly back h im , agree w ith a ll h e s a y s , a n d con gra tu lat e
h im on h is hon esty.’ His wife, Dor is, st ron gly a gre ed , a n d h aile d Mr
Mallon as t he rea l voice of th e town. ‘He’s very m u c h i n t o u c h w it h
w h a t m o s t p eo p le fe e l’, s h e s a id .
Ron ald Ince, wh o lives in S e a ton C a r e w , wa s d e l ig h t e d t o re a d M r .
Mallon’s c o m me n ts in Mo n d a y’s Ma il. ‘He’s on ly sa ying w h a t everyon e
in th e t own is s ay in g in th e p u bs an d b et wee n th eir frien ds ’, s aid Mr.
Ince. ‘I for one fu lly s u p p or t h im a n d t h i n k h i s b o s s e s s h o u l d d o t h e

sa me ...’
Nesseel S k i r vi n g [a b u r g l a r y vict im ] . . . i s r el ie ve d t o s e e a p r o m -
in en t a n d p o werfu l po lice officer sp ea k u p for pe op le lik e h im . ‘Nea rly
5 0 per cen t of th e town h as been affected by crime ... At the m omen t
cr im in als ar e lau ghin g at th e law. Mr. Ma llon is s p ea k in g fo r t h e
pe op le o f t h e to wn w h o h a ve to d ea l w it h t h e d a y-t o -d a y rea lity of
crime.’
Two m o r e vi ct i m s , C on n i e H a y wo o d , fr o m G r e a t h a m , a n d D oris
B a in e s , o f B la k e lo ck Ro a d , a d d ed t h eir n a m e s to th e h a t o f u n a n -
imou s su pport for th e sen ior detective. Both wholehe a r tedly agree
w it h him an d sa y he h as touch ed th e h u ge co n cer n m os t p eop le a r e
feelin g a b ou t crime a nd how b est to de al with th e pr oblem . Dozen s of
other pe op le in t h e Middleton Gra nge Sh opping Cen tre ... gave a
spirited th u mb s u p t o Mr. Mallon’s co mments . ‘T h e y a r e t h e b e s t a n d
tru est words I’ve read for years’, said on e.
Th e ch a ir of t h e H a rt le p oo l C rim e Pr eve n t io n Pa n e l, wh o h a d
worked w it h V ic t im S u p p o r t fo r fou r t e e n yea rs, s aid th at la w-
a b id in g fa m i lie s a r e b e in g le t do wn b y t h e co u r ts .
I d e fe n d a n d s u p p o r t Mr Mallon to th e hilt (she sa id). I have seen
so c ie t y becom e mo re a n d m ore terrorized by th e cr im in al elemen t a n d
m o r e a n d m o r e let down b y t h e p r es en t g ov ernme n t, t h e j u d iciar y an d
t h e ma gistrat es. The m ee t in g o n S a t u r d a y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e
pe op le of Ha r tlepool reflect the m ood of people a c r os s t h e cou n tr y. We
h a v e h a d en ou gh of th is soft tou ch t oward s th ose wh o brea k th e law.
... If we o r d in a r y citizens c a n see w h a t is h a p p en in g in s ociety, why on
e a r th ca n ’t t h e go ver n m en t? I ca n te ll you wh y t h ey c a n ’t. It i s s i m p ly
b e ca u s e th ey d o n o t live in t h e r e a l w or ld . Ray Mallon is t h e b e s t t h in g
to ha ppen to Hart lepool since sliced bread .
In an swer to a r equ e s t from the m agistrat es to sp ecify cases,
Ma llon ga ve t h e follo win g ex a m p les :
• A 1 5 - ye a r -o ld wa s a r r est ed eigh teen tim es in jus t fifteen mon th s for
offences s u c h a s r o b b e r y, t h r ea ten ing b eh aviou r, b u rgla ry a n d
cr im in al dam age. He was give n an 1 8 -m o n th s u s p e n s i on orde r. In th e
ne xt s ix m on t h s h e w a s a r r e s t e d a fu r t h e r t e n t i m e s fo r a s s a u l t ,
b u r g l a r y, att emp ted b u r gla ry, cr im in al d a m a ge a n d s h op -lift in g. Wh en
h e was fina lly tak en back to co u rt, t h e ma gistrat es s i m p ly revoked th e
pr evious s u s p e n s i on o r d e r a n d r e p la c e d it w it h a n o t h e r o n e fo r 1 8
months.
• A g a n g a t t a c k e d a p o li ce m a n w h o t r i e d t o b re ak u p a d ru nk en b ra wl
in Ha rt lep ool. Th e policeman su sta ined a do u ble fra c ture of t h e cheek -
bon e, s e r io u s c u t s t o t h e he ad , bite m ar ks on a l e g a n d a r i p p e d ea r ,
a n d l o s t t w o t e e t h . On ly t h re e of t h e a ss a ila n ts wer e s en te n ce d. Th e
one who received the h eaviest pu nish men t w a s fou nd guilty of
wou n din g w it h in t en t . Th is cr im e c a r r ie s a m a xim u m s en t en ce of li fe
im p ris on m en t . B u t h e received a two-year prison sen ten ce, of which
h e s e rve d on l y t w el ve m o n t h s .
• A w om a n s u f fe r ed a t h r ee -y ea r or d ea l of violence at t he h an ds of her
h u s b a n d . Th e p o li ce a r r es t e d h im 1 4 t im e s fo r a s s a u lt an d b rea ch of
t h e peace b e fo re h e w a s r em a n d e d i n c u s t o d y. H e a p p l ie d for b a il a n d
wa s relea sed by th e crown cou rt ju dge’s ord er. The n ext da y he wa s
a g a in arr ested for an oth er inciden t at his h ome, a n d an other s t rin g of
offences followed.
Ray Mallon was pu blicly back ed b y t h e Cle vela n d police, wh os e
s p ok e s m a n sa id tha t he p robab ly echoed ‘the fee lin gs a n d
fr u s t r a tions o f m a n y o ffic er s —n o t o n ly in t h e c ou n t y b u t in t h e
c o u n t r y a s a w h o l e ’. The comm an der of the Hartlepool police
division, Pa u l G a rvin , a n n ou n c ed pu blicly t h a t h e back ed Mallon
‘all the wa y’.
In an open letter to th e ma gistra tes two of the town ’s p rom i-
n e n t c o m m u n i t y l ea d e r s , a La bou r c ou n c illo r a n d t h e c h a ir m a n
of th e Owton Fen s Com m u nity Action G r o u p , c a l le d o n t h e m t o
s h ow ‘u n e q u i vo c a l s u p p o r t t o t h e po lice ’. It a s k ed th em to ‘join
w it h the local com m u n i t y i n d e m a n d i n g a r e vi ew o f t h e p o w e rs
a n d du ties of the m agistrat es an d th e r o le a n d e ffi ci en c y o f t h e
Crown Prosecu tion Service, to enab le the ma gistra tes t o t a k e a
stron ger p o s i t io n t o e x a c t fi r m p u n i s h m e n t o n t h e m in o rit y w h o
m a k e life s o d ifficu lt for t h e p e op le of Har tlepool’. Th ey a ls o wrot e
to Peter Ma n d els on , MP, a s k in g h im to ‘p r ess the Hom e Office for
a s olution to juvenile an d “nuisa nce” crime’.
A Liberal Democr at cou n c il lo r u r g e d t h e l oc a l n e w s p a p e r t o
‘h a il his a ttack on th e courts ’. It was ab out t ime, s h e s a id , t h a t
som eone h ad ‘spoken up for the p eople’.
S i gn i fi ca n t l y fo r t h e m u c h w id e r in flu e n c e o f t h is s p ee ch a n d
t h e p u b l ic rea ction to it, ‘Mr Ma n d e ls on fu lly back ed DCI Mallon’s
c o m m e n t s a n d s a id h e th o u gh t t h e va s t m a jor i t y of people in
Ha rt lep ool w ou ld a ls o s u p p or t h im ’. It w en t w ith ou t s a yin g t h a t
a n y s u s p e c t m u s t b e d e a lt w it h a c c o r ding to t h e du e process es
of t h e law. For th e p r o t e c t ion of t h e innocen t justice m u s t b e fair ;
a n d fo r t h e s a fe gu a r d of t h e s y s t e m i t m u s t b e s e e n t o b e fa i r .
But in h e rently the guilty h a d n o ‘right’ to b e fo u n d innocent; t h at
r i gh t was t o defend the inn ocent, n ot them . The police an d t h e
m a g is t r a te s , M r. Ma n d e lson s a i d , w e r e fa c i n g ‘d e fi a n t , s m a r t ,
experienced c rim in a ls of wha tever age, m a n y of wh om h a ve cle ver
l a wy er s o n h a n d to t a ke a dva n t a ge of a n y c h in k o r w ea k n e s s in
t h e process ’. The MP s aid t ha t h e wou ld n ot h esita te to q u est ion
a n y p a r t o f t h e s y s t e m t h a t w a s l e t t in g d o wn t h e s id e th a t wa s
fighting crime. 3 3
When Lord Ch ie f J u s t ice Taylor s aid t ha t cr imin als were n ot
a fr a id of prison , bu t wer e afra id of being cau ght by th e police,
Ray M a llo n p u b l ic ly d is a g r ee d . He told a m eet in g of 80 Neigh -
bou rh ood W a t c h co- or d in a to rs in Se a to n Ca re w t h a t c rim in a ls
h a d n o n e e d t o fe a r b e in g c a u g h t if t h e y d id n ot fear tha t th ey
wou ld b e p u n is h ed if t h ey w er e c a u gh t. ‘Th e p olic e d o ve ry we ll
in a r r e s t i n g c r im in a l s in e x t r e m e l y d i ffi cu l t c ir c u m s t a n c e s w it h
t h e odds sta cked in favour of the accu sed pers on .. . Wh a t deter s
c r im in a ls is t h e lik elih o od of t h em b ein g c a u g h t , c on v i ct e d a n d
s e n t e n c e d to im pr is on m en t f or p erio d s w h ich fit th e c rim e. All
p u b l ic services a r e a c c o u n t a b l e t o t h e p e o p le , b u t it seem s to m e
th at t he ju diciary is accou nt ab le to no-on e.’3 4
DCI Ma llon add ress ed m a n y p u b l ic m eet in gs , both to re-inforce
h is m e d i a m e s s a ge , a n d t o ga u g e w h a t the p eople who atten ded
t h e mee tings t hou ght a bou t crim e, p olic in g , a n d t h e ge n e r a l
system of la w a n d o r d e r . In t h e m o n t h o f M a y 1 9 9 6 , fo r exa m p le,
h e a d d r e s s e d 2,0 00 peop le at 3 6 p u blic me etin gs in Har tlepool
alone. Th e atten dan ce a t a s in gle meeting was som etimes a s h igh
a s 300 . As kn owled ge of Har tlepool’s n ew policing s prea d, h e
fo u n d h im s elf in vited to meetings in oth er towns an d cou nties. 3 5
His m e s s a ge was t h a t t h e crimin al wa s n o w con tem pt u ou s of th e
la w- a b id in g p u b l ic a n d o f t h e la w - a b id in g pu blic’s rea ction to h is
d e p re d a tio n s :
I wa n t t o get rid of th e fear of crime so th at p eople can feel safe when
th ey walk down th e street an d wh en t h e y a r e s it ting in th eir own
h om es —if th ey ca n ’t d o th at th ey a re n ot t ru ly free . Th e cr im in a ls
h a v e ta ken over ou r gr o u n d o v e r t h e years. I wan t it back ... Our
voices ar e alread y b e in g h e a r d a c r o s s t h e c ou n t r y . P e op l e k n o w t h a t
families in Hartlepool are fed u p with cr ime. 3 6
‘Im a g e is im p o r t a n t , b u t on ly t o s h o w s u b s t a n ce .’ The cr im e
s t r a t e g y i n v o lv e d p e r s u a d i n g t h e p u b l i c d i r e c t l y, n o t b y ‘i m a g e -
m a k in g ’, b u t b y r e s u l t s , t h a t t h e p o l ic e w e r e e f fec tive on th eir
b e h a lf.
I received a lett er sign ed by 2 0 p eop le a bo u t c rim e a n d a n ti-s ocia l
beh aviou r. I invited t h e writer of t h e letter to a meet i n g t wo d a y s la t e r .
We sh owed h er th e t ru th ab ou t H ar tle po ol’s un ited fron t. Th e ch ief of

t h e u n iform ed b ra n ch was th ere . So w as th e co-or din at or of Neigh -
bou rh ood Watch .
Th e orga nizer of th e petition sa id, ‘It is very nice of you to see m e,
an d so s oon. I ap precia te it. I k n o w y o u ca n ’t d o a n y t h in g a b ou t it’.
I sa id, ‘Don ’t s ay th at ! We can n ot e ra dic at e cr im e a n d a n ti-s ocia l
b eh a vio u r . B u t we ca n d o s om et h in g. We a r e v er y p os it ive h er e!’
I took h er along to th e CID. While sh e was s tan ding th ere w ith m e
I sa id, ‘Wha t s hou ld we d o?’ The d etect ives sa id, ‘We sh ou ld go ou t
t h er e a n d m a ke it h a pp en !’
Th a t was t h e Th u r s d a y. By the Mo n d a y the re was n o problem , a n d
sixteen s u s p e c t s h a d b ee n lock ed u p. In a place as sm all and settled
a s Hart lepool, that s ort of thing feeds rou nd . There’s m ore confidenc e
in t h e police. T h ere’s mo re s u p p o rt for t h e police. Police w ork is easier .
Th e m o r a l e of t h e l a w -a b i d in g e le m e n t s i s r a i s e d , a n d t h e m o r ale of
t h e la w - b re a k in g e le m e n t s is s a p p e d .
Th is kind of trea tm ent dep end s, a gain, o n t h e sm all sca le of
t h e Ha r t le p oo l op er a t ion , a n d t h e p os s ib ilit y, t h er efo r e, of t h e
d yn a m ic im p u ls e b e in g a p p lie d d ir e c tly fr o m t h e t op t o t h e
ordinar y mem ber of the pu blic.
In relation to mem b ers of t h e p u b l ic , a s i n t h e r e l a t io n o f t h e
o ffi ce r s t o o n e a n o t h e r , M a ll on i n s i s t ed on ‘gentlema nliness ’.
When the m ovement to d enigrate m en a n d r ep r es e n t t h e fa m ily
a s a m e c h a n i s m t h r o u g h w h ic h t h e y c ou l d ‘lega lly’ a b u s e t h eir
p h y sic a l s u p e r i or it y in b r u t a l ly d om in a t in g women a n d children ,
t h e detractors h a d to turn to t h e French la n gu a g e—m a le ‘c h a u vin -
is m ’, an d th e Italian —‘ma ch ism o’. T h e r e w a s n o E n g li s h w or d
t h a t su ited their p u r p os e . F or t h e E n glis h id e a l o f m a l e co n d u c t
was tha t of the gent leman , an d th e word ‘gentlema n’ is u n t r a n s -
lated in m a n y la n gu a ge s a s a d es cr ip tio n of p ec u lia rly En glis h
m a s c u l i n e c on d u c t .
Orwell w a s a b l e t o t a lk , s t i ll in 1 9 41, of the ‘extreme gen tle-
n e s s’ a n d ‘d ee p ly m or a l a tt itu d e t o life’ of th e E n glis h m a n . ‘The
gentleness of English civilizat ion’, h e wrote , ‘is pe rh ap s its m ost
ma rked ch a r a cter istic. You n otice it th e ins ta nt you s et foot on
En glis h soil. It is a la nd whe re t he bu s con du ctor s a re good
temp ered a n d t h e policemen c a r r y n o r e vo lv er s ... In t h e 191 4-1 8
war t h e s on gs which th e soldiers m ad e u p a nd sa ng of their own
a c c o r d w e r e n o t ven g e fu l b u t h u m o r o u s a n d m o c k d e f ea t ist. Th e
only enem y they ever n am ed wa s th e ser gean t-m ajor.’3 7
Wh a t is Orwell’s rep u ta tion (un tarn ished to t h is d a y)? It is t h at
h e wa s o n e of the m ost hon est an d a ccu ra te r epor ter s wh o ha s
ever lived. So it is a t least a bold step for a n yo n e fi ft y ye a rs a n d

m o r e la t e r t o s a y t h a t h e or s h e k n o w s m o re t h a n O r w ell a b o u t
English m en a t th at tim e.
Once a ga in , Hartlepo ol is a n int er es tin g ca se , for t h is s tr a te gy
arou sed litt le resista nce. In London (o r , s a y, Brist ol), b y contra s t ,
a t t itudes th at wou ld block gent lema nly cond u ct a t work wh ich
h a d b e e n la t en t a n d d or m a n t , s u d d e n ly b e ca m e m a n ife s t a n d
a c t iv e , re leva n t a n d pr ob lem a tic a l. E s p ec ia lly a fte r t h e r iot s in
Brixton a n d e l s ew h e r e in 1 9 8 1 , p olice in the a reas where th ey
h a d occu r r e d h a d t o fa c e t h e n e c e s s i t y of a m a s s i v e r e - o r ie n t a -
tion in their a t t it u d e to th e pu blic, wh ile in Har tlepool d a y -b y -d a y
p olic in g in pr a ct ice h a rd ly r a is ed th e is s u e a t a ll.
Obscen ities h a d a lwa ys been p a r t of wor kin g-c la s s cultu re, b u t
they were es sen tially situ ation -sp e c i fic. One of the ma in func-
tions o f u s in g w o r d s t a b o o e d in m o s t c o n t e x t s wa s t o s ign ify th e
s olid a r ity o f m e n ( a n d t o a le s s e r e x t en t w o m e n ) w h o w er e
s h a r in g t h e s a m e s t r es s fu l an d d i ffic u lt s it u a tio n . Wit h th e
excep tion of cer ta in wor d s th a t w er e n ot re ga rd ed a s ‘re a lly
s we a rin g’ if u s e d in light c o n ve r s a tion by a m an , like ‘bloo dy’ a n d
in t h e n o r t h e a s t o f E n g l a n d (s u r p r i s in g l y) ‘y ’b u g g e r ’, o b s c e n it y
a n d b la s p h e m y h a d n ot s pilled ou t in to fa m ily life a n d e ve ryd a y
s p ee ch . Mallon h a d n o objection to a p p r op r ia t e s it u a tion -s p ec ific
s we a rin g, b u t d i s c ou r a g e d s we a rin g a m on g o ffic er s in t h e
pres ence of mem ber s of th e pu blic, as cou nt er-p rod u ctive for
p o lic e wo r k .
He also d iscou ra ged ‘u nn ecess ar y slovenlines s’. A CID officer
c a n b e v er y p r o p e r ly d r e s s e d fo r t h e jo b a t h a n d in t ra in e rs a n d
je a n s , read y for bu sines s. Bu t he wa s n ot properly dress ed if
d i r t y o r r a g ge d t r a i n e r s a n d j e a n s w e r e h is h a b i t u a l we a r .
With in t h e se a p pa r en t ly t r ivia l a n d c u r r e n t l y d e va lu e d d et a ils
of the m o d u s ope ran d i of a n e f fe c t iv e t e a m , w it h g o od l on g - t e r m
rela tions w it h a s m an y of t h e m e m b e r s of the p ub lic as p ossible,
th e police officer co u ld m o r e effec tive ly u s e t h e m in im u m a m ou n t
of con trolle d aggression—legally-controlled, custom -controlled,
an d self-controlled aggression—when it was r equired.
T h e Ma l l o n P a r a d i g m
Th e ‘Ma llo n p a ra d igm ’ c a n b e s u m m a r i ze d a lo n g o n e d im e n s io n
a s ou tlin in g h is s t ra t egy—t h e ‘what?’, h is t a ct ic s —t h e ‘how?’, a n d
t h e fou r se ts of people wh os e c o - op e r a t i o n in p u r s u i n g th e
stra tegy a n d t a c t i c s h a d t o b e s e c u r e d — t h e w or k - fo r c e , t h e
m a n a g em e n t , th e m ed ia a n d th e p u b lic. All elem en ts of th is
p a r a d i gm h a d to b e implemen ted s u cces s fu lly. ‘Ta k e ou t a n y one ,
a n d you fa il.’ Of particu lar imp orta nce, t h e n , was t h e interaction
between, a n d t h e m u t u a l ly reinforcing in flu en ce of, good m a n a g e-
m e n t , a we ll-m otiva te d po lice forc e, m ed ia s u p p or t, a n d pu b lic
confiden ce.
Alon g an other d im e n s io n t h e s trategy a n d tactics co u ld b e see n
a s t h e a im s a n d m et h od s on p a p e r, an d t h e m o t i va t i o n o f t h e
w o r k fo r ce , m a n a ge m en t , m e d ia a n d p u b lic a s th e wo rk t h a t
b r o u g h t t h e st ra tegy an d ta ctics to life. In t h a t sen se a lso s om e
ph as es w e r e m o r e im p o r t a n t t h a n o t h e r s : ‘m otiva tion is e ver y-
t h in g’. Zero-toler an ce or con fid en t p o lic in g c a n n o t th e r e fo r e b e
tr a n sfer re d fr om on e a re a to a n oth er sim ply a s, s o to s pe a k , a n
as piration, or as a bu reau cratic or docu men tary sch eme.
When it wa s kn own th a t h e wou ld b e le a vin g t h e t ow n t o t a k e
u p a m o r e s e n ior post a t th e M id d l e s b r ou g h h e a d qu a r t e rs , r e gr et
was w id e l y e x p r e s s e d t h a t t h e town wa s losing h im. Th e Labou r
Mayor of the b orough s aid th at h e h op e d t o s e e h im b a c k i n
Har tlepool, p e r h a p s a s a S u p e r i n t e n d e n t ; or t h a t h e w ou ld t a k e
c h a rge of the wh ole of t h e county force a s Chief Const able. Othe r
La bou r cou nc illors w e r e a ls o d is m a y ed a t los in g h im . Th e La b o u r
cou nc illor fo r G r ea t h a m s a i d : ‘M y o n l y c o n c e r n is t h at th in gs
car ry on in t he s am e vein.’3 8
Th e t ow n ’s n e ws p a p e r s u m m e d u p h i s a ch ie ve m e n ts a n d
s t a n d i n g in t h i s r e p o r t :
Fam ilies in Ha rt lepool call him ‘th e best th ing since s liced
b r ea d ’—c r im i n a ls s en d h im h a t e m a il—b u t lo ve h im o r h a te h im , Ra y
Mallon is un likely to be forgotten .
Th e m o s t s u cce s s fu l DCI Har tlepool h a s h a d in y ea r s , h e h a s spen t
t h e last twen ty-eigh t m on th s c om in g do wn h ar d o n th e cr im in al
e le m e n t —s l a s h in g c ri m e in t h e t o wn b y m o r e t h a n a t h i r d .
DCI Mallon h as gone ou t of h i s w a y to m e e t t h e p u b l ic t o find ou t
wha t th ey wan t from h im a nd his t eam .
R e s u l t s h a ve be en ach ieved w ith t h e b a ck in g of h is boss es a n d th e
wh ole of Hart lepool’s force—det ectives a s well as th e u niform
b r an c h .3 9
His s u c c e s s o r , D CI Gr a h a m S t r a n g e , m a d e i t c le a r t h a t t h e
stra tegy wou ld b e u n c h a n g e d . ‘I h a ve been th rou gh it a ll with Ra y
in th e las t two yea rs an d I am in tot al a greem en t with his policy.
We will not give them a ch an ce to gain a ny grou nd . We a r e goin g

t o con tinu e exa ctly in th e sa m e wa y, not h in g is goin g to
cha nge.’4 0
Cri m e a n d Cu l t u re
in Hartle poo l
Norm an De nn is an d Ray Mallon
R AY MALLO N r e ga r d ed a ll o f t h e wo rk w e h a v e d is c u s s e d s o
fa r a s ‘s h o r t - t e r m ’ s t r a t e gy . H e w a s in t e r e s t e d a l s o in t h e
l on g - t e r m stra tegy t h a t wou ld a d d r es s t h e ro ot s of c r im e t h a t th e
p o l ic e cou ld n ot re ach . Police work t ak es p lace with in a com m -
u n it y with its own p a r t ic u la r ch a r a c te ris t ic s th a t h a ve d e ve lo p ed
ou t of its own pa rt icu la r h is to ry . Th e s p ec ific p olic e fu n ct ion is
m o r e effectively carried ou t when t h e r e is a g oo d u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of th e ‘ba s ic c a u s es ’, a n d les s effec tive ly wh en th e p olic e’s (a n d
t h e gen er a l pu b lic’s) u n d er s ta n d in g of t h e ‘ba s ic c a u s es ’ is
fla w e d .
Wh a t kind of place was th e Hartlepool within wh ich t h e c r im e
stra tegy wa s im p lem en ted ? Wh a t ot her ‘ca u s es ’ (a da n ger ou s
w or d ) o f c r im e w e r e op e r a t i n g t h e r e in t h e p a s t a n d i n t h e
p r e s e n t ? Which of t h em we r e u n d e r t h e p o t e n t i a l c o n t r o l o f t h e
p o li ce t o li m it , w h ic h n o t ?
T h e Up w a r d S u r g e i n C r im e 1 9 5 5 -1 9 9 4
It was a lmost exactly coinciden t with th e period of wh a t wa s
la b e lled b y later h is t or ia n s ‘Th e Age of Afflu e n c e 1 9 5 1 -1 9 6 4 ’ t h a t
c r im e b e ga n t o s u r g e u p w a r d s. 1 I n c on t r as t, d u ring t he long
p e rio d o f w h a t R.S. Sa yers called ‘The Bat ter ed E con om y 1 9 1 4 -
1 9 3 9 ’, when Har tlepool received a w o r se b a tt er in g t h a n most, th e
c r im e rate b y the sta nd ard s of the 1 990 s wa s e x t r a o r d in a r i ly
low.2
Wh ile t h e P la n f or H a r t le p oo l o f 1 9 4 8 d id n o t mention c r im e a t
a ll, crim e p re ven tio n wa s a m a jor to p ic of t h e P la n for Har tlepoo l
of 19 94 . ‘The Bor ou gh Cou nc il seeks th e cre at ion of a p h ys ic a l
environmen t cond u cive to the overall sa fety of th e comm u nity.’
88
CRIME AND CULTURE IN HARTLEPOOL 89
D es ign a n d la you t h a d to m a k e it ea s ier to de te ct ‘p ot en tia l’

offend ers a nd more d ifficult for crimes to be comm itted. 3
Crim e pr event ion w a s a ls o b y t h e 1 9 9 0 s a p r in c ip a l ju s t ific a -
tion in t h e sear ch for governm ent gra nts . In the Single Regener-
at ion Bu d get schem e to improve the two post -war est ates ,
enh an ced ‘com m u n i t y s a f e t y’ was one of t h e s ix m a in objectives. 4
In t h is Har tlepool resem bled other Britis h towns . S u n d e r l a n d , for
exa m ple, rece ived (‘scoop ed’) an ad dition al govern m en t gra nt of
£ 1 8 m illion for one of its hou sing esta tes, Penn ywell, where
a l r ea d y 2 0 4 gove rn m e n t a n d private agencies w e r e o pe ra t in g. Th e
first u se of the mon ey listed was ‘tack ling crime’. 5
Ha r t l ep o ol ’s Et h n ic Ho m og e ne it y
Th e s i m ila r i tie s b e t we e n t h e cr im e a n d p olicing expe rien ces of
New Yo r k a n d Har tlepool a r e a ll t h e m o r e instructive b e ca u s e t h e
two places ar e otherwise so en tirely different .
New York is th e va s t New Wor ld m e tro p olis of d iver gen t e th n ic
gr ou p s . It h a s b e e n t h e m a g n et fo r a ll a v an t g ard e e le m e n ts in
literat ur e, d r am a a n d th e v is u a l a r t s t h a t m o u l d p u b l ic opin ion,
p r in c ip a lly n o w in t h e ir a d v o c a c y o f l ib e r t a r ia n is m , m or a l
relativism, a nd cont em pt for ‘res pecta bility’.
F a r fr o m b e i n g t h e na tu ra l hom e of cultu ra l decon st ru ction -
is m , in t h e d a ys of t h e m u s ic h a ll ‘H a rt le po ol’ w as s h or t h a n d f or
t h e le a s t pr om ising d est ina tion for t he per son in sea rch of even
t h e h u m - d r u m d e via n c e o f a n onym ou s s e xu a l adven t u r e a n d a n
ex ci t in g n igh t life .
F a r from bein g firs t t h e m e ltin g pot of d ive r s e n a t io n a lit ie s , a n d
then a m u lti-cu ltu ra l city—New Yor k ’s his tory—Ha rtlep ool is
q u in t e ss e n tia lly a n E n g li s h t o w n , b o t h in it s et h n ic com pos ition
a n d d e v el op m e n t . 6 Be ca u s e H a rt lep ool’s m a in e x p e r ien c e in t h is
c e n t u r y ha s b een of emigra tion, r a t h e r t h a n im m igr a tio n , t h e
pop u lation is p re d om in a n tly of p eo p le b or n a n d br ou gh t u p in
t h e town. Fewer th an one per cen t of t h e p o p u l a t i o n a t t h e t i m e
of the C en s u s o f 1 9 9 1 w e r e fr o m m i n o r i t y e t h n i c g r ou p s . O f t h a t
one p e r c e n t , t h e va s t m a j or i t y w e r e e it h e r Chi n e s e o r fr om t h e
In d ia n su b-continent. Th eir m a in con trib u tion to H a r tlep ool’s life
c a n b e r ea d fro m th e s tr ee t fa ca d es —‘Ho t P ot Keb a b s ’, ‘Tan d o o ri
Night ’, ‘Dilsh ad Tand oori Ind ian Res tau ra nt ’, ‘Roma ntic Palace
Chines e Rest au ra nt ’. In Ha rtlep ool’s p rob lem wa r d s t h e e th n ic
m i n o r i t y fi gu r e s a r e e v e n lo w er . 7 None of Har t le p ool’s pr oblems
of crime a n d s u b - cr im in a l disorder stem to a n y s ign ifica n t extent ,

t h e refore, fr o m e t h n i c d i ve r s i t y, e it h e r f r om t h e s i d e of t h e
imm igrants them selves or from t h e En glis h p o p u lation ’s r eac tion
to im m igrat ion.
Wh a t we see in Har tlepool with extrem e clarity, th erefore, is
t h e em er gen ce of h igh ra te s of cr im e in English cultu re alone,
a m on g English bo ys a n d y ou n g m en , wit h lit tle ‘c on t a m in a t io n ’
in s cientific terms from com plicating factors within th e town
itself.
Until in t e rn a t io n a l youth c u l t u r e b e ga n to s p l it t h e gene ra tion s
in t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 s , H a r t l e p o ol wa s a h o m o g e n e o u s t o w n w it h a
con tinu ou s his tory from An glo-Saxon t imes. It su rvived the
r a pin e of the D a n e s in 8 0 0, wit h s to od t h e w ra t h of Ro be rt th e
Bru ce wh e n E d war d II chos e th e por t for h is ret u rn from
B a n n o c k b u r n , a n d was occu p ie d b y t h e Scots d u r in g t h e En glis h
Civil W a r . Th e town is s till fa m ou s even o u t s id e its b o r d e r s for a n
in c id en t of over zea lou s pa tr iotis m du rin g th e Na po leon ic Wa rs .
In 1 9 1 4 it was sh elled b y th e G er m a n fleet a t t h e cost of 1 2 8 lives
in Ha rt lep ool a n d Wes t H a rt lep ool, w it h a fu r t h e r 4 0 0 w ou n d e d .
In r e t u r n f ir e Hartlepool’s own gu ns inflicted s ign ific a n t d a m a ge
on t h e G er m a n b a t t le cr u is e r s .8 La t er in t h e wa r it wa s bomb ed
from t h e a ir b y zeppelins . In 19 19 t he t own was awar ded a battle
t a n k a s a t r o p h y b e ca u s e it h a d contribu ted m o r e per h e a d to th e
Wa r F u n d s t h a n a n y other town. 9 In t h e Secon d Wor ld Wa r it wa s
b om b e d b y t h e Lu ft wa ffe i n 4 3 a ir r a id s wit h t h e l os s of 7 0
civilia n lives . 10 Wh en Vict or ia Road was redeveloped in t h e 1 9 7 0 s ,
t h e n a m e V ic t or ia r e m a i n e d , a n d th e war m emorial was em bel-
lish ed, not d emolished.
In s c r ib e d on t h e m e m o r ia l a r e t h e n a m e s o f m o r e t h a n 1 , 5 0 0
local m e n ‘w h o a t t h eir cou n t r y ’s c a l l l eft a l l t h a t w a s d e a r t o
them t o h a za r d t h ei r live s t h a t ot h er s m igh t live in fr ee d om ’.
‘Livin g in fr ee do m ’ m e a n t, n ot t h e f r e e d om to be a bu lly, a thief
or a n i d l e r a t o t h e r p e op l e ’s e x p e n s e . It m e a n t th e freedom
secu red to decent p eople by adher ence to th e concrete oper a t in g
r u le s , s t a n d a r d s a n d m a n n e r s o f n a t i o n a l a n d b o r o u g h go ve r n -
ment, of a n un arm ed p olic e for ce , of a n in d ep en d en t j u d i ci a r y, of
t h e Roya l a n d An c ie n t Or d er of B u ffa lo es , of neighb ou rlines s, of
p la yin g fo r We s t Ha rt lep ool R u gb y Un ion Clu b , of s u p p or tin g
S u n d er la n d AF C , o f t h e We s le ya n C h a p e l, of C hr ist Ch u rch , of
b ein g a t e a c h e r , o f b e in g a p u p i l, of b ein g a g r a n d fa t h e r , of being
a pit depu ty, an a ble s ea m a n , a d o c k w or k e r , a fi s h e r m a n o r a

b u s dr iver , of r oa s t b ee f an d York s h ire pu d d in g a s a n or m a lly
a c h i ev a b le Su n d a y d in n er in on e w a y or a n ot h er —of th e ‘Brit is h
way of life ’ a s a c t u a l ly li ve d a n d e x p e r ienced in Har tlepool. Wh en
a fo r m e r La b o u r l o n g -s e r v in g MP fo r Ha rtlepool died at th e end
of 1 9 96 , a m on g t h e t r ib u tes p aid to h im on th e local rad io was
tha t he h ad b een ‘a pa triot’ as well as ‘a gentlem an ’. 1 1
Ha r t l e p oo l’s S m a l l S i z e a n d G eo g ra p h i c a l Co m p a c t n e s s
F a r from b ein g a city c op in g with en o r m o u s p o p u lation growth in
t h e t w en t i et h c e n t u r y , lik e Ne w Yo r k , th e p re se n t b oro u gh ’s s ize
of 9 0 , 0 0 0 is n ot m u ch ch a n ged from th e p op u la tio n of its
pr edec ess or towns a nd villages a t th e t i me o f th e F irs t Wo rld
W a r . It is t h e k in d of c om m u n i ty tha t conta ins a large proportion
of people with s ha red m emories. 1 2
Har tlepool is geograph ically comp act . The bu ilt-u p a rea
stret ches o n l y a b o u t t w o m i le s t o t h e n o r t h o f t h e t own centr e,
t w o m il es t o t h e s o u t h a n d t w o m il es t o t h e w e s t .
Ma t e r i a l H a r d s h i p a n d L o w C r i m e R a t e s B e f o r e t h e 1 9 6 0 s
Har tlepool’s p eriod of growth was the s econd h alf of the n ine-
teenth c e n t u r y a n d t h e firs t two deca des of th e twen tieth. It gre w
r a p i d ly in t h e 1 8 30 s a n d 1 8 4 0s a fter Stephen son’s n ew steam
locomotive, t h e L oc o m o t io n , h a d p r o ve d i t s w or t h o n t h e wo r ld ’s
firs t p u b l ic r a ilw a y lin e which ra n from Har tlepool’s n e i gh b o u r i n g
town of St oc k to n to Da rlin gt on . Lin es were ra pidly const ru cted
from t h e p it s o f s o u t h -west Du rha m to ca rry its coal to a new
d o ck . Th e streets of th e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y i n d u s t r i a l t own were
n a m ed a ft e r t h e ea s t c oa s t E n g l is h p o r t s fam iliar to the s eam en
on t h e c o ll ie r b r i gs , a n d t h e i r h a v e n s f r om t h e No r t h S e a ’s f a t a l
st orm s—S ca rb oro u gh , Kin g s Ly n n , Wh i t b y. O th e r d oc k s w e r e
opened in 184 7-5 4 a n d West Har tlepool was foun ded in t h e field s
to t h e south of old Har tlepool to service t h em . By 1 8 9 0 Hartlepoo l
was t h e t h ir d b u s ie s t p or t in E n gla n d , aft e r Lo n d o n a n d Li ve r -
p ool. With t h e developm ent of t h e l a r ge co llie r ie s of t h e co n ce a led
co a lfield in s ou th -ea st Du rh am after 19 00 , Ha rtlep ool’s i m p o r -
tan ce a s a po rt ex p or tin g co a l a n d im p or tin g p i t p r op s wa s
furth er e n h a n c ed . S h ip - ow n in g be ca m e a n im p o rt a n t element in
Ha rt lep ool’s e con om y. 1 3
It grew m o s t r a p i d ly after t h e 1 8 5 0 s wh en th e discov er y of iro n

o r e on ly 1 5 m iles a wa y in th e C leve la n d Hills —s o close to rich
coal a n d l i m e s t o n e r es er v e s —t u r n e d T ee s s i d e o ve r n i gh t i n t o t h e
w or ld ’s grea tes t cen tre of iron , an d lat er s teel, p rod u ction . From
b ein g ma inly a coal an d tim ber p ort, H a r t le p ool became a n
im p o r ta n t c en t r e n o t o n ly o f ir on a n d s t e el p r od u c t io n , b u t a ls o
o f s h i p - b u i ld i n g a n d m a r i n e e n g in e e r in g . 1 4
1 9 1 3 w as t h e town ’s m ost pr osp erou s year, when it produ ced
m o r e s h i p s a n d m ore iron a n d s te el, ca u gh t more fish, exported
more coa l and im ported m ore timber th an before or since.
Th e rise in working-clas s crime in Ha rtlepool after the 1 9 5 0 s
c a n b y n o m e a n s b e a t t r ib u t e d t o th e s u d d e n e m ergen ce of
u n u s u a l, or u n u s u a lly severe, ec on om ic p r ob le m s , or to a s u d d e n
deterioration in h o u s in g o r o th e r fa c to rs in t h e p h y s i ca l en viron -
m e n t a ft e r t h e 19 5 0 s .
Rely in g a s it d id on t he few b a s ic in d u s t rie s o f s h ip p in g,
s h ip b u ild in g, i r on a n d s t e e l pr odu ction , fish ing a nd coal Hartle-
pool h a d sh ared th e long dism al inter-war fate of t h e other Nort h
Sea to wn s of Du rh a m . Th e l os s o f s h i p s d u e t o en em y a ct ion in
t h e First World War , th e war t im e la c k o f m a in t en a n c e o f t h e
m e r c a n t i le fl ee t a n d t h e n t h e s l u m p t h a t fo ll ow e d the b rief p o s t -
war b o om c r ip p le d H a r t le p oo l’s s h i p - ow n e r s a n d b rou gh t
h a r ds h ip to t h e m e rc h a n t s e am e n . By 1 9 3 9 t h e r e wer e on ly eigh t
local s h i p - o wn e r s l e ft . D u r i n g t h e d e p r e s s i o n o f t h e e a r ly 1 9 3 0 s
t h e y a r d s in H a r t le p oo l w e re a lm o s t t o ta l ly in a c t iv e. S om e y a r d s
w e r e perma nently cl os e d b y Na t i on a l S h i p b u i ld e r s S e c u r i ty Lt d .,
wh ose ‘rationa lization’ sch emes a r e b et t e r k n o w n i n r e la t i o n t o
J ar row on t h e Ty n e , ‘t h e t ow n t h a t w a s m u r d e r e d ’. 1 5 All Hartle-
pool’s sh ipyards except Gr ay’s were pu t out of bu sines s.
In the year 193 6-37 n ea rly o n e in t e n of a ll in s u r e d m a le s in
Ha rtlep ool l eft fo r t h e M id l a n d s a n d H o m e C o u n t i es (w it h other s
goin g e ls e w h e r e ) u n d e r a g o ve r n m e n t s c h e m e o f a s s i s t a n c e t o
wor k e r s m i g r a t in g t o t h e m o r e p r o s p e r o u s r e g io n s o f t h e
cou n tr y. 1 6
G ra y’s s h i p ya r d w a s s t i ll op t i m i s t ic e n o u g h i n t h e 1 9 2 0 s t o
b u ild a ga rd en village in t he town , Gra yth orp , to h ou s e i t s
w o r k er s a t t h e G r ea t h a m C r ee k ya r d , a n d t h e d e m a n d f or s h i p s
d u r in g t h e S e c on d W o r ld War res tored a ctivity to the yar d. Bu t
after t h e w a r in t e r n a t io n a l c om p e tition fo r c e d G r a y’s , t o o , i n t o
liquida tion. 1 7 Pos t- wa r m od er n iza tio n of th e B rit is h S t e e l p l a n t s
raised gr ea t if c on s cio u s ly fra gile hop es. Bu t s teel pr odu ction ,

too, was eventu ally lost, being relocated to Redca r.
In th e n inet een th cen tu ry Ha rtlep ool either ret ain ed or
i m p r ov e d the cu ltu ral conditions of working-class life tha t
su ppres sed crim e an d qu ality-of-life offences as a wa y of
h a n d lin g pr oblem s, wh eth er t hos e pr oblem s wer e econ om ic,
domes tic, educa tional, or arose in a ny other sector of life.
In th e ye a rs of Ha rt lep ool’s Vict or ia n a n d E d w a r d i a n p r o s p e r -
ity, as well as its roa ds , railways, w a t e r m a in s a n d s e we ra ge
s ys te m , do ck s , c oa l s ta ith es , b la s t fu rn a ce s , lim e w or k s , s h ip -
y a r ds a n d factories, imp osing chu rches , cha pels, governm ent
b u i ld in g s , a n d lib r ar ie s h a d b ee n co n s tru cted; par ks h ad b een
la id out; th e su ffrage ha d been extended to all working men an d
democratic local governm ent h a d been es t a b lis h e d ; a n d t h e grea t
wor k in g-c la s s in s titutions of collective self-help were foun ded
a n d developed—cha pels, tr ad e u nion s, football clubs , r e t a il co-
operat ives, friend ly societies.
Th e h o m e o f t h e W e s t Ha r t l e p ool Literary an d Mecha nics
Institu te, the Athen aeu m Bu ild in g, co m ple te d in 1 8 51 , a n d
C h r is t Chu rch, com p leted in 18 54 , were c ons tru cted ou t of
lim e s to n e excavated from t h e d o ck s . Th e m a s s i ve Wesley Ch u r ch
in Vic t or ia R oa d w a s b u i lt in 1 8 7 2 , w it h a n i m p os in g s tone
fa c a de , in clu d i n g a C o r in t h i a n p o r t i c o. Th e r e d b r i ck a n d t e r r a
cotta P u b l ic Li b r a r y was b u ilt in 1 8 9 4 . The Emp ire Thea tre, later
t h e cinem a, wa s op en ed in 19 09 . The a rch itectu ra l sym bol of
wor k in g-c la s s a c h i e ve m e n t w a s t h e C o - op e r a t i ve S t ores of 1 9 1 3 ,
b u ilt of Por tla n d ston e, with a 1 0 0 feet h igh n eo-c la s s ica l cu p ola .
It is s t ill o n e o f t h e to wn ’s m o s t im p r e s s ive b u ild in g s .
Ward J ack son P a r k was opened in 1 8 8 3 . In t h e 1 8 8 0 s J a c k s on
s t i ll w a s h on o u r ed a s the foun ding fath er of the town . He had
falle n on h a rd tim es , a n d m on ey w a s co llec te d to pr ovid e h im
wit h a n an n u it y, bu t h e d ied be fore t h e gift co u ld b e m a d e. Th e
m o n ey was t herefore us ed to creat e for the g en e r a l pu blic a
t yp ic a l Vic t or ia n p a r k , w it h a la k e a n d fo rm a l a n d in fo rm a l
ga r d en s . In E d w a r d ia n t i m e s it w a s e m b e llis h e d wit h a n e l a b o-
r a t e fo u n t a in a n d b a n d s ta n d . Th e Vic to ria n a n d E d wa r d ia n
in d u s t r ia l a n d co m m er cia l élit e b u ilt their m a n s io n s in s p a cious ,
well-wooded groun ds a roun d it, with a com p le te la c k o f a n y
sen se, o r a n y p r em o n it io n , t h a t a p u b l i c p a r k i n t h e n e ig h b o u r -
hood cou ld ever becom e a d ra wba ck, a s t h e s c e n e of wan ton
d e s t r u ction , defacement, a n d p e rs o n a l d a n ge r. Th e fo u n ta in a n d
b a n d s t a n d we r e r e s to re d in t h e 1 99 0 s .
In te rm s of co n tr ol ove r t h eir own a ffair s , fr om 1 8 4 7 t o 1 8 6 5
t h e re s id en ts of Wes t H a rt lep ool live d in a c la s s ic ‘c om p a n y
town’, ben efitin g fr o m t h e ‘fe a r l e s s s p e c u l a t i on ’ b u t u n d e r t h e
‘a lm o s t d ic t a to ria l p o we r s ’ of Wa r d J a c k s o n , t h e p r o m o t e r of t h e
Har bou r a n d D ock Com pa n y. 1 8 Th e c h a r t e r o f i ncorp ora tion wa s
a cquired by West Ha rtlepool in 18 87, giving it its own tow n
co u n cil, with t h e local s h ip -b u ild in g m a g nate S ir Willia m G ra y a s
t h e firs t m a y or . West Har tlepool wa s a county bo rou gh from 1 9 0 2
to 1 9 7 4 . With fair an d free ele ct io n s , b u t with litt le wor k in g-c la s s
r ep r es e n ta t io n , it wielded increas ingly wide p owers gran ted
u n d e r centra l governmen t legislation a nd un der cen tral govern-
m e n t con trol over edu cat ion, c le a n sin g, p u b l ic w or k s , a n d , u n d e r
the local Watch Com mittee, th e police.
C rim in a l an d u nru ly elements in the town were restra ined b y
t h e new p olice , modelled on Sir Robert Peel’s Metropolitan Police
of 182 9. Th e st yle of po licin g b y th e ‘bob b ies ’ wa s s ym b olize d in
Har tlepool b y t h e a r c h i t ec t u r e o f t h eir h ea d qu a r t er s . Wh e n th e
old Police S t a tio n wa s b u ilt in t h e 1 87 0 s , it w a s n ot in th e s ty le
of a t h r e a t e n in g b ar r a c k s , b u t o f a l a te -G eo rg ia n h ou s e. Th e
B r it is h p olic em a n , wh ose own un arm ed confiden ce was bas ed on
t h e co n fide n ce th a t t h e la w- a b id in g p op u la tio n pu t in h im , an d
h e in t h e m , w a s th e a st on is h m en t a n d a d m i r a t i on o f t h e w o r ld
u n til far int o th e t wen tiet h cen tu ry. 1 9
We h a ve a lre a d y s a id th a t t h e r is e in wor k in g-c la s s crime in
t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e t w e n t i e t h cen tu ry ca nn ot b e a t t r i b u t e d t o
a det erior at ion in ec on om ic a n d m a t e ria l c o n d i t io n s . N or c a n t h e
low cr im e r a te s of th e Vict or ia n a n d E d wa r d ia n period an d later
b e attr ibuted to the ec on om ic p r os p e r it y a n d s a lu b r io u s m a t e ria l
en vironm en t of th e w or k in g-c la s s popu lation then as compa red
w it h t h e 1 9 9 0 s .
Even whe n Wes t Ha rtlep ool was pr osp e r ous for the b ourge-
oisie, l ife w a s n o t e a s y or p r e d ic t a b l e fo r wo rk in g people. The
w e s t e r ly w in d s b l e w pollut ion a wa y fr om t h e b ig h o u s es a r ou n d
W a r d J ack son P a r k . Th e w o r k e r s i n t h e t o w n h a d t o b r e a t h it in .
Befor e n e w c oa l s t a it h es w e r e b u ilt in 1 9 0 9 , coal d u s t s om e tim es
la y a n k l e d ee p in t h e res ident ial street s of Middleton , an d
cru nch ed u n d e r f oo t a s on e w a lk e d a r o u n d t h e d istr ic t u n t il c oa l
exports cea sed. The North Works of the steel c om p a n y w e r e n e ar
t h e c e n t r e of t h e town, t h e South Works n ot far to th e south of it.

Nea rly a l l t h e j ob s w e r e a r d u o u s a n d d a n g e r ou s, e sp ecially for
t h e m e n w h o w en t t o s e a , a n d v e r y fe w of t h e m w e r e secu re.
B e fo r e t h e de-c a s u a lizat ion s ch em e a fter th e S eco n d Wo rld Wa r ,
dock la b ou r w a s n ot or iou s ly ir re gu la r. Th e d em a n d fo r ir on a n d
steel, d e pe n d in g as it d id u p o n ca p it a l e x p e n d it u r e elsewhere in
t h e economy, was deeply affected by the tr ade cycle. S o w a s t h e
d em a n d fo r n e w s h i p s , wh i ch m a d e s h ip b u ild in g a wild ly
flu ct u a t in g a ctivity. In the 1 880 s, for example, the h ighes t
a n n u a l to n n a ge b u ilt in Br ita in w a s t h r e e t i m e s t h e lowest, an d
between 1 9 0 0 a n d 1 9 1 3 t h e b e s t w a s t w i c e th e worst . The
in d u s t r y t h e r e fo r e a t t r a c t e d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n fr o m e c o n o m i s t s
when t h ey a n a lyze d u n e m p lo ym e n t a n d th e cau ses of po ver ty. 2 0
Work i n t h e s h i p y a r d s w a s n o t o n ly s e ve r e ly s u b j e c t t o t h e
t r a d e cycle, it was ‘lum py’ in tha t men were paid off between t he
t i m e tha t one s hip was laun ched a nd the k eel of the n ex t wa s
la id .
All t h e a n g u is h of u n e m p lo ym en t tod ay—bor edom , a feeling of
u s e le s s n es s , a low incom e, h u m ilia tio n —a p p lied t h en . But a d d ed
to a ll that, a s compa red to t od a y’s u n e m p lo ye d , t h e incom e of th e
u n e m p lo ye d in the n i n e t ee n t h c e n t u r y a n d u n t i l w e ll in t o t h e
t w e n t i et h cen tu ry was m u ch lower a n d th eir m at eria l cond itions
w e r e fa r i n fe r io r .
At t h e b e g in n i n g of i t s li fe We s t Har tlepoo l wa s ‘fo r t u n a t e in
b ein g e s t a b l is h e d l a t e in t h e i n d u s t r ia l r e v ol u t i on , a v o id i n g t h e
w or s t a s p e c t s o f s q u a l o r n o t ic e a b l e in t h e e a rlie s t in d u s t r ia liza -
tion of old Ha rt lep ool’.2 1 B u t a c en t u r y la t e r it s wo rk in g -c la s s
h o u s i n g s t o c k wa s i n e ve r y r e s p e c t p o or . Ac c o r d in g t o t h e 1 9 4 8
p la n n in g su rvey of West Har tlepool, ou t of H a r t le p oo l’s 1 9 , 0 0 0
dw ellin gs, over 2 , 7 0 0 were ‘b a d l y b lig h t ed ’, with n o b a t h s , s h a r ed
w.c .s , an d cr owded at m ore t ha n 5 0 to t he acr e. An ad dition al
5 , 3 0 0 w er e s u b- s t a n d a r d . 2 2 Th e 1 9 51 Ce ns u s s hows th a t m or e
t h an n in e per cent of H a r t l e p oo l’s h o u s e h o l d s l iv ed a t m o r e t h a n
1.5 p ers ons per r oom.
In 1 9 5 1 n e a r l y h a lf of a ll Har tlepool’s h ou s e h o l d s (4 9 p e r c e n t )
lacked one o r m o r e of the five ‘bas ic hous ehold am enities’
recorded b y the Cen su s, an d 13 per cen t were with ou t a n y p ip ed
water in their dw ellin g. Th e 1 9 5 1 Cens us did not record wheth er
t h e water closet was o u t s id e t h e dwe lling—by far th e comm ones t
a r ra n ge m en t in working-clas s distr icts. On ly in a la ter Cen s u s
d id an inte rn al wa ter closet an d ta pp ed h ot wat er b ecom e b a s ic

a m e n i t ie s t h e la c k o f w h ic h w a s t o b e r ec or d e d .
Th e in fa n t m or ta lity r a te in 19 55 -5 7 w a s 43 pe r 1 00 0 live
b ir th s —t h e wor s t r a te of th e 1 5 7 la rg e t own s of En gla n d a n d
Wales. Tu b e r cu l os is w a s s till a n a n x ie t y in w or k in g -c la s s
fam ilies ; in 1 9 57 9 8 n ew ca s es we re n ot ified in Ha rt lep ool.
H a r t l e p oo l’s d e a t h r a t e fr o m b r o n c h i t i s w a s t h e t w e lft h w o r s t .
In 19 5 1 m or e t h a n 68 pe r c en t o f th e p op u la tio n of H a r t le p oo l
h a d le ft s ch ool b efore th eir fiftee n th bir th da y.
But t h r ou g h a ll t h e se d iffic u lt ie s , t h e c u lt u r e o f t h e fa m ily
rem ained in t a c t . It is e s t im a t e d , in d e e d , t h a t b e t w e e n a t h i r d t o
a h a lf o f a s s i s t ed m i gr a n t s c o u ld n ot settle a w a y from h om e , a n d
r e tu r n e d t o t h e ir fa m i lie s .
C r im e was n o t considered a p o s s ib le solution t o one ’s p er s on a l
fr u s t r a tion, a t a n y a ge, by a n y b u t a tin y m in or ity of th e p op u la -
tion. W h e n t h e p o p u la t io n o f E n g la n d a n d W a le s w a s 2 0 m illion
in 1 8 6 1 , 8 8 , 5 0 0 c r i m e s w e r e r ec o r d e d . In 1 9 0 1 , w h e n t h e
pop u lation h a d ris e n b y 60 p e r c en t, a n d w h e n m o r e a n d m o r e
police fo r c es w e r e bein g est ab lishe d (i.e the likelih ood o f a c r i m e
b ein g recorded wa s being increa sed), the nu mb e r of recorded
crimes h a d a c tu a lly f a lle n b y ov e r e ig h t p e r c en t. H a rt lep ool’s
s h a r e i n t h e s e fi gu r e s m e a n t t h a t b y p r e s e n t - d a y s t a n d a r d s i t s
c r im e ra te m u st ha ve been exceed ingly low. R e c orded cr imes
grew on ly s lowly u p t o 1 9 5 5 . 2 3 In s p i t e o f t h e fa c t t h a t t h e s t u d y
of t h e town in 1 9 4 7 b y t h e Ma x Lock grou p wa s partly carried ou t
b y t h e f a m o u s s o c io lo gi s t Ru t h G la s s , t h e r e p o r t does n ot
m e n tio n cr im e , va n d a lis m or la w a n d order a s issu es in Hartle-
p ool a t a ll. 2 4
Ma t e r i a l Im p r o v e m e n t s a n d R i s i n g C r im e S i n c e t h e 1 9 6 0 s
Since t h e b egin n in g of t h e 1 9 6 0s th e st ory is on e of improvemen t
in e d u c a t i o n , h o u s i n g , w or k i n g -c la s s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a n d t h e
econ om y—a n d of cours e of vast imp rovement s in a ll thes e
r e s pe ct s on t h e 1 92 0 s a n d 1 9 3 0s . 2 5
T h e r e is s t ill ‘h e a vy’ in d u s t r y, n ow ligh t e n ed b y t h e u s e of
m a c h i n e r y for lift in g a n d c o n v e yi n g . T h e p u n g e n t s m e ll of t h e
m a n g e s i t e works s till penetra tes in t o t h e h o u s e s a r o u n d t h e
r u g b y fo ot b a ll gr ou n d . Th e n u c le a r p o w e r s t a t i o n c a s t s i t s
s h a d o w ont o t h e mu d flats of the Tees. The chem ical factories
s t r i n g s o u t h t o w a r d s B il li n g h a m . P u b l i c a n d p r i va t e in ve s tm e n t
ha s impr oved t h e fis h q u a y a n d m a d e the 4 00 jobs th at d epend
on it m or e s ec u re . Th e Tees a n d H a rt lep ool Por t Au th orit y h a s

add ed a deep water berth a t Vi ct o r ia Dock a n d t h e north h a r b o u r
is a ga in b u s y a n d p ro fit a ble . As in t h e d a ys w h en t h e s to ra ge
y a r d s p r es e n te d a n as ton ish ing s pect acle of hu nd red s of th ou -
s a n d s o f p i t p r o p s , t im b e r i s a g a i n t h e p o r t ’s s t a p l e ; t h ree-
q u a r t e r s o f i t s t r a d e is i n fo r e s t r y p r od u c t s .
But the r elian ce on declining heavy ind us tries th at h ad b een
s u ch a b u r d e n to th e town ever since th e First World War was
b ein g redu ced in ways a n d to a n exten t u n im a gin e d in t h e 1 9 3 0 s .
P u b l ic policy was now to b ring work t o Hart lepool, and n o t t o
p r e s s u r e you ng people to leave h om e to fin d w o r k elsewhere. Th e
Korean electronics gia nt, S a m s u n g, located a £ 6 0 0 m illion factory
in the b orough. Oth er Asian firms h ave come as su ppliers t o
S a m s u n g. Sma ll firms b egin to m ake in a ggregate a n imp act
u p o n t h e local eco n om y. Th e town is n o w t h e E u r op e a n centre for
a Hon g Kong produ cer of m o u n t a in b ik e s . P u b l ic m on e y h a s bee n
u s e d to help loc al firms like Spe cialist Weldin g an d Fa br ication
t o develop an d diversify. Since 19 87 th e Teesside Develop m e n t
C o r pora tion ha s b een res pon sible for Un ion Dock an d J ack son
D oc k , a n d h a s c r e a t ed c on s t r u c t i on j ob s i n t h e first p lace,
in t en d in g to create t ou r is t jobs in th e long ru n , bas ed on t h e free-
s p en d in g o w n e r s o f t h e l u x u r y y a c h t s i n t h e m a r i n a , a n d t h e
visitors t o t h e new qu ayside m us eum , restored m e n o’ w ar , a n d
o th e r a tt r a ct io n s .
In 1 9 7 0 High-Str eet sh opping was r elocated to the p ur pose-
b u ilt Middleton Gra nge Cen tre. In t he m id-199 0 s £6 m illion of
p r i va t e i n ve s t m e n t wa s s pen t on roofing it over an d on oth er
improvements . 2 6 Th e cir cu l a tio n s pa c es o f Mid d le to n Gr a n ge a re
s o m ew h a t le s s luxu riou s in t h e ir a m b ie n ce th a n t h e n a tio n a lly-
k n ow n Ga t es h e a d Metrocentre, or t h e Bridges in t h e m u ch l a r ger
town of Su n d er la n d . B u t—w h et h er you lik e t h em o r d is l ik e
t h e m — t h e r e is ver y little d iffe re n ce in t he decor an d th e ra nge of
goods o n s a l e w h e t h e r y ou a r e in t h e M e t r o c e n t r e o r in t h e
M id d l e t on G r a n g e B od y S h op , Ma c Do n a ld s , Bo ot s , W oo lw o r t h s ,
M a r k s a nd Spen cer, Dixons, W.H. Smith , or an y other of the fu ll
r a n ge of High-Str eet sh ops Middleton Gran g e poss ess es. Al-
t h ou gh t h e G r a i n ge r Ma r k e t i n Ne w c a s t le is c e r t a in l y a m o r e
s a lu b riou s b u i ld in g, th e s ta lls th er e a re n ot s o ve ry differ en t in
wha t th ey offer from th e sta lls in Ha rtlepool.
The opportu nities fo r e d u c a t i o n ha ve been tra ns form ed since
t h e 19 50 s. Ob viou sly, n o on e lea ves sc h ool n ow wh ile th ey a r e
n o t ye t 1 5 y e a r s o f a g e e xc e p t a s a p e r m a n e n t t r u a n t . O p p o s i t e
t h e ol d Po lice S t a t io n is t h e la r ge m od er n Col le ge of Ar t a n d
D es ign . In 1 9 9 3 Har tlepool enter ed a com pet ition arr an ged b y th e
governm ent sch em e ca lled ‘City Cha llenge’. The t own won £ 3 7
m illion of pu blic mon ey, to be allocat ed over a five-year p eriod.
Th e College of Fu rth er E du cat ion, t wo m a jor exten sion s of wh ich
w e r e fu n d e d b y C it y C h a l le n g e , n o w t a k e s u p m u c h o f t h e
eas tern side of Stockton Stree t.
In H a r t le p oo l in 1 9 9 1 19 p er ce n t of m a le s a n d 20 per cen t of
fema les a ge d 1 6- 2 4 w er e s tu d e n t s .2 7 Again, thes e facilit ie s a nd
opportu nities fo r t h e s on s a n d d a u g h t e r s of w or k in g pe op le , a n d
for working people them selves when t h e y a r e re tir ed , we re on ly
d r ea m ed of in Hartlepool forty years before. 2 8 A large and well-
equipped librar y was open ed five years ago, with facilities of
a c ce s s , tech nol o gy, an d a s s is t a n ce from train ed a n d h elp fu l s t a ff
n ot in ferior for m os t p ra ct ica l pu rp os es to a u n ivers ity libr a ry.
From b ein g a c om p a n y town , in te rm s of p olit ic a l r ep r es e n ta -
tion, H a r t le p oo l is n o w go ve r n e d by a cou n c il e le ct ed on t h e
s u ffr a ge of all men a n d w o m e n a g e d 1 8 a n d o ld e r . It i s firm ly in
t h e ha nd s of the working-clas s pa rty. By 1 9 9 6 t h e r e we r e 3 9
La bou r cou nc illors a ga in s t on ly thr ee Conservatives (on e of who m
wa s a n In d ep en d en t C on s er va tive ). Th er e w er e s eve n Libe r a l
D em o cr a t s . As we h ave alrea dy rem ar ked , t h e l o c a l MP, Peter
Ma n d els on , is wid ely cred ited with exe rt in g great in flu en ce on th e
crea tion of th e p olit ica l d oc t r in e a n d t h e e le ct or a l s t r a t eg y o f t h e
1 9 9 0 s ’ Labou r Par ty. The ad jacen t con stitu ency, Se d gefie ld , is
repres ented in P ar lia m e n t b y Tony Bla ir, the leader of t h e La b o u r
Pa r t y na tionally, an d th erefore th e United Kingdom ’s pr ime-
m in is t er -in - wa it in g. No re a so n ab le ca s e c a n be m a de th a t th e
r is e in c r im e h a s b ee n d u e t o in c r ea s in g —t h e te rm t h a t is u s e d
so m u ch —‘exclu sion ’.
Unem ploymen t a n d in security of emp loymen t h a ve been m a jor
featu res of wor k in g-c la s s life in th e H a r t l e p oo ls d u r i n g it s wh ole
existence a s a n in d u s t r i al town (with the except ion of the b rief
experience in t h e 1 9 50 s a n d 1 9 60 s , w h en u n emp loymen t
d r o p p ed , t hou gh n ot to leve ls th e s ou th of En gla n d a t t h at tim e
r e ga r d e d a s ‘fu l l em p l o ym e n t ’). At t i m e s b o t h i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h
cent u r y a n d d u r i n g t h e i n t e r wa r per iod fewer t h a n 6 0 per cent of
t h e m e n h a d b e e n i n e m p l oy m e n t . U n e m p l o ym e n t r etur n e d a s a
s tu b b o r n pr ob le m i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s , t h o u g h a t n o t im e d i d it a p -
proach th e w or s t r a te s of t h e 1 9 3 0 s . In 1 9 96 on ly 82 per cen t of
Har tlepool’s ec on om ica lly-a ct ive m a les w e r e e m p l oy ed , a n d 9 4

per cen t of the econ omically-active fema les. 2 9
One rea ction to t h e in c r e a s e d f r e e d om m a d e p o s s i b l e b y t h e
higher s t a n d a rd of hou sin g, edu cat ion, in com e in em ploy-
m en t —a n d social security when not in em ploymen t—has been
t h e declin e of working-clas s self-imp rovement , not only edu ca-
tion a lly an d p olitica lly, bu t m ora lly.
Th e wor king men ’s club s were once s chools of a wide an d
h u m a n e so cia bility, of self-improveme nt , an d u na pologetica lly of
‘virtu ou s con du ct’, m ak ing a n im por ta nt con t r ib u t io n to wh a t
J o h n S t u a r t Mill c a ll ed ‘t h e c u l t ivation of t h e p olit ic a l in te lligen ce
of t h e n a t io n ’. 3 0 Th e m e m b er s h i p ca r d of a wor k in g m en ’s clu b
even in t h e 1 9 8 0 s sh owed p ictu res of late Vict or ia n or E d w a r d ia n
m e n a n d you th s a tt en d in g a lec tu re , s tu d yin g in a l ib r a r y ,
p a in t in g a t a n e a s e l a n d s o fo r t h . O n t h e c a r d a r e t h e e x h o r t a -
t io n s : ‘Hon ou r a ll m en ; love th e br oth er; u se h osp itality to on e
a n o t h e r ; be not forgetful to ent ertain s tran gers ’. Th e clu b s ’
a ct ivitie s a re de co ra tive ly d is p la yed on th e c a rd : vis its to p u b l ic
w or k s an d p ar ks , n at u ra l hist ory, bot an y, mu sic, r ecita tions ,
d e b a te s , e s s a y s , le n d in g lib r a r ies , le ct u re s , r ea d in gs , fr ien d ly
s o cie t ie s , trad e societies an d pen ny b a n k s . ‘Ta s te ’ a n d ‘s elf-
r e s t r a i n t ’ are listed . An a n gel s h elte rs u n de r h er righ t win g a
repres en ta tion of ‘Recreation’, with cr icket bat, r u g b y a n d soccer
b a ll, a n d b i l li a r d c u e . Un d e r h e r l e ft w in g ‘S t u d y ’ w o r k s b e fo r e a
globe at h is desk. 3 1
Th e working men ’s c lu b s w e r e on e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
places wh er e eve ryd a y u s age gave the working ma n experience
o f t h e ben efits of ru le -b ou n d dem ocracy. To a dim inished exten t
they s till a re . Ea ch m em be r h olds a cop y of t h e con dition s u n d e r
which h is o wn c lu b m a y control his cond uct within the r ules,
a n d ex p el h im wit h in t h e r u le s of s p ec ific a t ion of t h e c h a r g e,
notice o f s u m m o n s , t h e r i gh t t o d e fe n d h i m s e l f a n d t h e r i gh t o f
a p p ea l a ga in s t t h e c o m m i t t e e’s d e c is i on o n h i s c a s e . Th e y w er e
t h e wor k in g-c la s s a ca d em ies of h ow d ec en cy a n d fair pla y co u ld
be rea lized within t he con text of a cons ens ua l social order.
His c lu b ’s comm ittee was t h e w or k in g m a n ’s c on s t a n t r e m in d er
t h a t h is fre ed om to en joy h is dr in k in p e a ce , a n d go a b ou t h is
r e a s o n a b le b u s ines s withou t being interfered with, depen ded
u p o n a c o m p le x s y s t em o f a g r ee d m a n n e r s b a c k e d u lt im a t e l y b y
s a n c t io n s , a n d w as n o t s o m et h in g th a t e m e r ged a u to m a tic a lly
wh e n everyon e d id a s h e lik e d . Th e c h a ir m a n was t h ere to e n s u re

t h a t on ly p r ec is e b u s in e s s was atten ded to—th e second ed m ot ion
a n d the s econded am end m e nts be fore th e m ee tin g—a n d th a t a ll
sides h a d t h eir s a y, wit h ou t a ggr es s ion or filibu s te rin g. Th e
s e c r e t a r y was t here to p rodu ce a conclu sive record of deci-
s ion s —t h e s u b s equen t un challengability of t h e r e c or d d e p e n d in g
on th e comm ittee’s su bsequ ent a pproval of it as th e correct one.
Devices s u ch as th e vote of no c o n fi d en c e in t h e c h a i r m a n w e r e
a d e fe n c e a g a in s t t h e a b u s e o f h i s o ffi ce . Th e a n n u a l ge n e r a l
m e e t i n g was th e occa sion on w h i ch o ffi ce r s w h o w er e n o t d oin g
their job h on es tly or efficie ntly co u ld b e replaced b y a m a j o r ity of
th e or din a ry m em be rs pr es en t a n d vot in g. 3 2
Not h in g c ou l d b e fu r t h e r i n s p ir i t from t h e c u l t u r e of t h e Ra ve.
Th e Athen aeu m is t od a y t h e location of a h omely ‘caff’. The Bu ffs
Soc ia l Clu b in Ch u rc h St re et is th e r em n a n t o f th e gr ea t fr ien d ly
s o c ie t y m o ve m e n t t h a t o n c e t h r iv ed in th e t ow n . Re n a m ed Th e
Ven u e, t h e o ld bu ildin g of th e Co -op er a tive Re ta il Socie ty h a s
been c on v er t e d wit h govern m en t fun din g to pr ovide Har tlepool
t od a y with ‘new en terta inmen t facilities’, na mely, a night clu b .
Governmen t fu n d s ch an nelled thr ough City Ch a llen ge w e r e u s e d
t o r e m a k e t h e o l d To w n H a l l, t o o, in t o a n ‘e n t e r t a i n m e n t s
venu e’. 3 3
Th e o ld c u lt u r e a n d ‘p u b lic ed u c a t io n ’ w h ic h h a d in vite d ‘t h e
E n glis h m a n from h is youth ’ to u s e h is liberty a n d to ass ociate for
m u t u a l self-im p rovement , to ‘fear n othing, to be as tonish ed at
n o th in g, a n d to s a ve h im s e lf b y h is own exert ions from e ve r y s o re
s t r a it in life’, 34 was gr a d u a lly, t hou gh b y n o m e a n s fully, replace d
b y one wh ich in vite d th e yo u th to s ee a ll h is tr ou b les a s be in g
outs ide of his own res pons ibility an d contr ol; as som eone else’s
fault; and for som eone else to rem edy ... or else.
A sec ond rea ction t o m a ter ia l im p r ove m en t s h a s b ee n th e
d ec lin e in religion. In 1 9 9 6 - 9 7 , a fter lyin g a ban doned a n d derelict
for ma ny year s, th e Wesleyan Ch u rch in th e town cent re wa s
b eing re s to re d wit h gove rn m en t fu n d s to pr ovid e t h e t own wit h
yet an oth er n ight-c lub , a s au na , an d s hop s. Th e Ch u rch of
E n g la n d ’s Christ Ch ur ch was decons ecrated a n d closed in 1 9 7 4 .
£ 2 m illion of th e C ity Ch a llen ge m on ey w a s s p en t in m a k in g t h e
bu ildin g int o a tou ris t in form a tion cen tr e a n d a rt ga llery.
A th ird re a ct ion to wh a t, in co m p a ris on with th e per iod from
1 9 1 3 t o th e e n d of th e S ec on d Wor ld Wa r, h a s be en a pe rio d of
peace a n d m a t e r i a l im p r o v e m e n t (wit h u n em p lo ym e n t m a r rin g

t h e p i ct u r e b u t n o t o n a n i n t e r - w a r s c a l e ), h a s b e e n t h e d e s t r u c -
tion of th e fam ily. It rem ain s, of cou rs e, th e per son al ch oice of a
l a r ge m a j o r it y of t h e p o p u l a t i o n a s a ‘l ife - s t y le ’, w it h a t le a s t t h e
in itia l sh ar ed a mb ition to ma inta in th eir own m a r r ia ge a s a
m o r e- or - le s s perm an ent arr an gemen t. Bu t a s a s trict ly d ef in ed
a n d d efe nd ed s ocial ins titu tion , largely ind ifferen t to t h e con ven-
ience of their own m a r r ia ge a n d their own ma rried p a re n thood for
sp ou ses who fou nd th ey did n ot get on w it h o n e a n o t h e r , it h a s
been s e v er e ly a n d p r o b a b l y i r re p a r a b l y w ea k e n e d s i n c e t h e
1 9 6 0 s . Wr it in g a b ou t t h e fa m ily, J on a t h a n Sa c ks d is t in gu ish es
between wh a t h e c a lls t h e ‘politics of in s t it u t io n s ’ a n d t h e ‘politics
of i n t e r e s t ’. 3 5 The exis ten ce of b e n ig n in s t i t u t io n s d e p e n d s u p o n
a lively s e n s e of t h e c o m m o n g o o d . Th e i r d is m e m b e r m e n t c a n b e
q u i t e ch ee rfu lly a cc om p lis h ed by in flu en tia l in d ivid u a ls or
s p e cia l-in t e re s t p r e s s u r e g r ou p s a n d t h eir s u p p o rt e rs , either ou t
of m is p la ced good in t en t io n s or res e n tm e n t a ga in s t their p er s on a l
h a r d s h ip s .
As la t e a s 1 9 57 n early 96 per cen t of all Hartlepool children
w e r e still b ein g born to m a r ried p a r en t s . 36 By 1 9 9 1 t h e proportion
of children b o r n out side of ma rriage in Hartlepool had incr eas ed
ten -fold. Not four p er c e n t , b u t 4 3 p e r c e n t o f c h i ld r e n w e r e —t o
u s e t h e 1 9 5 7 term —illegitimat e. 3 7 The fam ily had also wea k en ed
a m on g th e we ll-to- do , wh o h a d b een forem os t in pr om otin g a n d
c ele b ra tin g it s a ba n d on m e n t. Th eir fin a n c ia l a n d other strength s
allowed t h e m t o a d o p t a r é g im e o f s e x u a l fr eedom wit h ou t t h e
detriments to their children a nd thei r n e i gh b o u r s r a p i d ly m a k i n g
them selves obviou s . But wh en th ey did appea r, then they pu lled
back to wa rd s th e fa m ily. F ro m be in g m or e lib e rt a ria n t h a n th e
poor in t h e 1 9 5 7 t h ey were n ow fa r m o r e family-oriented t h a n th e
p o o r .3 8
Th e fourth rea ction to t h e problems of fin d in g em ploym ent, on e
of t h e l a s t r e m ain ing from th e m yriad pr oblem s of th e pr evious
1 5 0 y ea r s , was clo s ely related to fa m ily brea k d ow n . Th a t reaction
was to in du lge in grow in g you t h c r i m e , d r u g a b u s e a n d s u b -
c rim in a l d i s or d e r . For now, wheth er h e h im s e lf h a d been b r ou gh t
u p in a lone-p a r en t fam ily or b y both h is own p a r en t s , t h e boy n o
longer h a d t h e s a m e pres su res u p o n h im a s in t h e p a s t to see h is
own life in t h e perspective of m on oga m ou s m a r r iage a n d in t im a t e
a n d con tin u ou s p a re n ta l res po n sib ility du rin g th e long year s of
depen den cy of his own ch ildren . The rem oval of controls over
pre- m a r it a l sex, a n d of ‘s c a n d a l’ from lone m oth erh ood, cohabita-
tion, abort ion an d divorce h a d altered a ll th at . He cou ld res pon d
m u ch m o r e s e l f- c e n t re d ly t o h is ow n fr u s tr a tio n s. Th e bo y w h o
was hims elf brou ght u p in a s ingle-paren t, cohab iting or re-
con s tituted fam ily, a l r ea d y h a d a fa r s l a c k e r , le s s co m m it te d a n d
i n d e fi n it e cir cle of k in , wh os e go od op in ion of h is co n d u c t h e
m igh t v a lu e — or w h o in d e e d t h e m s e lv es m i gh t h a v e a n y s p e c ia l
r e a s o n t o c a r e a b ou t w h a t h e d i d .
Th e p o o r , who h a d de-institu tionalized their k in s h ip s t r u c t u r es
u n d e r t h e im p u ls e o f m i d d le - a n d u p p e r - cla s s i n s p ir e d fa s h io n s,
w e r e le ft t o d e a l w it h a ll th e detrimen ts. They ha d always lacked
t h e fi n a n c i a l r es o u r c e s t o n e u tr a lize th e m , a n d they n ow lacked
t h e c u lt u r a l r es o u r c e s t o r e ve r s e t h e cha nges t h a t w e r e m u lt ip ly-
in g th e crimes an d qu ality-of-life o ffen ce s th a t w er e in cr ea s in gly
a ffe ct in g t h e i r d a i ly li ve s . Th e y c on t i n u e d t o b e b o m b a r d e d w i t h
a n ti- fa m ily p r op a ga n d a th a t th e m id d le a n d u p p er cla s s es n o
longer b elieved. Clar e Rayn er, on e of th e m os t in flu en tia l Agony
Au n t s o f t h e p e r i od , a c t u a lly d ec la r e d a s la t e a s J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7
t h a t sex u a l p r ob i t y w a s ‘a l u x u r y ’. If y ou w e r e p o o r , a c c o r d in g t o
h e r , y ou c o u l d n o t a ffo rd it. 3 9
In p r a ct ic a l t e r m s t h is was t h e opposite of t h e t ru t h . If th e rich
co u ld a ffor d a ré gim e of s e xu a l licence, t h e p o o r co u l d n o t . It wa s
a ls o i n h i s t o r ic a l t e rm s co m p let e n on s en s e. Fo r w h en wor k in g
a n d u n emp loyed p eople wer e m u ch poor er, t he sexu al pr obity of
m o s t o f t h e m w a s , b y t h e s t a n d a r d s o f t h e i r a ltoge t h e r m o r e
a fflue n t su ccessors , mu ch h igh e r , a n d t h e c r im e r a t e , a c c or d -
ingly, mu ch lower.
CONCLUSION
Har tlepool is excep tiona lly inte res ting from th e poin t of view of
t h e cont ext within which a p olice force ha s to work . It p rovides
a clear exam ple of the volu m e a n d or igin of cr im e w h ich is
b r o a d ly o u t s id e t h e c on t r ol of t h e s p ec ia lized fu n ct ion of t h e
police. F o r a s t u dy of th e t o w n s h o w s t h a t w h i le m u c h o f t h e
cur rent r h e t o r ic a bou t being ‘tough on th e cau ses of crime’
as su mes t h a t m a t e r i a l a n d e x t e r n a l fa c t o r s s u c h a s p o ve r t y,
u n e m p lo ym e n t , im m igr a tio n , ‘t h e i n n e r c i t y’, d e t e r io r a t i n g
edu cat ion o p po rt u n i tie s , poor h o u s in g, p olit ic a l exclus ion, a n d s o
fo r t h con st itu te th os e ca u se s, th ey a re very w e a k in ex p la in in g
t h e ris e in crim e i n H a r t le p o o l o ve r t h e p a s t f o r t y y e a r s . H a r t le -
p ool’s histor y e n a b l e s u s t o s e e c le a r l y t h a t , t h e r e a t least, it wa s
t h e decay of the cult u r a l in s t i t u t i on s t h a t h a d e x c lu d e d c r i m e
a n d q u a l it y- of- life offe n c e s fr o m t h e r ep er t o ir e of res pon ses boys
a n d yo u n g m en co u ld m a k e t o t h ei r d ifficu ltie s , a n d n o t a
det eriora tion i n t h e ir s t a n d a r d of living, t h a t was co in ci d e n t w it h
t h e r e m a r k a b l e rise in crime ra tes it experienced wit h in t h e s p a n
of two gener at ions .
When we t u r n na rrowly to t h e policing fu n c tio n , a cent r a l is s u e
is seen to b e th at of police a n d p u b l ic mora le. Th e ‘fo rb ea r in g u s e
of p o w er ’ w a s t h e i d e a l of B r it i s h r u l e fr o m — a t t h e l a t e s t —e a r l y
in the n ineteenth centu ry, in b oth dom estic polic in g a n d in
im p e ria l a d m in is t ra t io n .4 0 ‘Zero toler an ce’ th erefore ja rs on t h e
e a r s o f t h o s e w h o r e a l is e t h a t t he Br it is h s t yle of r u le wa s
h is t or ic a lly a h igh ly s u cces s fu l u s e of a u t h o r it y, n o le s s t h a n on
t h e an ar ch ist ea rs of thos e wh o a re op pos ed t o th e exer cise of
a n y a u t h o rit y a t a ll. Ze ro to le ra n ce o r igi n a t e d a s a s o u n d - b i t e i n
t h e Amer ican m ed ia . It is n ow t h e fir m ly es ta b lis h ed te rm in
B rit a in a ls o. All we c a n do a s we u s e it is to po in t o u t it s pit falls ,
a n d in s is t t h a t w h a t we m e a n b y t h e t e r m is t h e s t r a tegy d e ta iled
in th es e t wo c h a p te rs on Ha rt lep ool.
Power was u sed forbearingly only for so long as it cou l d be
exercised con fiden tly. Th e forb ea rin g u se of au thority depen ded
u p on t h e e x is t en c e o f a vir t u ou s c ir cle of c on fid e n t r u le , s o cia l
peace, an d th erefor e s u p p ort for th ose in au thority. As late a s
1 9 5 5 , when t h e re wa s a grea t vogue in b ooks st u dying ‘na tiona l
c h a r a c t e r ’, the a nth ropologist Geoffrey Gorer actu ally explained
t h e l eg en d a r y law-abidingness of English working men in term s
of t h e i r id e n t i fi ca t i on w i t h t h e d e c en t E n g lis h b o b by as t heir
principal role model. 4 1
But from th e early 1960s this virtuou s circle was b r ok en .
C r im e ro s e. Ex p la n a tio n s for c rim in a l condu ct b e ga n to pr edom -
i n a t e th at em ph as ized th e imp or t a n c e of m a s s ive m a te ria l a n d
e xt er n a l cau ses. At the s am e time it was den ied tha t th e fre-
quen cy of crimes a n d qu ality-of-life offence s wa s incr eas ing. The
pu blic’s vie w w a s d is p a r a ge d a s ‘p o pu l is t ’ a n d d is m is s e d a s
‘m o r al p a n i c’. Th e r e w a s a w i t h d r a w a l o f é li t e s u p p o r t for
po licin g. (In 198 4 th e then Bish op of D u r h a m s c old e d a co rr e s -
pond ent with the m essa ge t h at ‘cu ts ar e con st an tly ma de on
t h o se services t h a t a r e of p ar ticu lar va lue t o t h e p o o r , b u t m o n ey
c a n always b e found for ... k ee pin g u p th e police forces . I do n ot

s a y t h a t w e c a n d o w it h o u t . . . p o li ce e x p e n d it u r e , b u t t h e
e m p h a s is do es se em to b e p er sis te n tly on n on -ca rin g a n d
a ggr e s s ive directions .’)4 2 Police mor ale s u ffered , an d th erefore
police p e r fo r m an ce. T h e c on f id e n c e o f t h e g e n e r a l p u b l ic in t h e
police was s a p p e d , a n d t h e r e fo r e co-ope ra tion with t h e police wa s
redu ced. The con fiden ce of the crim inal ros e.
C r im e rose; th at c rime wa s ris ing was d e n i e d ; b u t w h a t c r im e
th ere wa s, wa s d u e to m as sive ma terial an d exter na l forces ...
Not t h e l e a s t p a r t of t h e su ccess of con fid en t- p olic in g p olic y in
Har tlepool 1 9 9 4 - 9 6 a n d l a t e r la y in t h e w illin gn e s s t o p u t th e
police poin t of view pu blicly. The emp irical an d eth ical ‘definition
o f t h e s it u a tio n ’ o f crime a nd qu ality-of-life offences in th e town
was n o t l eft t o t h e s a m e e x t en t a s p r e v i ous ly to an ti-police
p r e s s u r e grou ps ; car riers of the p ost -19 60 s ide ology of s oc ia l
w o r k in the p r oba tion s ervice a nd elsewh ere; a nd exper ts from
t h e u n iver s i t i e s a n d t h e l e ga l p r o fe s s i o n a l s o p r od u c e d b y t h e
s t u d en t movemen ts a n d t h e m o r e g en e r a l c u lt u r a l c h a nges of th e
1960s a nd later.
Har tlepool’s e x p e r ien ce s u g g e s t s s t r o n g ly , t h e r e fo r e , t h a t
policing on th e Ma llon m od el ca n effective ly cu t t h e cr im e r a t e
a n d th e vo lu m e o f qu a lity- of-life offe n c e s b y a t l ea s t 2 0 p e r c e n t .
But it s u gge s ts ju s t a s st ro n gly t h at ther e ha s been a deep
c u lt u r a l cha nge, n o t l e a s t in t h e c on c e p t io n o f w h a t c a u s e s crim e
a n d h ow th e crimina l can be effe ctively d ealt w ith, which h as
sh ifted th e propen sity of boys an d youn g men t o deal w it h their
d ifficu ltie s at t he exp ens e of the fellow-citizens, r at h e r t h a n in
m o r e co n s tr u ct ive (or n on -d es tr u ct ive) wa ys . Th e n ew cu ltu re is
one in w h ic h bo ys a n d yo u n g m e n a re n o lo n ger b eing socialized
i n t o t h e m a j or l ife - p r o je c t of look in g a fte r t h eir own ch ild re n in
their own h om e , a nd one in which t hey are r egarded a s h elp le s s,
or eve n s om eh ow ju s tifie d , in s u c cu m b in g to t h e ‘c a u s e s ’ of their
c r im e —‘p over ty’ a n d u n em p loym en t—t h ro u gh en ga gin g in cr im -
in a l a n d a n t i- s oc ia l conduct. It c a n t h erefore b e expected that, for
s o long a s the cu lture per sists , criminal an d an ti-social condu ct
will c on t i n u e a t a m u c h h ig h e r le ve l t h a n i n t h e p a s t , b u t wit h
n e w p o li ce s t r a t e g ie s b r i n gi n g t h e r a t e o f i n c r ea s e u n d e r m o r e
effec tive co n tr ol.
S t r a t h c l y d e ’s S p o t l i g h t I n i t i a t i v e
J o h n Orr
T HE STRATHCLYDE Police Sp otligh t In itia tive was la u n c h ed on

1 October 19 96, its objective being dram atically to redu ce
violent crime, d i s or d e r , a n d t h e fe a r of crime throu gh ou t t h e fo r ce
a r ea . At t h e time of writing we h a ve completed one year of a long-
term stra tegy which ca n m ake a lasting difference.
B e fo r e going on t o s e t ou t w h a t t h e S p ot ligh t In itia tive is , it
m a y be u sefu l t o t a ckle the m yths a nd miscon ceptions wh ich
h a ve su rrou nd ed it. C o m m e n t a t o r s h a ve been k een to sen sa tion -
a lis e th rou gh com pa rison with foreign forces a n d t h e a p p lication
of labels su ch a s ‘zero toleran ce’.
Z e r o To l e r a n c e
One of th e m is co n ce p tio n s is th a t t h e S p ot ligh t In itia tive is a
policy of ‘zero t olera nc e’. A fas t-tr ack rou te to p olice cells for
t h o se cau ght comm itting so-called m inor crimes is n eit h er th e
in te n tio n n or th e p ra ct ice of th e S po tligh t In itia tive .
A fu n d a m e n t a l p r in c ip le o f S t r a t h c ly d e Police is to e n cou ra ge
t h e u s e of officer discret ion wh en d ea lin g with o ffe n d er s . A policy
of ‘z er o tolerance’, is s u ed from t h e t o p , wou ld n o t on ly u n d er m in e
t h is d is c re tio n , b u t a ls o t h e com pa ss ion a nd res ou rcefu lnes s of
t h e i n d iv id u a l offi ce r o n t h e s t r e e t . Th e p u b l ic e x p e ct t h e p olice
t o u se t ha t dis cret ion s e n s i t i ve ly a n d s e e i t a s r e a s o n a b l e t h a t ,
for exam p le , a n offe n d e r w h o h a s d r o p p e d l it t e r is g iv en t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y to pick it u p; th at ch ildren foun d d rink ing a lcohol
are t a ken h om e to their p a r en t s ; t h a t great t h ou g h t is given whe n
dea ling with a ny vu lner ab le pers on.
Sp otligh t a ls o d ea ls wit h is s u e s s u c h as s t r ee t r ob b er ie s a n d
offens ive weapon s wh ere u se of the ter m ‘zero toleran ce’ can be
t em p t in g. A concern , however, that Stra thclyde Police has in
u s in g the ter m, even in s uch an extreme c o n t e x t , i s t h a t i t m a y
105
d e t r a c t from its curr ent a ss ociation with d omes tic violence, a

con text i n w h ic h i t is r i gh t l y a n d p o w e r fu l ly b ein g a p p l ie d in
S c ot la n d . It is r egr et t a ble , b u t u n d e rs t a n d a ble , t h a t th e s lo ga n
is s o r e a d ily app lied to eve ry th in g from food hygiene to a ll crimes .
Th e aim of the Spotlight Initiative is s i m p ly to m a k e t h e
S t r a t h c ly d e Police a r e a a s a f er p l a c e t o l iv e, w or k , v is i t a n d
i n ve s t . A c r a c k d o w n o n c r im e i t is . Ta r g e t in g c r im i n a ls it is .
Pos itive a c t i on a g a i n s t q u a l it y - of- li fe c r im e s i t is . C o m m u n i t y
policing with t he gloves off it is. ‘Zero toleran ce’ it is not.
No t t h e Bi g Ap p l e
It is a ls o worth s t a tin g t h a t S tr a th clyd e is n o t New York Cit y. Th e
a r ea s ha ve different environmen ts, cu lt u r e s a n d le ga l s ys te m s
a n d the NYPD deal with mu ch higher crime levels. For examp le,
in t h e p a s t f iv e y ea r s S t r a t h c ly d e Police h a s r eco rd ed a n a ver a ge
of 7 8 h om icides a nn u ally am ong a pop u lation of 2.25 m illion
people, while New York with a pop u lation of 7.25 m illion e x p e r i-
enced an avera ge of 1,41 8. Ne w Yo r k al s o h a s a b i gg er d r u g s
problem, in c lu d in g crack cocaine, ethnic c h a llenges a n d s u b s t a n-
t ia l gu n a n d ga n g cu lt u res , often featu ring juven iles. The t wo
places are very different, a nd th e rem edies r eflect th at.
A S h o r t Hi s t o r y o f S t r a t h c l y d e P o l i c e
A look at the force history, its developmen t an d its prob lems,
h igh light s wh y th e t im e is n ow r igh t for St ra th clyd e P olic e t o
in tr od u ce a n ew, invigor a te d s tyle o f policin g.
S t r a t h c ly d e Police origina ted in 1 97 5, t he pr odu ct of local
governm ent re-or gan isa tion wh ic h in c lu d e d th e a m a lgam ation of
s ix police forces in t h e West C en t r a l b e lt o f S cot la n d . Cov er in g a n
a r e a of s om e 5 , 3 4 8 s q u a r e m iles with a cur rent strength of 7 , 2 6 4
police o ffi ce r s a n d 1 , 9 5 2 s u p p o r t s t a f f, it i s b y fa r t h e larges t of
t h e S c ot t is h for ces a n d sec on d or t h i r d in G re a t B rit a in . Th e fo r ce
serves a b ou t h a lf t h e p o p u la t io n o f S c ot la n d , s o m e t wo a n d a
quar ter m illion p eople, a n d provides a h om e for t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of
a ll S c ot t is h c r im i n a ls .
From 19 7 5 it ge ogr a p h ica lly m a tc h ed a n d wa s pr in cip a lly
a c c ou n t a b l e to the n ewly formed Stra thclyde Region a l Cou n cil.
C o m p e t i n g fin a n c ia l d e m a n d s on th e c ou n cil, n ot a b ly s oc ia l
services an d ed u cat ion, m e a n t t h a t t h e f o r ce w a s r e q u i r e d t o
STRATHCLYDE ’S S PO TLIG HT INIT IATIVE 107
o p e r a t e s o m e 1 9 4 officer s u n d e r i t s a u t h o r i s e d e s t a b l is h m e n t ,
th en 6 ,954 .
A m a j or p r i or i t y fo r t h i s n e w p o li ce fo r c e wa s t o e n s u r e t h e
i n t e gr a t i o n o f t h e o ffi ce r s , d i vi s io n s a n d p o l ic ie s o f i t s c om p o s i t e
forces to pr ovide a s tan dar d ser vice to the pu blic.
Large, s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d , s o m e t im e s a f fl u e n t , r u r a l a r ea s
w e r e n o w u n i te d in t h e s a m e r e g io n a n d p olice d b y t h e s a m e
force a s h e a v il y p o p u l a t e d t o wn s ; s p r a w l in g s u b u r b a n c o n u r b -
a t io n s bu ilt t o a cc om m od a te th e G la s gow po p u la tio n ove rs p ill;
a n d o f c o u r s e , t h e City o f G la s g o w i ts e l f w it h i t s vi b r a n t c e n t r e
a n d p r ofe s s io n a l p e r ip h e ra l comm un ities c on t ra s t in g gr ea tly wit h
its a r e a s o f m u lt ip le d e p rivation. Th e latter w e r e l a r gely r e s po n s -
ib le for gen er a tin g a global repu tation for the ‘Glesga’ Har d Ma n ’,
‘viciou s r a zo r ga n gs ’, s ec ta r ia n riva lry, a n d t en e m e n t s lu m s , a ll
of which com b in ed to e a r n t h e m u ch pu blicised label of ‘No Mean
City’.
It is i m p or t a n t t o t a k e a mor e in-dep th look at Glas gow, as its
in flu e n ce c ou l d n o t fa il t o im p a c t o n it s h in t e rla n d . Th e a d a ge
t h a t ‘w h e n A m e r ic a s n e e z e s , B r it a i n c a t c h e s c o l d ’ t r a n s l a t e d t o
S t r a t h c ly d e a s Glas gow’s problems often seem ed to p r es a ge t h os e
o f i t s s u r r o u n d i n g p op u l a t i o n s , a l b e it t o a l es s e r e x t e n t .
D u rin g t h e 1 9 8 0 s a n d co n tin u in g into t h e 1 9 9 0 s , c on s i d e ra b l e
in ve s tm e n t which t a r g e t e d c om m u n i t y i m p r o ve m e n t p r o j e c t s in
deprived a re a s s u c h a s D r u m cha pel, C a s t le m i lk , G or b a ls , Gova n
a n d E a s t e r h o u s e am ong ot he rs , h as formed pa rt of a m ajor
regen era tion of th e city, and Stra th clyde as a who le. Run -down
h o u s in g e st a te s a n d h igh -r is e t owe r b loc k s h a ve b ee n re d eve l-
oped o r r a z e d t o t h e g r o u n d w i t h gen er a lly b et te r h ou s in g b ein g
d e ve lo p ed . Of e qu a l sign ific a n c e is t h e c on s i d er a b l e movemen t of
pop u lation o u t o f G la s g o w t o t h e res t of Stra th clyde. Across
S t r a t h c ly d e new em ploymen t opportu nities a n d b u s i n e s s e n t e r -
p r i s e zo n e s h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d t o r e pla c e lo s t in d ige n ou s i n d u s -
t r ie s . Comm un ity groups ha ve been su pported in their e ffo r t s t o
r e b u ild a re a s . S tr a th clyd e a s a wh ole , b u t Glas gow in p a r tic u la r,
ha s u nd ergone a ren aissa nce.
H o we ve r , des pite t his ra dica l tra ns forma tion, th e City of
Glas gow—now d e s e r ve d ly earn ing various cultu ral accolades
s u ch a s ‘City of Cultu re’ an d ‘City of Archi t ec tu r e ’—h a s fo u n d its
n ega tive image, perh aps historica lly de ser ved, h ar d to c as t off.
Th e ‘No Me a n Cit y’ im a ge r em a in s beloved of t h e m e d ia . Violen ce
ma kes m o re in t e re s tin g co py t h a n t h e r e b o r n G l a s g ow , wi t h
t o u r i s t s still opting for the s qua lor depicted by the class ic Oscar
M a r za r o li pic tu re po st ca rd s fea tu rin g be dr a ggled street u r c h in s ,
u n s h o d a n d u n wa sh ed , a s t h eir m em ory of Gla s gow . Th is
outm oded image of the city ha s ser ved to e n s u r e t h a t i n c i d e n t s
of crime her e attr act d isproportiona te levels of med ia interest,
which consequ en t ly engend ers a n increa sed a nd distorted
per cept ion of the level of crime, heighten ing the p u b l ic’s fear of
crime. As t h e b ig cit y of t h e r egio n , t h is m is lea d in g im a ge a ls o
tarn ished S trat hclyde.
In fa ir n e s s , th rou ghou t t h e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0 s reported c r im e in
Glas gow d id r i se e a ch y e a r . Th e s a m e w a s t r u e o f S t r a t h c ly d e
a n d t h e c o u n t r y a s a w h o le , fu e l le d b y t h e p er n ic io u s on s la u gh t
of t h e d r u g p h e n o m e n on t h a t h a d a l r eady swep t acros s America
a d e c a d e e a r l ie r .
From 19 8 3 th e in cid en ce of d ru gs m is u s e in S t r a t h c ly d e
increas ed d r a m a tically. Where on ly five years b efore a su spect
fo u n d in p o s s es s io n of a s yr in ge c on ta in in g tr a ce s of h er oin
wou ld ha ve been regard ed as ‘a good captu re’ for an y street
officer, s u ch ca se s n ow flood ed th e p olice for en sic lab ora tor y.
Init ially, the u se of so-called ‘ha rd’ dru gs was largely confined
t o th e r u n -d own pe rip h er a l ho u sin g es t a t e s s u r r ou n d i n g
G la s gow. It s e ffe c t o n c r im e , h o we ve r , w a s n o t s o lo ca l is e d . As
t h e 1 9 9 0 s a r r iv ed , a n estima ted 1 0 , 0 0 0 intra ven ou s h er oin u s e rs
lived in Gla s gow. Their p referen ce to in ject ra th er t ha n s m oke
h er oin , a co m p a ra tive ly ch ea p dr u g, w a s u n iqu e a n d ove r t h e
ne xt deca de wa s t o cu t s hor t t h e l ives of h u nd red s of youn g
people. Mixed with other d r u gs , in p a r tic u la r t h e gelatin o u s f o r m
of t e m a z ep a m , ‘jellie s ’, it produ ced a le th a l c oc k ta il. Som e add icts
contra cted H IV o r h e p a t it is fr om s ha red n eedles whilst other
u s e r s d e ve lo pe d u lc er s a n d a bs c e s s e s w h i c h r e s u l t e d in t h e
a m p u t a t i on of limb s, in fection a n d collaps ed or c on ges te d vein s .
For t h e m ajority, it r esu lted in st u pefac tion; a nu m b gen era tion,
u n e m p lo ye d an d u ne m ployab le, relian t on st at e ben efits for
su sten an ce, a n d on t h e procee ds of crime t o bu y th eir n ext fix.
A ‘t e n n e r b a g’ (£ 1 0 ) s o on b e c a m e a ‘s c o r e b a g ’ (£ 2 0 ) wh e n t h e
victim was well an d tru ly hooked.
Glas gow was seen as th e dru gs cap ital of Stra th clyde bu t, as
su rely a s Am e r ic a n t r e n d s cros s t he Atlan tic to Lond on a nd
r a d ia t e furth er n o rt h , t h e p r o b le m c o u l d n o t b e c o n t a i n e d b y t h e
in vis ib le Glas gow b o u n d a r y . Th e id yllic r u r a l set t in g s of t h e m os t

wid e s p re a d to wn s a n d villa ges a cr os s th e for ce a re a we re a ls o
a ffe c t ed . Th e d es p a ir c a u s ed b y d r u g a d d ic t io n , a n d t h e ris e in
p r o p e r t y c r im e t h a t fe d it s vo ra c io u s a p p e t it e , b e ca m e in c r ea s -
in gly eviden t. Hous ebrea king, car th eft, fraud , robbery, disorder
a n d violen t c rim e a ll ros e s te ep ly.
Be h in d th e s cen es , th e ‘Mr Bigs ’ of dr u gs, who r eta ined a cool
d e ta ch m e n t fr o m t h e i r d e s p ic a b l e s t o c k in t r a d e , w e r e en g a ged
in a vio le n t a n d b lood y ba tt le over te rr itor y. Th e ea rly 1 99 0s
hera lded t h e fir s t s ign s of ‘o rga n is e d c rim e ’ o r ‘ga n g w a rfa r e’, a s
t h e t a b lo id s d u b b e d i t, s in c e t h e ga n g s o f t h e e a r ly 1 9 7 0 s .
S eve ra l s h oot in gs a n d m u r d e r s a m o n g s t t h e d r u g s f r a t e r n i t y
occur red, b u t t h e b a n n e r hea dlines in n e w s p a p e r s d id n o t alway s
reflect t h e d is t in c t io n . O rd in a r y m e m b ers of the pu blic felt
thr eaten ed b y t h e viole n ce , a lth ou gh th e lik elih ood of b ein g
cau ght in th e crossfire was at wors t rem ote.
Iron ica lly, the p reference of the S t r a t h clyd e a d d ic t fo r t h e
chea per d r u g s s u c h a s h e r oin, am p h et a m in e , c a n n ab is a n d
t em a ze pa m , p e r h a p s sta ved off a n even w o r se fate. Th e exp e n s ive
a n d m o r e sin ister coca ine, in pa rticu lar ‘cra ck’, did n ot su cceed
in g a in i n g a fo ot h o ld in S c o tla n d .
By 1 9 9 1 c r im e was at its h ighes t level sinc e th e ince pt ion of
Stra thclyde Police, an d wh ilst m edia at ten tion was pr ima rily on
Glasgow, with Pa isle y a s econd ar y focu s, a rise in cr ime wa s
wit n essed a cr os s th e e n tir e for ce . F or th e fir s t t im e, cr im e
in volvin g f ir e a r m s , p a r t ic u la r ly a r m e d r ob b er ie s , b e ca m e
p r e v a le n t . Alt h ou g h th is w a s in ke ep in g with th e p a tt er n em er g-
in g e l sewhere a cross Br itain, it was th e ‘No Mean City’ which
gar ne red th e m ajority of pu blic at ten tion.
Som eth ing ha d to b e don e—and qu ickly.
The Ea rly 1 99 0s —the Era of t he Oper at ion

1 9 9 0 sa w th e ap poin t m e n t o f C h i e f C o n s t a b l e Mr Le s l ie S h a r p ,
m y p r e d e c e s s o r . In r ob u s t fa s h io n , h e m a d e s u cces s fu l repres en -
ta tion to th e local a u th ority se ekin g fu nd ing to r ecru it u p to t he
au thorised le ve l a n d pledged tha t Stra thclyde Police would dea l
fir m ly w it h s e rio u s cr im i n a ls .
A ser ies of high p rofile, 90-day Opera tions were lau nch ed to
t a ck le m a j or c rim e , w it h t h e m e d ia a s a ctive p a r t n er s . Operation
Bla d e tar geted crim inals car rying kn ives, a t r en d w h ic h wa s s o
widesprea d it h ad a lm os t b ec om e ac ce pt ed a s a pa r t o f t h e
c u l t u r e of the West of Scotlan d; Operat ion Spu r recovered
h u n d r e d s of criminally held firearm s; Opera tion Interlock
reas su red t h e p u b l ic, encou raging them to ha ve the confiden ce
t o giv e p olic e i n for m a t ion foll ow in g a n u m b er of d r u g - r e lated
s h oo tin gs in G la s go w’s E a st En d ; O pe ra t io n Tu r n key slash ed
h o u s eb r ea k in g fi gu r e s ; a n d O p e r a t i o n E a g le t a c k le d d r u g s
d e a le r s , in c r ea s in g se izu r e s of d r u gs , re d u cin g su p p lie s a n d
in flat in g t h e price of d r u g s in a c c or d a n c e w it h t h e la w s o f s u p p ly
an d de ma nd .
Su ch positive policing mea su res c le a r l y won th e su pp ort of t h e
p u b l ic an d, from 19 92 , th e pr evious yea r- on -ye a r r is e in cr im e
w a s r e ve r s e d .
A Ne w Ch ie f Co ns t a bl e
On 1 J an ua ry 1996 , when I t o o k ov er t h e r e i n s a s C h i ef C o n s t a -
b le o f S t r a t h c l y d e , c r im e h a d fa l le n o v er t h e pr evious four y ea r s
b y a l m o s t 2 0 p e r ce n t . Fr o m S ir Le s lie S h a r p I in h e r it ed a we ll
resou rced fo r c e wi t h go od m o r a le w h ic h e n jo ye d c on s i d e ra b l e
p u b l ic a n d local a u th orit y su pp ort . Se riou s c rim in a ls livin g a n d
o pe ra t in g in ou r area kn ew t h a t t h e police cou ld a n d wou ld c ra ck
down h ea vily on t h eir n efar iou s a ct ivities wh en ever n ece ss a ry.
S eve ra l ser ious crim e is s u es h a d been s u cces s fu lly tack led b y th e
s e r ie s of ‘o p er a t io n s ’.
D e s p i t e t h is s u c ce s s, an in d e p e n d e n t s u r v e y ca r r i e d o u t i n
1 9 9 5 sh owed t h a t fear of crime wa s r ising, with 84 per cen t of
t h e p u b l ic wr on gly b elie vin g t h a t c r ime wa s increa sing. A fur ther
su rvey, Th e S cot tis h Cr im e Su r vey, pu blished in 1 9 9 6 , identified
th a t 9 2 per cent of t h e p u b l ic w e r e concern ed a bou t c r im e a n d 5 2
per cent w e r e ‘worried t h a t they or s o meon e they lived with wou ld
b e th e victim of crime’. In s p ite of positive police action, violent
c r im e a n d disorder w e r e a ls o on t h e in c r ea s e a n d p r ovin g d ifficu lt
t o co m b a t. Give n th a t t h e for ce h a d be en s o s u cc es s fu l in
t a ck lin g all t h e is s u e s it h a d set ou t to t ack le, th e qu est ion h ad
to be as ked—why was fear of crime con tinu ing to rise?
Th e an swer, I believe, stemm ed fr o m t h e fa c t t h a t w h ils t th e
force fo cu s e d it s r es o u r ce s on t a c k lin g th e s e m o s t s er io u s of
is s u es (w h i ch i n r e a l it y a ffe c t e d on l y a m i n o r it y o f p e o p le ), t h e
b r e a d - a n d -b ut ter is s u e s wh ic h fa c ed a n d t h re a te n ed la r ge
s ec to rs of th e p u b lic in th eir eve ry d a y life h a d b e e n r e l eg a t e d t o
second place.
In m a n y a re a s ‘m in o r c r im e s ’ a n d incidents of disorder s u ch a s
street drinkin g, youth s ca u s i ng ann oyance, graffiti, litter a nd
va n d alis m , a c c ou n t e d for m or e th a n h a lf o f a ll c a lls t o t h e
po lice—over h a lf a m illion c a lls a n n u a lly.
Stories of fa m ilie s ’ live s be in g bligh t e d b y a n t i- s oc ia l t e n a n t s,
children b e in g b u l lie d , well-tend ed gard en s t ra sh ed, a nd youn g
p e op le u n a b l e t o w a lk i n t h e ir o w n s t r e e t s fo r fe a r o f r iva l yo u t h ,
filled local newsp ap ers . De s pite ou r s u cc es s , we re we re a lly
m a t c h in g pu b l ic ex p ec t a tio n s ?
Public Consult at ion

D u rin g m y firs t nine m onth s a s Ch ief Const able we consu lted
wid ely with th e p u blic a n d c om m u n ity r e p r e s e n t a t i ve s a t e v er y
leve l to identify their greatest cr ime concern s. The res p ons e was
u n iver s a l, wit h few s u rp ris es . Pe rh a p s for t h e fir s t t im e t h e
c o n c e r n s o f t h e city of Glasgow were being m irrored by th ose of
t h e r u r a l c om m u n i t ie s . Th e p u b l ic c er t a i n l y d i d n o t w a n t u s t o
lessen ou r efforts in t h e inves tigation of serious cr im e. Wh a t t h ey
d id w a n t u s t o d o was t o give real, co-ordinated a t te n tio n to th e
‘m i n o r ’ qu a lity- of-life crimes which people actu ally experienced,
firs t h a n d , on a d ay-to-day ba sis. Above all, people wanted to go
a bou t t h e i r d a ily b u s in e s s u n im p ed ed b y d is or d er ly ga n gs
s h ou t in g obs cen ities, s m as hin g bott les a nd car rying wea pon s.
Th ey wan ted their street s free of litter a n d gr a ffiti. Th e s e w e r e th e
crimes which t h e p u b l ic regarded a s m o s t frigh t en in g; t h e c r im e s
th a t they w e r e m o s t lik ely to witness or experience firs t- h an d ; th e
crimes t h a t t h r e a t e ned their qu ality of life. Allied to this, they
wan ted the r eas su ran ce of the ‘f ee l -s a f e fa c t o r’ p r o vid e d b y
p o lic em e n p a t r ollin g th e ir s t re et s .
S o W h a t h a d G on e W r o n g ?
By concen trat ing primar ily on more s erious crim es an d less on
m o r e m in o r in fr a c tio n s , I believe we h a d tak en ou r eye off t h e b a ll
a n d a llo we d a p ro b le m , p e rh a p s less dr am at ic th an dr u gs or
gu n s b u t m or e in s id io u s an d fa r - r e a c h i n g, t o th r i ve . T h e r e a li t y
wa s t h a t t h e ‘G le s ga ’ H a rd Ma n ’ o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0s h a d
m a d e w a y fo r t h e d o p ed - u p , s p it t i ng yob st an ding on th e street
corner, u nd erpa ss , or local par k, drink ing ‘bu ckie’ (chea p wine)
a n d h u m i li a t in g p a s s e r s - b y , fe lt t i p p en a t th e read y to pub licly
in s c r ib e the cu rren t fashiona ble obscenity. Not a Glas gow-led

ph en om en on this tim e, the pr oblem occur r e d a s f r e q u e n t l y i n
Miln ga vie, Ay r , E a s t Kilb r id e o r Oba n, as in th e Glas gow
‘s c h em e s ’. Crim es of d is ord er t ra ns cen ded all socia l an d geo-
gr a p h ic a l b a r r ie r s .
In com m on with Am erica , we h ad u nd ergon e a d eca de of
a t te m pt in g to u n d e rs t a n d a n d e x p la in t h e b eh a vio u r o f t h is
lou t is h m i n o r it y. ‘U n d e r s t a n d in g ’ d id n o t h in g t o s t o p t h e p ro b -
lem , a n d lit tle t o a lleviat e t h e m ise ry e x p e r i e n c ed b y the law-
a b id in g ma jority. Reflecting society, we ha d ch osen to follow a
p a t h of defining deviancy down, a nd beh aviour th at h ad b een
u n a c c ep t a b le to previous generat ions, an d dea lt w it h b y la w
enforcement, was neglected. Th e time was ripe for positive act ion .
Wid e s pr ea d eros ion of pa ren ta l resp ons ibility h ad not h e lp e d .
Th e e r a of th e p a re n t w h o c h a s tis ed th eir er ra n t c h ild for u n ru ly
b eh a viou r or expected their ch ild h ome a t a rea sona ble h ou r h a d
d im i n is h e d , r e p l a c e d b y a ‘n o t m y s o n / d a u g h t e r ’ a t t it u d e . New
polic e t ec h n olo gy a n d p ra c tic es h a d a ls o p la ye d t h eir p ar t. Th e
pu blic’s d e m a n d f or a s p e e d ed - u p p o lic e r es p on s e d u r in g t h e
1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0 s h a d seen t h e u n iver s a l ad opt ion of t h e fa s t c a r,
enh an ced t ech n olo gy, an d th e person al radio. Combined , they
ens ur ed a less pers ona l police style.
Th e ca r , ‘t h e s teel box’, pr ovided a ph ysica l bar rier t o com m u -
nity inter a c tio n . Th e p er s on a l ra dio, wh ils t p r od u c in g a vita l ste p
for w a r d in co m m u n ic a t ion wh ic h n o o ffic er wo u ld n ow for fei t ,
a ls o ga ve ris e t o p rob lem s. Officers be ca m e in cr ea sin gly r elia n t
on it to deliver i n s t r u c t ions on wh ere t o call an d wh at to do.
Where, pr eviou sly, officers ’ a ct ion s w er e d riven by p er s on a l
in itia tive , t im e b et we en c a lls now s eem ed in da nger of becom ing
a im l es s an d u nfocu s e d. Th e u ps hot of th e new t echn ology was
t h a t officers were in crea sin gly in c ar s, t ied to t he ra dio, wa itin g
for t h e n ex t c a ll. Offic er s wh o a t t e n d e d ca l ls v ia t h e r a d io
controller ha d fulfilled their day’s requ ir e m en t s . In s h or t, th e
r a d i o ha d su rreptitiously provided a minim um service-level
a gr ee m en t for its host officer. A fur ther s i d e - e ffe ct of t h is ‘im -
proved s e r v ic e ’ w a s t h a t in t e l ligen ce pa s s ed to officer s du rin g
c a s u a l c on v e r s a t i o n w it h t h e ir c o m m u n i t y w a s a l s o lo s t .
Th e ove rr id in g p r i or i t y p l a c e d on b e a t o f fi ce r s t o a n s w er ca lls
promptly h a d robbed t hem of their time-hon oured disc ret ion a n d
self-mot ivation. W h ils t t h e id ea of com m u n ity p olicin g h a d
retained favour in S trat hclyde, th e b a lan ce b et wee n pr ovidin g a

‘q u a l i t y’ re s p on s e o r a ‘fas t’ res p on s e w a s a rg u a b ly we igh te d in
favour of th e latter , a lt h ou gh it was n ot always, or indeed
generally, the ca se th at on e preclud ed th e other.
A Mo v e a w a y f r o m t h e O p e r a t i o n
My first pu blic sta temen t as Chief Const able included a d e t e r -
m in a tion t h a t I w ou l d n o t in i t ia t e s h o r t -t e r m ‘o p er a t io n s ’. Wh ils t
they h a d a m e lio ra t e d m a n y o f t h e fo r ce ’s p r o b le m s , a n d h a d
u n d o u b t e d l y t a ke n th e force forwa rd , th e tim e wa s r ight for
S t r a t h c ly d e P o li ce t o em b a r k o n a longer-term stra tegy which
wou ld emb race t h e principles of p a rt n er s h ip with th e c om m u n i ty,
a co n ce p t I felt th e ‘ope ra tio n ’ did n ot fu lly ex p lor e o r e xp loit .
I he ld oth er r ese rvat ions ab ou t th e u se of ‘oper at ions ’. Th ey
were reactive, th eir s in gle- is s u e foc u s m a d e t h em in flexib le a n d
t h e i r s h ort lifespa n left little tim e for less ons to be learn ed or
i m p r o ve m e n t s t o b e im p l e m e n t e d . T h e r e wa s a ls o a h e a vy
relia n ce on te a m s o f sp ecia lly se lect ed officers . I h a ve a lwa ys
believed t h a t t h e m o s t importa nt p olice officer in t h e fo rc e is t h e
officer on t h e b e a t . I t is on th is officer th at t he p u blic relies, a nd
it i s t o s u p p o r t t h is offic er t h a t eve r y o th e r p olic e r ôle ex is t s . A
m a jo r con c ern over th e con tinu ed u se of sh ort-t erm oper at ions
wa s th at t he cr eat ion of ‘élite’ squ ad s, com pose d of what w e re
regarded as th e ‘bes t’ officers , r e s u lt ed in a p e r ce i v ed down -
gr a din g of t h e s ta tu s of t h e b e a t or c om m u n i ty con s tab le. I stres s
t h e w or d ‘p e r c eiv ed ’ b e ca u s e t h is was never t h e inten tio n , s im p ly
a by-p r o d u c t of t h e ‘o p er a t io n ’ s y n d rome. Ab s tr a ct io n s from cor e
s h ift s le ft re m a in in g o ffi ce r s feelin g u n d e r v a lu e d , un involved a n d
bea ring th e work load of th eir ‘élite’ colleagu es.
A Lo n g e r -t e r m S t r a t e g y
Th e long-term str ategy I wished to pu t in place t h e n h a d t o
a d d r es s s e v er a l k e y i s s u e s : m i n o r cr im e; pu blic fear of crime;
fo cu s e d , in t e llige n ce -le d po lic in g in t h e co m m u n it y; p a r en t a l
r e s p o n s i b i li t y a n d c o r p o r a t e w o r k in g . I a l s o d e m a n d e d t h e
s t r a t e g y to p r ov id e, in a lon g- t er m wa y, t h e fu ll b en efi t s of t h e
s h o r t - t e r m oper at ion a n d in volve e ve r y s in gle officer a n d m e m b e r
of police s u p p o r t s t a ff. As a form er det ect ive, I wa s a cu te ly a war e
t h a t t h i s a l l h a d t o be d one withou t e ve r t a k i n g t h e fi n g er o ff t h e
pu lse in terms of serious crime.
Im p o s s i b le ? No! I believed it could be d on e . I h o l d t h e fi r m

belief t h a t m in o r a n d s e r i ou s c r i m e a r e n o t p ole s a p a r t . In d e e d ,
I b e li ev e t h a t m i n o r c r im e is oft en s im p ly t h e b r ee din g gr ou n d
a n d n u r s e r y t h a t s p a wns a n d nu rtu res m or e serious an d violent
crime. Sim ilar ly, d a y- on - d a y d is ruption of m in or c r im e creates a n
environmen t wh ich is i n h o s p i t a b l e t o t h e a c t i ve c r im i n a l . Wi t h
t h i s in m i n d , t h e S p ot l ig h t In i t ia t i ve w a s b o r n .
The Ba sics of The Sp otligh t Initia tive

S t r a t h c ly d e Polic e w a s th e fir s t for ce in th e U n i t ed K in g d o m t o
a d o p t an ap pr oach which deliber at ely set ou t to t a c k l e m in o r
c r im e a s a p r i or i t y, on a force-wide bas is. By ha rnes sing the full
e ffo r t of th e for ce , m a xim is in g th e e ffect of th eir pr ese nc e on t h e
street, m a k in g greater u s e of intelligence an d crime m a n a ge m en t
s ys t e m s , an d working corporat ely with the d epar tm ents of each
of ou r 1 2 u nita ry au th orities, an d ever y oth e r g r ou p w i t h a
legit im a te in t er es t in r ed u c in g crime, t h e i n i t ia t i ve s o u g h t t o
in c r ea s e detections, red uce t he opp ortu nities to comm it crime,
demons trate ou r commitme n t to ou r cor e t a s k of m a in t a in in g la w
an d order a nd redu ce the fear of crime.
A un ique concept , the Initiative com b in e s t h e s t re n gt h s of t h e
‘oper at ion’ with su cce s s fu l co m p on en ts of va rio u s ot h er on goin g
p r o je c t s wit h in m y o wn for ce a n d ot h er forc es , b ot h in th is
c o u n t r y a n d a broad , an d includes elements of the ‘Broken
Wind ows ’ th eor y, p u t for wa rd by Wils on a n d Kellin g. 1
Th e r e s u lt of co n s id er a b le p u b l ic a n d in t er n al con su ltat ion, th e
in itia tive h a s fo u r fu n d a m e n t a l p r in c ip le s pivo ta l to its su ccess:
1 . It Mu s t Ad d re s s P u bl ic C on c e r n s
Th e police mu st listen to th e pu blic an d res pond effective ly t o
t h e ir c on c e rn s .
2 . It Must Fully Exploit Corporate Partne rships
Wor k in g cor porat ely with loca l au thorities a n d e ve r y other a ge n cy
or grou p w it h a l e g it i m a t e in t er es t in c om m u n i ty s a fe ty w as a n d
is fu n d a m e n t a l t o S t ra t h c lyd e Po lic e a c h ie vin g it s m a xim u m
p o te n t ia l. We d o n o t h a ve s ole jurisdiction over cr im e pr eve n tio n .
Th is h a s to be view ed a s pa rt of a n ove ra ll com m it m e n t t o
c om m u n i ty s a f e t y, t h e p r o m o t i on of which requ ires effective an d
co-ordinated cor po ra te a ct ion by eve r y po s s i b le s e c t o r of t h e
com m u n ity.
Soon after m y a p p o in tm en t, St ra th clyd e Re gion a l Cou n cil wa s

disaggregated as a res ult of a fur ther reor ga n is a t io n of lo ca l
governm ent t o fo r m 1 2 n e w u n i t a r y a u t h o r it ies . St ra th clyd e
Police itself rema ined a s ingle entity bu t was now acco u n t a b l e to
1 2 separa te co u n cils , each with d iffe re n t problems a n d priorities .
Liais on wa s now u n d e r t aken via th e Stra thclyde J oint Police
B oa r d , a com mittee c om p r is in g elected repres enta tives from e a ch
co u n cil, a n d le d b y Cou n cillor B ill Tim on ey, a s olid su pporter of
a n ti- cr im e m eas u res , with whom t h e fo rc e h a d p r evio u s ly
enjoyed a pr odu ctive relationsh ip. Whilst reorganisa tion mea nt
co n s id er a b le up hea val for the cou ncils, it p r e s e n t e d b o t h a
cha llenge a nd an oppor tu nity for Stra th clyde Police.
I viewed th e fu ll a n d m u tu a l exp loit a tio n of co rp or a te wor k in g
a s a m a i n s t a y o f t h e S p o t l ig h t In i t ia t i ve. In t h i s a r e a , p e r h a p s
a b o ve a l l o t h e r s , la y t h e r e a li s a t io n o f m y h o p e s fo r a s a fer
environm ent for th e people of Stra th clyde.
Th is a r ea a ls o d ema nd ed th e adopt ion of a rea listic app roach .
Not a l l c o u n c i ls h a d t h e s a m e p r io r it i es , o r th e a vaila bility o f
fu n d in g a n d resou rces . I t wa s a h u g e ch a l l en g e , a n d n o t w i t hou t
its d ifficu lties, b u t on e wh ere t he pote nt ial rewa rd s in ter m s of
improving the qu ality of life for the p ub lic were immen se.
An a g e n d a w a s p r e s e n t e d b y d iv is i on a l c o m m a n d e r s t o each
local a u t h o r i ty , (t h e 1 5 divisions of Strath clyde police loosely
corr esp ond with the b oun dar ies of t h e 1 2 n e w u n i t a r y a u t h o r i -
t ies ) s e e k i n g , a m o n g s t o t h e r t h i n g s , im p r o v e d e n v ir o n m e n t a l
‘c le a n - u p ’ r e s o u r c e s —g r affiti re m ova l, litter u p lift a n d va n d a lis m
r ep a ir s —a n d a n in c r ea s e in t h e p rovision of divers ion fac ilitie s for
t h e yo u n g.
Th e is s u e of c le a n -u p is on e in w h ich I fu lly c on c u r w it h t h e
‘Broken Wind ows’ t h e o ry an d a trip rou nd cert ain ar eas of my
force con firm ed t his as an iss u e wh ich m erited at ten tion.
Unten ded gr a ffiti, va n d a lis m , lit te r a n d br ok en bo tt les s tr ew n in
p u b l ic a re a s we re fre qu en tly in evid en ce , p a rt icu la r l y i n u n d e r -
p a ss es w h ic h w er e d esigned to in c r ea s e p u b l ic safety. Th e vis ib le
eviden ce of t h e s e acts u n d o u b t e d l y in crea sed th e per cept ion a n d
fe a r of crim e. Incid en ts often went u n r e p o r t e d , a n d consequentl y
u n r e p a i r e d , le a din g to furth er acts of d es t ru c tio n wh ich add ed to
a n im p r e s s io n of neglect. Of partic u la r c o n c e r n was broken bottle
deb ris wh ich cou ld ea sily be u sed as wea pon s.
On t h e is s u e of yo u t h dive rs io n , it is o ft en t h e pr a ct ic e t h a t
police un derta ke th is role. However worthwh ile, it removes
o ffi ce r s from th eir c o r e d u t i e s of ‘g u a r d , w a t c h a n d p a t r o l’, t h e

rôle we ha d alread y iden tified as b eing w h a t t h e pu blic expected
from us . Diversion i s rig h tly a n is s u e w h ich th e p olic e s h ou ld
su pp ort a nd en cou ra ge, bu t it s hou ld n ot be th eir fun ction . For
exam ple, th e police s hou ld visit th e you th disc o or fle d glin g
fo ot b a ll t e a m t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e y a r e n o t u n d e r m i n e d b y t h e
in t r u s io n a n d a ct io n s of t h u g s .
3 . It Must Address Serio us Crime Through Co n c e n t ra t io n o n
Min or Cri m e
Based o n t h e a c c e p t a n c e t h a t m i n o r c r im e i s n o t a s e p a r a t e
e n t i t y from s erious crim e, an d th at th e two are in fact inextric-
a b l y lin k e d , t h e in itia tive a im e d to re d u c e s eriou s a n d in par ticu -
la r vio le n t cr im e t h r ou g h id e n t ifyin g a n d ta c k lin g m in o r is s u e s .
4 . Th e re Mu s t be Maximum P re s e n c e of Officers on t he Be at
T h e r e m u s t b e a firm comm itmen t to m a xim is in g officer p r es e n ce
on t h e street, with t h e d u a l in t e n t io n of p r ovid in g re a s su r a n ce to
t h e p u b lic , t h u s r e d u c in g fe a r o f c r im e a n d — a t h r e a t t o t h e
c rim in a l—in c re a sin g fe a r o f d e t ec t io n . Pa t r o l t im e w ou l d n o w b e
m o r e fo c u s e d , t a r g e t e d , in t e lligence-led a nd highly visible, to
e n s u r e m a x im u m p r e s en c e in c or e a r ea s a t c o r e t im e s , w i t h t h e
e m p h a s is firm ly on co m m u n ity po licin g. S p ec ia lis t t ea m s wou ld
n o t be cr ea te d. Sp otligh t-s tyle p olicin g wa s t o b e th e d a ily
fu n ct ion of eve ry a va ila b le office r.
In order to increa se pr esen ce on th e street, I comm itted m y
fo rc e t o u s in g ‘e xt r a or d in a r y’ m e a s u r es . Ad d it io n a l fu n d in g wa s
n o t a n t i c ip a t e d , t h e r e f or e o t h e r w a y s h a d t o b e fo u n d w it h i n t h e
exi s t in g bu dget. Du ring t he initial th ree-m ont h p eriod, a ll non -
ur gent t ra in in g was s u s p e n d e d , a n d offi ce r s emp loyed in t ra in in g
a n d a d m in is t r a t i on d u t i es b o t h a t d i vi s io n s a n d h e a d q u a r t e r s
w e r e d e t a i le d s t r e e t o r p u b l ic t r a n s p o r t p a t r o ls i n s u p p o r t o f
divi sion s . Throu gh p ru den t con trol of oth er b u dgets , som e
fu n d in g was diverted t o wa r d s ove rt im e , to b e u s e d strictly for th e
p u r p os e of Spotlight. Sp ecia l C on s t a b le s —volun teer s wh o pa trol
w it h t h e r e g u la r f or c e —w e r e give n fu ll p u b lic or d er tr a in in g a n d
encou raged to increas e atten dan ce for duty a t t h e m o s t stra tegic
t im e s . In add ition, all officers were to wear reflective yellow
ja c k e t s w h ils t on p a tr ol t o e n su r e t h a t t h eir p re s en c e o n t h e
street w as s ee n —n o t on ly b y t h e p u b lic b u t b y t h e c rim in a l.
Sp otligh t w as n ot c overt p olicing, b u t ra th er a dem ons tra tion
t h a t t h e p o li ce w e r e p r e s e n t a n d i n g r ea t s t r e n g t h .
Wh ils t forma l, non-ess e n t ia l t ra in in g was s u s p en d ed , t ra in in g

it s elf wa s far from a ba n do n ed . Tr a in in g s ta ff wer e give n t h e t a sk
of compiling tra ining and good practice pack a ges to be delivered
loc a lly to a ll o ffi ce r s b e fo r e they t a ck l e d e a c h S potligh t. R efr e s h er
tra in in g on p olice powers an d old a nd ne w legislation we r e given
t o eve ry officer a lon g wit h u s efu l gu id a n ce an d ta ctics. This
r e i n forcemen t of gr a s s -r oot s tr a in in g in s tille d a n ew co n fide n ce
in officer s .
S h ift s e r g ean ts we re rem inded of briefing skills a nd video
p r es e n ta t io n s were m a d e to e ve r y officer to e n s u r e t h a t they were
fu lly a w ar e of t h e goa ls of t h e in itia tive . No s p e cia lis t s q u a d s w e r e
tak en from t h e s h ift s . The very existen ce of already crea t ed p la in
clothes u n i t s h a d t o b e j u s t i fied , a n d e v e r y s h i ft a n d c o m m u n i t y
officer left sh ift br iefings wit h a feelin g t h a t h e o r s h e h a d a n
im p or ta n t t a sk . E ve r y fo r c e r e s o u r c e , fr om Tra ffic D ep a rt m en t to
Mount ed B ra n c h , from h e a d q u a r t e r s ad m inist ra tion d e pa rtm ent s
t o S u r v e il la n c e a n d D r u g S q u a d s , w a s t o b e u s e d t o s u p p o r t t h e
officer on th e s tr ee t. It is m y op in ion th a t a n officer wh o is we ll
t r a in e d , p r o p e r ly b r ie fe d a n d d i r e ct e d , a n d w h o f e el s t h a t h e or
s h e a c t s w it h th e su pp ort of th e pu blic, is a formida ble a gent of
cha nge.
T h e Pr a c t i ce o f S p o t l ig h t
D u rin g t h e i n i t ia l t h r ee mon ths the force focus ed on eleven
‘a r e a s ’ h igh ligh t ed b y t h e p u b lic a s b ein g of g r ea t e s t c o n c e r n .
Som e top ics wer e crim e sp ecific, wh ilst oth ers were loca tion
specific:
Carr ying of weap ons Va n d a l is m Tr u a n cy

Un de ra ge d rin kin g D r in k i n g in p u b l ic S p o r t i n g e ve n t s
Street rob beries P a r k s a n d p u b l i c p la c e s Litt er & p u blic
Transport network L ic e n s e d p r e m i s e s n u is a n ce
Th e i n c lu s i o n o f o n e fu r t h e r S p o t li gh t w h i ch w e c a l le d ‘H o t
S p o t s ’ a llow ed ea ch of th e 1 5 d ivis ion a l co m m a n d er s wit h in t h e
f or c e a r e a t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e ir m o s t p r e s s i n g lo c a l c o n c e r n s ,
w i th t h e b e n e f it o f a d d it io n a l r e s o u r c in g p r o v i d e d from t h e c e n t r e.
A C o n su l t a n c y U n it c o m p r is in g a t e a m o f e ig h t o f fi c e r s o f
va ry in g r a n k s a n d s e r vic e wa s s e c on d e d t o wo r k fr o m p o l ice
h e a d q u a r t e r s t o s u p p or t t h e d i v i s i o n al re s p on s e . Ea c h b r ou gh t
e xp e r t is e i n a r a n g e of fi el d s . A s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w it h b r o a d
u n i fo r m a n d d e t e c t ive e x p e r ie n c e , a d e t e c t iv e in s p e c t o r w it h
d e t a iled k n o w le d g e o f c r i m i n a l in t e l li ge n c e , a s e r g e a n t w it h
pr e v i o u s m a r k e t i n g e x p e r i e n c e , a c h ief i n s p e c t o r from c om m u n i ty
pol i c i n g , a c on s t a b l e s k illed in l o c a l a u t h o r i t y lia is on , a n a d m in is -
t r a t i o n c on s t a b le , a yo u n g b e a t offic e r t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e fir s t
h a n d v ie w s o f t h e o f fi c e r o n t h e s t r e e t w e r e h e a r d , a n d a n
i n s p e c t o r w h o h a d fo r m e r ly w o r k e d i n t h e F o r c e M e d i a R e l a t i o n s
Sect ion m a d e u p t h e t e a m . O versee n by Pete r Gibs on , m y
As s i s t a n t C h i e f C o n s t a b l e (O p e r a t i o n s ) , t h e ir r o l e w a s t o i n f o r m ,
s u p p o r t , c o - o r d i n a t e , a d vis e a n d c om m u n i ca t e w i th e a c h of t h e 1 5
c o m m a n d e r s r e s p o n s i b le fo r t h e 1 5 d i vi s io n s o f t h e fo r c e . It w a s
n o t t h e r o l e o f t h e U n i t t o d i r e ct o r in s t r u c t a s i t wa s i m p e r a t i ve
t o S p ot ligh t’s s u cc es s th a t r es p on s ib ility for d rivin g t h e i n i t ia t i ve
la y l oc a l ly . Au t o n o m y , o w n e r s h i p a n d u l t im a t e ly a c c o u n t a b i li t y
la y w it h e a c h c o m m a n d e r .
T h e ‘S p o t l i g h t ’ T a c t i c —T h e ‘O p e r a t i o n ’ In g r e d i e n t
O v e r t h e t h r e e - m o n t h i n t e n s i ve in t r o d u c t o r y p h a s e o f t h e
c a m p a ig n e a c h o f t h e 1 2 t o p i c s w a s t a c k l e d a t d i ff e r e n t t im e s . Th e
t e r m S p ot ligh t r efer re d to th e fa ct th a t, d u rin g a p a rt icu la r,
s t ra t e g i c w e d g e o f t i m e , r a n g in g f r o m a f e w h o u r s t o a fe w d a ys ,
t h e a t t e n t i o n o f e v e r y a v a i la b l e o ff ic e r i n t h e f o r c e w o u ld b e
d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s d e a l in g w i t h t h a t s i n g l e to p i c . O n o c c a s i o n , a
p a r tic u la r Sp otlight w a s r e v is i t e d s e ve r al t i m e s w h ils t ot h e r s we r e
d e a lt w i t h o n l y o n c e . T h e S p o t l ig h t t a c t i c it s e l f p r o v id e d a l l t h e
b e n e f it s o f t h e s h o r t - t e r m o p e r a t i o n i n a s u s t a i n a b l e lo n g - t e r m
w a y. A st ron g, h ea vily p u b l i cis e d a t t a c k o n a p a r tic u la r c r im e ove r
a s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e e n s u r e d t h a t t h e c r im i n a l a n d t h e p u b lic
w e r e a w a r e o f p o lic e a c t i v it y w h i l s t t h e l o n g - t e r m c o m m i t m e n t
e n s u r e d t h a t t h e c r im i n a l k n ew a ls o t h a t p olic e a c t ivity wo u ld n ot
sto p a t t h e e n d of t h re e m o n t h s . Th is t i m e t h e p r e s s u r e wo u ld n ot
let u p a n d t h e c r i m i n a l c o u l d n o t r e t u r n t o s t a tu s q u o w h e n t h e
o p e r a t i o n e n d e d . S u c h b u r s t s o f p o l ic e a c t ivity w e r e m a n p o w e r -
in t e n s ive f or a s h o r t t i m e o n l y, a n d t h e r e f o r e s u s t a i n a b l e in d e f i-
n i t ely . Th e c r im i n a l wo u ld a lw a y s h a ve t o b e on g u a r d !
M an y S p o t l i g h t s , s u c h a s s p o r t i n g e v e n t s , h a d t o b e p l a n n e d
w e l l i n a d v a n c e w h i ls t o t h e r s w e r e s t a ge d o n a l i g h t n i n g b a s i s , i n
r e s p on s e t o p a r tic u la r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , a w e a p o n s
S p o t l i g h t w a s s p r u n g a t s h o r t n o t i c e a s a s w i ft r e s p o n s e t o a
pr e v i o u s w e e k e n d o f v io le n c e . B y u s i n g s h o r t b u r s t s o f ac tivity, in
o ft e n in n o va t ive wa y s, co m b in e d wit h w id e s pr e ad p u b lic it y a n d
t h e firm p r o m is e t h a t w e wo u ld r e vis it t h a t c r im e a g a in , I p la n n ed
t h a t a lo n g -t e r m e f fe c t o n c r im e wo u ld b e a c h i e ve d . B y c r e a t i n g a n
a w a r e n e s s o f p o l ic e a c t io n s th rou gh t h e m e d i a , I b e li ev e d t h a t t h e
c r im i n a l wo u ld b e d et er re d a n d th e p u b lic r ea s s u re d . I a ls o
a n t i c ip a t e d t h a t t h e m in o r c r i m e s d e a lt w it h w o u l d u n c o v er m o r e
s e r io u s c r im e s .
The Achievem ents ... So Far

D u r i n g t h e firs t t h re e m on th s we s et ou t o u r s ta ll. O u r fir s t
Sp o t l i g h t e n c o m p a s s e d a l l 1 2 t o p i c s , ta r ge t i n g s u s p e c t s w h o h a d
faile d t o s u bm it t h e m s e l v e s t o c o u r t for t r ia l a n d for w h om ju d icia l
w a r r a n t s h a d b e e n is s u e d . O n t h e d a y S p o t l ig h t w a s l a u n c h e d
a lm os t 4 0 0 m e n a n d w o m e n w e r e a r r e s t e d in d a w n r a id s , rela yin g
t h e c le a r m e s s a g e t o t h e cr im in a l th a t w e m ea n t b u sin es s. Th e
lo n g e r -t e r m e ff e ct i s t h a t o u r c o u r t s a r e n o w fin d in g fe w er p e op le
failin g t o a t t e n d , f e w e r w a r r a n t s a r e b e i n g i s s u e d , a n d c o n s e -
qu en t ly le s s p oli ce t im e i s b ei n g s p en t t r a ck in g o ffen d er s .
Ta ck lin g k n i ve s a n d w ea p o n s — a m a jo r fo cu s of t h e in iti a t i v e —
s a w 4 3 ,0 0 0 p eo p le s ea r c h e d a n d t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h o s e f o u n d
ca r r y i n g w e a p o n s a l m o s t h a l ve d o ve r t h e t h r e e m o n t h s . F o r t h e
firs t tim e vio len t c rim e fell, b y 3 .8 p e r ce n t — n ot d r a m a t i c b y a n y
s ta n d a rd s , b u t s ign ifica n t n on et h ele s s . F ollow in g Tr u a n c y S p o t -
lig h t s d u r i n g w h i ch w e w o r k e d c l os e l y w i th l o c a l a u t h o r i t y
a t t e n d a n c e o ff ic e r s s u c c e s s f u l l y t o t r a c e a n d r e t u r n 1 , 0 0 0 p u p ils
t o s c h o o l o v e r fou r d a y s , s e ve r al s c h o o ls in t h e a r e a r e p o r t e d t h e i r
low es t le vel o f tr u a n cy s in ce s ta tis tic s we re co lla te d .
L ic e n s e e s we re ta rg et ed h ea vily, a 4 0 0 p er ce n t in cr ea s e in
p r o s e c u t i o n s for s ellin g a lco h o l t o c h i ld r e n b e i n g r e c o r d e d , b u t o f
e q u a l s ign ifica n ce , a r e la t io n s h ip w a s e s t a b l i s h e d w i th t h e va riou s
l ic e n s e d t r a d e a s s o c i atio n s s u p p o r t i ve o f en cou ra ging r e s p on s ib le
b e h a vio u r a m o n g th e ir m e m b e r s .
O v e r t h e t h r e e m o n th p e r iod , d et ec t ion s fo r t h o s e c r i m e s w h i c h
w e d i r e c t l y s o u g h t t o t a r g e t — d i s o r d e r , p e t t y a s s a u l t , p u b l ic
d rin k in g a n d p u b l ic n u is a n ce o ffe n c es —r o s e b y 3 0 p e r c e n t . O t h e r
s e r i o u s c r im e s , w h ic h w e h o p ed in d ir e ct ly to a ffe ct , w e re a ls o
in f lu e n c e d . C a r c r im e fell b y 2 2 p e r c e n t ; h o u s eb re ak in g b y 1 3 p e r
c e n t ; v a n d a l is m b y s e ve n p e r c en t . T h r o u g h t h e d i r e c t t a r g e t in g
o f m i n o r o f f e n c e s , m o r e d r u gs w e r e r e c o v e r e d t h a n e v e r b e fo r e .
W h ils t ta rg et in g lit te r, tr a n s p or t a n d tr u a n cy, fire a rm s in clu d in g

lo a d e d h a n d g u n s a n d o t h e r p o t e n t i a l ly le t h a l , c r i m i n a l ly h e l d
w e a p o n s we re re co ver ed p rio r t o c a u s in g in jur y. An e x c e l le n t a n d
p r o d u c t iv e r e la t io n s h i p wa s s t r u c k w i th ou r c olle a gu es , B rit is h
T r a n s p o r t P o l i c e , p r o v id i n g m u t u a l a i d a n d i n c r e a s i n g p o l i c e
p r e s e n c e o n p u b lic tr a n s p or t in t h e S tr a t h cly de a re a . Th is s a w
c r im e o n t h e r a i l n e t w o r k f a l l b y 2 0 p e r c e n t , m a k in g it on e of t h e
sa f e st i n t h e c o u n try .
S e r i o u s c r i m e e x c l u d i n g d r u g s (s e i z u r e s o f w h i c h r o s e a s a
r e s u lt of in cr ea s ed p olic e a ct ivity in re la t i o n t o s t o p - a n d - s e a r c h
p r o c e d u r e s a n d i m p r o v e d i n t e l l i g e n c e ) fe l l b y 9 . 6 p e r ce n t w h ils t
i t s d e t e ct i on r a t e r o s e b y fo u r p e r c e n t .
O n e y e a r in to th e in itia tive th e c rim e figu re s co n tin u e t o s h o w
t h e s a m e p l e a s in g t r en d s . M o s t s i g n i fi c a n t l y , w h i l e t h e f ir s t t h r e e
m o n t h s s h o w e d a w e l c o m e 3 . 8 p e r c e n t f a ll in v i ol en t c r i m e , t h e
fu ll y ea r s h o w s a 1 3 p e r c e n t d e c r e a s e . W h i l e h o m i c id e f ig u r e s
d i s a p p o i n t , r is in g from 69 to 70 , ot h er violen t c a te gor ies h a ve
s h own impr ovemen t. There h ave been 32 fewer attem pted
m u r d e r s , 7 7 5 few er s er iou s a s s a u lts a n d 4 4 7 few er ro b b er ies . In
h u m a n t e rm s , le s s in ju ry , d is fig u r em en t, s tre s s an d a n xie ty.
E q u a lly p l e a s in g i s t h e fa c t t h a t , d e s p i t e gr e a t l y in c r e a s e d p olic e
a c t i vi ty , t h e n u m b e r of p e r s on s f ou n d in p o s s e s s ion of k n i ve s h a s
d e cr e a s ed b y 3 3 p e r c e n t t o 1 , 2 8 9 . I c o n s i d e r i t is r e a s o n a b l e t o
lin k th is to th e o ver a ll fall in viole n t c rim e.
Wh ils t e n c o u r agin g, t h e s e s t a t i s t i c s alo n e p a i n t a f a in t p i c t u r e ,
a n d a r e n o t t h e o n l y d a t a o n w h ic h t h i s in i t ia t iv e s h o u l d b e
d e e m e d a s u c c e s s o r o t h e r w is e . F r o m t h e o u t s e t , I s a i d t h a t t h e
S p o t l igh t In i t ia t iv e w a s t o b e a lo n g -t e r m s t r a t eg y. It s p h i lo s op h y
w a s t o ch a n g e ou r w a y of wo rk in g a n d ou r a p p ro a ch to d ea lin g
w i th c r i m e . N o l on g e r w o u l d w e d e a l w i t h c r i m e i n i s o l a t i o n , b u t
r a t h e r , w e w o u l d s e e k m e a n i n g fu l p a r t n e r s h i p s w i t h o t h e r
a g e n c i e s t o i n c r e a s e t h e l i k e l ih o o d o f b r i n g i n g a b o u t a l on g - t er m
s o l u t i o n . O u r a p p r o a c h m u s t b e b ot h t r a d it ion a l a n d i n n o va t i ve
u s in g r a n d o m b e a t p at ro l a n d in tellig ent ta rge t ing. B e s i d e s
p u t t in g o u r o w n p o l i c i n g s t r a t e g i e s i n p l a c e , t h e f ir s t y e a r o f
S p o t l i g h t w a s u s e d t o d e v e l op s t r u c t u r e s a n d r e l a t i on s h i p s w it h
o t h e r p a r t n e r s w h i c h c o m p l e m e n t p o l ic e a c t i v it y a n d l e a d t o
i n c r e a s e d b e n e f it s f or t h e c o m m u n i t y. In t e r m s o f c o r p o r a t e
w o r k i n g , w e c o u l d n o t b e c e r t a i n a t t h e o u t s e t w h a t w e w o u ld
a c h i e ve . W h a t wa s c le a r w a s t h a t i t c o u l d n o t h a p p e n o v e r n i g h t .
Th e a c h i e ve m e n t s d u r in g t h e f ir s t t h r e e m o n t h s w e r e a b o v e o u r
expect at ions , an d th is h as con tinu ed over t h e full year. Liaison
b e t w e e n e a c h d i v is i o n a n d i t s r e s p e c t i v e a u t h or ity oc cu rs a t a ll
l e ve l s , fr o m p r a c t i t io n e r ( c o n s t a b l e a n d s e r g e a n t / c o u n c i l s e r v i c e
p r o v i d e r e . g . j o in e r , s t r e e t s w e e p e r , t e a c h e r ) t o m i d d le m a n a g e -
m e n t (p o l ic e i n s p e c t o r a n d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t / c o u n c i l f or e m e n a n d
h e a d s o f d e p a r tm e n t s ) a n d se n io r m a n a g e m en t (c h ie f o ffic er a n d
d ivis ion a l c o m m a n d e r / c h i e f e xe c u t i ve a n d e l e c t e d r e p re s en t a -
t ive s ). Al l 1 2 c o u n c i l s b a c k e d t h e i n it i a t iv e in p r i n c ip le a n d in
act i o n , w i th t h e p o l ic e c o m m i t m e n t t o c om m u n i ty s a f e t y r e fl ec t in g
th e s a m e p rio rit ies a s th e c ou n cils ’.
Alm os t e ve r y s e c t io n o f lo ca l a u t h o r i ty s e r vic e pr ovis ion w o rk e d
w i th p o li ce b o t h o n in d i vid u a l op e r a t io n s , a n d t o d e ve lo p f u r t h e r
in itia tive s, o f t e n f a l l i n g o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f t h e or igin a l Sp ot light
t o p ic s , b u t w i t h S p o t l ig h t a s t h e c a t a l ys t .
E xis tin g re la tio n s h ip s h a ve b ee n firm ly co n s olid a te d . C ou n cil
j o in e r s wo rk a lon gs id e o fficer s to ex p ed ite d oor re p a irs follow in g
o u r w a r r a n t s o p e r a t i o n s , m i n i m i s i n g t i m e s p e n t b y o ff ic e r s
p r o t e c t in g u n s ec u re d p ro p er tie s . Po lice p ro te ct h ou s in g officia ls
ca r r y i n g o u t e v i c t i on s o f a n t i - s o c ia l t e n a n t s e n g a ge d in dr u gs
a c t ivit ie s . T r a d i n g s t a n d a r d s o f fi c ia l s , w i t h e n h a n c ed p o w e r s o f
e n f o r ce m e n t , w o r k a l o n g s i d e p o li c e p r i o r t o ‘G u y F a w k e s ’ t o
e n s u r e fire wo rk s a re n ot s old to ch ildr en . (Now , s ec on d tim e
a r o u n d , o u r p a r t n e r s h ip is e v e n m o r e o r g a n i s e d a n d p r o d u c t i v e . )
S o cia l s e r v i c e s d e p a r t m e n t s w h i c h a d m i n i s t e r c o m m u n it y s e r vic e
o r d e r s co n tin u e t o d i r e c t t h e i r o ffe n d e r s t o c a r r y ou t p u b l ic w or k s
in c lu d in g g r a ffi t i re m ova l a n d en viron m e n t a l c le a n - u p s of s c h ools ,
u n d e r p a s s e s , p u b lic h a lls a n d w a lk w a y s ; s c h o ols p a rt icip a te in
a n t i - li t t e r a w a r e n e s s p r o j e c t s ; d o g f o u lin g b ye -la w le g i s l a t i o n h a s
b e e n e n a c t e d b y m a n y c ou n c il s w it h ‘p o o p e r s c o op e r s ’ fo r t h e
clean -u p of excrem en t be ing p rovided free of ch ar ge to dog
o w n e r s ; s ch ool a tt en d a n ce office rs p a tr ol r egu la rly wit h p olic e ;
p a r k a t t en d a n t s d o lik e w is e . F or u m s h a ve b e e n s e t u p t o d is c u s s
c o r p o r a t e a c t i o n t o re s o lv e c om m u n i ty p r o ble m s ; t h e r e is in c r e a s -
in g f oc u s o n h e lp in g vu ln e r a b l e g r ou p s ; a n d b u r e a u c r a c y in s o m e
a r ea s h a s b e e n c u t , w it h o ft e n d r a m a t i c r e s u l t s . O n e pr ogr es sive
co u n cil s l a s h e d its r e pa ir t i m e for d a m a g ed s c h ool p r o p e r t i e s fr om
a n a v e r ag e o f 1 1 w e e k s t o t h e s a m e d a y . N o d e p a r t m e n t h a s b e e n
le ft u n t o u c h e d a n d n o o f fe r o f a s s i s t a n c e t u r n e d a w a y . M a n y
o t h e r a g e n c i e s h a v e c o m e o n b o a r d t o o , f r o m S t r a t h c l y d e ’s m a j o r
b u s g r o u p s , t a x i ow n e r s ’ a s s oc ia t i on s a n d t r a n s p o r t a u t h o r it y , t o
t h e l ic e n s e d t r a d e a s s o cia t io n s , lo ca l a n d n a tion a l m e d i a , c u s tom s
a n d e x c i s e o f fi c i a l s , t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f S o c i a l S e c u r i t y , t h e l o c a l
Air T r a in i n g C or p s , a n d e v e n 1 , 5 0 0 m i lk m e n fr o m a l o ca l d a ir y .
Al l p l a y a p a r t .
W e a l s o s e t o u t t o a c h ie ve a p u b lic ‘fee l-s a fe’ fac to r, re d u cin g
t h e f e a r o f c r im e a n d t h u s i m p r o v in g , in s o m e w a y , t h e q u a l it y o f
life o f m a n y p e o p l e . S u c h f ea r i s t h e p ro d u ct of lon g-t er m re in -
f or c e m e n t a n d will n ot d is a p p ea r ove r n i g h t . It is a ls o a n is s u e ove r
w h i c h w e d o n o t h a v e s u b s t a n t ia l co n tr ol. In c re as in gly s e n s a tio n -
a lis t m e d ia c o v e r a g e , e v e n f ic t i o n a l d r a m a s f ea t u r i n g c r i m e , c a n
a f fe c t p e o p l e ’s p e r c e p t i o n o f c r im e , b u t w e m u s t e n s u r e t h a t t h e
p u b l ic is a w a r e o f t h e r e a l it y o f c r im e , n o t t h e m y t h . T o t h i s e n d ,
for t h e f ir s t t i m e , d u r i n g t h e in i t ia l t h r e e - m o n t h p e r i od S t r a t h -
c ly d e P o l i c e a l lo c a t e d t h e s u m o f £ 6 0 , 0 0 0 t o fin a n c e a p u b lic
i n fo r m a t i on c a m p aign —a s m a l l s u m in a d v er t is in g t e rm s , b u t on e
w h i c h b o u g h t a l m o s t £ 2 0 0 , 00 0 w or t h o f a d ve r tis in g s p a c e a s a
r e s u lt o f t h e goo d will o f p r i va t e c o m p a n i es . T h is c o m m i t m e n t h a s
b e e n c o n t i n u e d a n d w e l o o k t o d e v e lo p w a y s t o c om m u n i ca t e
effec tive ly w i t h th e p u b lic. It is en c o u ra gin g t o n o t e t h a t a n
in d ep en d en t s u r v e y c om m is s io n e d on l y s i x w e e k s i n t o t h e
in itia tive i d e n t i f ie d a s m a l l , b u t s i g n i fi c a n t , d e c r e a s e i n t h e l e ve l
of fe a r o f c r im e in t h e S t r a t h c ly d e a r ea . Th is ‘f e el - s a f e ’ fa c tor is t h e
p r i m a r y m e a s u r e a ga i n s t wh i ch I wo u ld s e e k th e in i t ia t iv e t o b e
ju d ge d —b u t n ot yet . Th er e is s till m u c h t o b e d o n e . T o d a t e ,
s ign ifica n t n u m b e r s o f c a l l s a n d l e t t e r s o f a p p r e c i a t i o n h a v e b e e n
r e c e i ve d f r o m t h e p u b lic s u p p o rt in g t h e i n itia tive a n d t e lling u s
t h a t t h e y n o w fe e l s a f e r a s a r e s u l t .
P u b lic s u p p o r t f or t h e S p o t l igh t I n i t ia t i v e m a y a l s o b e r e f le c t e d
in f ig u r e s f or c o m p l a i n t s a g a i n s t t h e p o l ic e . D e s p i t e g r e a t l y
i n c r e a s e d s t r e e t a c t i vi t y , i n c l u d i n g t h e u s e o f s t o p - a n d - s e a r c h
p o w e r s , c o m p l a i n t s fell b y 1 4 . 5 p e r c e n t d u r in g t h e Sp otlight y e a r ,
c o m p a r e d t o t h e s a m e p e r i o d i n 1 9 9 5 / 9 6 — t h e l o w e s t figu res eve r
r e co r d ed .
If p e op le n ow f e el m o r e co n fi d e n t in w a lk in g t h e i r dogs a t n ight ,
vis it i n g t h e p a r k , o r t r a v e l li n g o n p u b l ic t r a n s p o r t , a n d a r e a b l e t o
t a k e p rid e in th eir en viro n m en t w ith ou t b ein g m a d e t o fee l t h a t
t h e y a r e t h e m i n o r i t y , t h e n t h i s is t h e r o d w it h w h ich I wo u ld
c h o o s e to m ea s u re a n y s u cc es s . Th is is t h e t r u e e v a l u a t i o n o f
S p o t l ig h t .
The Future
S p o t l i g h t is h er e t o s ta y. Th e co m m u n i ty w a n t s it . O u r lo ca l
co u n cils w a n t it . M y o ffic er s w a n t it. T h e be s t o f t h e Sp otlight
In itia tive will c on t in u e t o b e d r i v e n fo r wa r d wit h t h e im p l em e n t a -
t i o n o f l e s s o n s l e a r n e d a n d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e r e la t io n s h i p s
w h i c h h a v e b e e n fo r m e d . S u p e r v is o r s h a ve le a r n e d t o m a k e m o r e
efficie n t a n d c r e a t i ve u s e o f r e s o u r c es , a n d t o le a n t o wa r d s
n a t u r a l p a r tn e r s t o in c r e a s e t h e ir e ffe ct ive n e s s .
Th e in itia l Sp otlight t o p i c s r e m a in v a l i d , a n d will co n tin u e t o b e
i m p l e m e n t e d o n a f or c e - w i d e b a s i s , a u g m e n t e d b e t w e e n t i m e s b y
s m a l l e r ‘T o r c h lig h t s ’— d iv is io n a l o p er a t io n s w h ic h a r e a lr e a d y
p r o v i n g h igh ly s u cc e s s fu l. In o n e p a r tic u la r a r ea , a s h o p pin g m a ll
p la gu e d b y d is r u p t ive yo u t h s a n d d r u g d e a l e r s w a s t a r g e t e d
n u m e r ou s t i m e s o v e r a m o n t h , w it h a ll a v a ila b l e lo c a l o ffic e r s
‘s w e e p i n g ’ t h r o u g h i t s e ve r a l t i m e s a d a y , f o r o n l y a fe w m in u t e s .
A s m a ll n u m b e r o f a r r e s t s w e r e m a d e a n d m in o r o ffe n d e r s
w a r n e d . Th e e ff e ct o f t h e u n p r e d i c t a b l e p o l ic e p r e s e n c e h a s m a d e
it n o l on g e r a ‘c o ol’ g a t h e r in g p l a c e fo r h o o l i g a n s , a n d s h o p p e r s
h a v e r e t u r n e d . A s im ila r p r o j e c t c a r r i e d o u t for t e n m in u t e p e riod s
o v e r s e ve r al d a ys o n a tro u b le s o m e b u s r o u t e h a d t h e s a m e e f fe c t .
D i s o r d e r d i s a p p e a r e d , i t t o o k fe w r es o u r ce s a n d th e p u b lic wa s
r e a s s u r e d . In t h e s a m e v e in , w h e r e a s e r io u s p r o b le m o c c u r s
d e m a n d in g a m a jo r re s p on s e, th e for ce is g e a r e d u p t o p r o v i d e a
s w i ft r e s p o n s e , m o b ilis i n g h u n d r e d s o f e x tr a o ffic e r s if n e c e s s a r y
i n a l a r g e r ‘F l o o d l i g h t ’ o p e r a t i o n .
Th e s c o p e o f S p o t li g h t s h a s b ee n ex p a n d ed fro m th e o rig in a l
p ilot t o in c lu d e a n y m a t t e r c a u s in g p u b l ic c on c e r n , es p e c ia lly
t h o s e w h i c h in d u ce a fe a r o f c r i m e . A m o n it o r in g p r o ce s s h a s b e e n
s e t u p t o g a t h e r b e s t p r a c t i c e a n d id e a s fro m a ll t h e l o c a l a c t i vi tie s
t o e v a l u a t e t h e w o r t h o f w id e r a p p l i c a t i o n .
An e x a m p l e o f t h i s p r o c e s s in a c tio n w a s t h e c om m itm e n t b y a
n u m b e r o f d i vi s io n s t o a S p o t l ig h t I n it i a t iv e ta r g e t i n g s c h o o l
va n d a l is m d u r i n g th e E a s t e r h o lid a y s in 1 9 9 7 . T h e s e w e r e
s u cc e s s fu l locally, a n d v ario u s g o o d p r a c t ic e s from t h e s e d ivis ion s
w e r e d r a w n t o g e t h e r i n t o a m e n u s u b s e q u e n t l y u s e d b y e ve r y
d ivis ion a s p a r t o f a fo r ce -w id e S p o t l ig h t d u r i n g t h e s c h o o l
s u m m e r h olidays b e t w e e n la t e J u n e a n d Au g u s t . C r im e figu res for
va n d a l is m a n d b r e a k -in s t o s ch o o ls fe ll s u b s t a n t i a l l y . S i x o f o u r
tw elve c o u n c i ls h a v e a l s o b e e n a b l e t o p r o v i d e f i g u r e s f o r s a vin g s
m a d e a s a r e s u lt o f S p o t l i g h t . T h e y a d v is e t h a t s a vin gs of £ 6 5 , 0 00
a c c r u e d , a 4 0 p e r c e n t s a vin g o n t h e s a m e pe r iod in 1 9 96 —m o n ey
for b o o k s , s t a f f a n d c o m p u t e r s . It is w o r t h n o t in g t h a t w h ils t £ 1 2
is s p e n t p e r a n n u m o n b o ok s p e r p u p il in S c o t l a n d , a n o t h e r
£ 1 3 . 5 0 h a s t o b e a llo ca t e d to o f fs e t t h e c o s t o f va n d a l is m . T h e
g o o d p r a c t ic e in c l u d e d in p u t s b y offic e r s t o s c h o o l p u p i ls p r i o r t o
t h e ir s u m m er b re a k ; p u p ils d elive rin g let te rs to , or vis it in g ,
h o u s e s n e igh b ou r in g t h eir s c h o o l t o a s k h o u s e h o l d e r s t o l o o k
a f t e r it wh ile t h e y w e r e a w a y; a p r o m p t p o l ic e r e s p on s e t o a n y ca ll
t o a s c h o o l; r eg u l a r p olic e p a t r ols ; s p e ed y r ep a i r o f a n y b r o k e n
gla s s b y co u n cils ; c lo s e lia is o n w i th ja n i to r s , a n d s o on . As w ell a s
d e ve lo p in g o n t h e ‘m icr o’ sca le, th e in itia tive h a s a ls o p r o g r e s s e d
on a ‘m a cr o’ level.
W e r e a lis e d t h e r e w e r e v a rio u s g r ou p s wh o w er e vu ln er a b le in
c er t a in c ir c u m s t a n c e s , in c lu d i n g you n g p eo p le a n d old er p eo p le
a n d wh o d e se r v e d o u r s p e c ial a t te n tio n . In c o n s id e rin g w a ys t o
e n h a n c e t h i s p a r t o f t h e S p o t l ig h t v is i o n , I w a s p e r s u a d e d o f t h e
n e e d t o give p r i or it y t o b o g u s - c a l le r c r i m e . T h i s c r i m e v a r i e s f r o m
t h e b ogu s wa te r b oa rd officia l w h o , h a v in g g a i n e d e n t r y , t h e n
s t ea ls fro m h is vict im , t o t h e b ogu s b u ild e r w h o , h a v in g g a i n e d
t h e c o n f id e n c e o f t h e v i c t i m , c h a r g es e x c e s s i v e ly fo r w o r k w h i c h
m a y n o t h a v e e v e n b e e n r e q u i re d . I c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f
s e r vic e w e we re p ro vid in g t o t h e p u b lic on th a t is s u e c ou ld b e
i m p r o v e d . Ou r f ig u r e s sh o w e d th a t th e ty p ic a l v ic t i m w a s a 7 2 -
yea r- old f e m a l e , livin g a l o n e , o ft e n w i th a d i s a b i l i t y . Th e c r im i n a ls
w e r e u n s c r u p u l ou s , o ft e n o rg a n is e d , s e r ia l c r im i n a l s wh o p r eye d
o n t h e vu ln er a b le. Th es e c rim in a ls we re a ls o v e r y m o b i l e a n d n o
r e s p e c t er s o f f or c e b o u n d a r ie s . W it h t h i s in m i n d , I a p p r o a c h e d a ll
t h e o th e r C h ie f C on s t a b le s in S c o tla n d , C u m br ia C on s t a b u la r y,
a n d N or t h u m b ria Po lice a s we ll a s ou r o rig in a l p a rt n er s Br itis h
T r a n s p o r t Po lice , a n d p ro p os ed a join t in itia tive . All q u i ck ly ga ve
t h e i r s u p p o r t a n d O p er a t io n H a m e lin w a s b or n . It is n ot wit h in
t h e s c op e o f t h i s e s s a y t o give fu ll d e t a i ls o f H a m e l in , b u t p e r h a p s
I c a n p r o v id e a f l a v o u r . O t h e r s i g n e d - u p p a r t n e r s i n c l u d e d
co u n cils , t h e u tilit ies , t h e B e n e f it s Agenc y, H e r M a j e s ty’s C u s tom s
a n d E x c is e , t h e S c o t t is h O ffi ce , t h e Co n ven tio n of S co tt is h L o c a l
A u t h o r i t ie s , a n d n u m e r o u s c h a r i t i e s , c h u r c h e s , a n d v o lu n t a r y
g ro u p s . Th e r e w e r e n o s le e p in g p a r t n e r s ; a ll p l a y e d a n a c t i ve p a r t .
T a c t i c s in c lu d e d a h u g e p u b l ic a w a r e n es s c a m p a ig n la u n c h e d b y
t h e M in i s t e r o f S t a t e , H e n r y M c L e i s h , a n d v i g o r o u s e n f or c e m e n t ,
b a s e d o n s h a r e d i n t e l li ge n c e a n d join t w o rk in g on t h e grou n d w i th
p a r t n e r s wit h c om p l em e n t a r y p ow e rs .
Wit h in S t r a t h c l yd e P olic e , O p e r a t i o n H a m e lin w a s r u n a s a

Sp o t l i g h t w it h a l l t h a t e n t a i ls . B e s t S p ot lig h t p r a c t i c e wa s a ls o
i m p o r t a n t t o t h e w i d e r a p p r o a c h , a n d w e took on b o a r d id e a s fr om
o t h e r for c es a n d p a rt n er s to im p ro ve o u r o wn re s p on s e. Du rin g
t h e en forcem en t pe riod a lone, thr ough out t he p artn ersh ip area ,
t h e r e w e r e 7 , 3 0 8 v e h i c l e s c h e c k e d , 4 6 b o g u s c a lle r s a r r e s t ed , 9 2
o f t h e ir c r im e s d e t e ct e d , a n d 3 2 3 p e rs on s d et ec te d for b en efit
fr a u d . T h e r e w e r e 1 7 C u s t o m s a n d E x c i s e d e t e c t i o n s a n d 1 0 5
a r r e s ts fo r m is c ella n e o u s o ffe n c es .
Wit h in m y fo r ce I a m c o n fid e n t t h a t we ca n s u s t a in t h e
i m p r o v e m e n t a n d m a in t a in t h e q u a l it y o f s e r v i c e w e n o w p r o v i d e .
I h a ve n o d ou b t t h a t t h is w ill b e a s s i s t ed b y c on t i n u i n g t o wo r k
w i th ou r p a rt n er s ro u tin ely, wit h la rg e- s ca le S p ot ligh t- s ty le
re in for ce m en t b ein g em p loye d a t ir re gu la r in te rv a ls .
In l in e w i t h t h e v i s i o n o f S p o t l ig h t , w e a r e a l s o s e ek i n g t o
p r o t e c t o t h e r v u l n e r a b l e g r o u p s . In o n e d i v i s i o n o f m y f o r c e , w e
a r e c u r r e n t ly p ilo t i n g a c h ild s a fe t y in i t ia t iv e in w h i c h w e t a k e
p o s i t iv e s t e p s in p a r t n er s h ip w it h t h e lo ca l c ou n c il to en c ou ra ge
g r e a t e r p a r e n t a l r e s p o n s ib i lit y a n d i m p r o ve d p h y s i c a l s a f e t y o f
c h i l d r e n on th e s tr ee t, es p ec ia l l y du r i n g t h e h o u r s of d a r k n e s s .
O u r c o n su l t a t i on p r o ce s s is m a t u rin g, w i th s p e cia l a t t e n tion b e i n g
g i ve n t o t h e o p i n i o n s o f y o u n g , a n d o l d e r , p e o p l e . W e h a v e c o m e
a l o n g w a y , b u t w e h a v e f u r t h e r t o go . T h e i n i t ia t i v e is v e r y m u c h
u p a n d r u n n i n g a n d i s d e l i ve r i n g s u c c e s s , b u t h a s y e t t o m a t u r e .
A D iv is i on a l C o m m a n d e r i n m y fo r c e, r en o w n e d fo r h is a p t
ob s e r va t io n s , a n e c d o t a l l y li k e n e d S p o t l ig h t t o t h e b u i ld i n g t r a d e .
‘A b u ild e r , a s k e d b y a p a s s e r - b y w h a t h e w a s d o i n g , a n s w e r e d :
“I’m la yin g b r ic k s , o n e o n t o p o f t h e o t h e r ” . An o t h e r b u i ld e r w h e n
a s k e d t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n r e s p o n d e d , “I ’m b u i ld i n g a c a t h e d r a l ” . ’
Ach ievin g m y fo r c e o b j e c t iv e o f s a f e r s t r e e t s i s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e
a c t i o n s o f m o t i va t e d o ffic e r s w o rk in g t ow a r ds a s h a r ed go a l in a
h igh ly foc u s ed wa y, s u p p or te d b y t h e r es ou rc es of loc a l co u n cils ,
a n d th e c o m m u n ity a s a w h o le . W e a r e n o t la y in g b r ic k s . W e a r e
b u ild in g a ca t h e dr a l.
Ze ro To le ra nc e :
t h e Vi e w fro m Lo n d o n
William Griffiths
I T C O U LD b e cla i m e d th a t S i r R ic h a r d M a y n e s t a r t e d t h e z e r o
t o l e r a n c e w o r l d m o v e m e n t w h e n , i n 1 8 2 9 , h e la id d o w n t h e
p r i m a r y o b je c t s o f a n e f fi c ie n t M e t r o p o l it a n P o l ic e i n t h e s e t e r m s :
It s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o od a t t h e ou ts et th at th e pr incip al ob ject to b e
att ained is ‘t h e Pr e v e n ti on o f Cr im e ’. To this grea t en d every effort of
t h e p o li ce is t o b e d i re c te d . T h e s e cu r i t y of p e r s o n a n d p r o p e r t y , t h e
p res ervat ion of th e pu blic tran quillity and a ll oth er objects of a Police
E s ta b lis h m en t will thu s be b etter effected th an by d eten tion an d
p u n is h m en t o f t h e o ffe n d e r a ft e r h e h a s s u c c ee d e d in c o m m i t t i n g t h e
crime. 1
H is t or ia n s w i l l k n o w o f Lo n d o n e r s ’ a n t i p a t h y in t h e 1 8 2 0 s t o
b e i n g p o lic e d a t a l l . F o ll ow i n g t h e N a p o l e on i c W a r s t h e r e w a s a
s t r o n g F ra n co p h o b ic vie wp oin t w h ich in volve d , in p a rt icu la r,
o b je c t io n s t o t h e F u c h e t p o l ic in g m o d e l o f a g e n t s a n d in fo r m e r s .
S ir R i ch a r d h a d c l ea r l y s e t ou t t o h i s n e w r e c r u i t s n o t o n l y t h e
r a t io n a le for a p o l ic e f or c e , b u t a ls o t h e f a c t t h a t co n tr ollin g cr im e
a n d d i s or d e r w a s u n eq u ivoc a lly t h e i r jo b . Th is fu n d a m e n t a l t r u t h
is e n j o y in g a r e s u r g e n c e t h r o u g h t h e z e r o - t o le r a n c e d e b a t e — ‘t h e
b ot to m lin e o f po licin g’ a s Willia m Br a tt on m igh t p u t it .
R e g r e t t a b l y , t h e p h r a s e z er o t o l e r a n c e h a s i t s e l f b e c o m e
s o m e t h i n g o f a p o l i t i c ia n s ’ m e d i a s o u n d - b i t e , p e r h a p s m o r e
a t t r a c t i ve t h a n t h e r a t h e r a n o d y n e t e r m ‘C r i m e P r e v e n t i o n ’ , a n d
n o w b e i n g d e p l o y e d i n a l l m a n n e r o f c o n t e x t s . It is a s om e w h a t
da n g e r o u s s h o rt h a n d for t h e p o l ic e in t h i s c o u n t r y t o u s e . It c ou ld
b e t h a t o u r o w n p o l ic e o ffi ce r s w i ll h e a r i n t h e t e r m a c a l l t o
intoleran ce in th e discha rge of th eir dut ies.
Z e ro t o l e r a n c e m u s t n e v e r becom e a m a n d a t e for in d is c rim i n a te
o r i n s e n s i t i ve p o li ci n g . O n t h e fa c e o f i t , t h e t e r m r u l e s o u t
t o l e r a n c e o r , a s w e wo u ld h a v e it, d is c r e t i o n — a c orn e rs ton e of t h e
126
ZERO TOLERANCE : THE VIEW FROM LONDON 127
B r it is h p o lic in g m o d e l. As S ir R ich a rd Ma yn e s a id : ‘s om et h in g
m u s t n e c e s s a r i ly b e l e ft t o t h e i n t e l li ge n c e a n d d i s c r e t i o n o f
in d i vid u a l s ’. 2
W e g iv e u p o n t h a t g u i d a n c e a t o u r p e r i l. L o r d S c ar m a n ,
r e p o r t in g o n t h e B r i x t o n r io t s o f 1 9 8 1 , a c k n o w le d g ed t h e i m p o r -
t a n c e o f d i s c r e t i o n i n e f fe c t i ve p o l ic i n g a n d d e f i n e d it a s : ‘t h e a r t
of s u i t in g a c t io n t o p a r t i c u la r c ir c u m s t a n c e s . It is t h e p o lic em a n ’s
d a i ly ta s k ’. 3
T h e r e is a lin k h e r e t o t h e ‘B r o k e n Win d o ws ’ t h e s is 4 u p o n w h i c h
M r B r a t t o n ’s v i s i o n o f p o l i c i n g N e w Y o r k is s a id t o b e b a s e d . I t i s
a n a p p a r e n t p a r a d o x t h a t h a s a s s i g n e d t h e d e s c r i p t io n ‘z er o
tolerance’ to th e imp leme n ta tion of th at vision. F o r we see in
‘B r o k e n W in d o w s ’ t h a t a s om e w h a t d i ff e r e n t a p p r o a c h i s a d o p t e d
b y t h e h e r o , O ffi c er K e ll y, w h o s u c c e s s fu l ly m a i n t a in s t h e p u b l ic
t r a n q u i ll it y o n h i s b e a t b y th e d a i ly e xe r cis e of dis c r e tion (p p . 4 8 -
4 9 ).
Th e p u r p o s e o f t h is p a p e r is t o d e s cr i b e t h e v ie w o f z e r o
t o le r a n c e in Lon d on , a n d t h is wi ll b e d on e i n t h e c on t ex t of t h e
M e t ’s fr a m e w or k for c r im e red u c tio n , b u t I will le a d in b y s u m m a -
r is in g t h e v ie w fr o m L o n d o n o f t h e a c h i e ve m e n t s o f t h e N e w Yo r k
P o l ic e D e p a r t m e n t ( NYP D ) a n d s om e o f th e c on s eq u en ce s of th eir
app roach .
The View on New York

I w a s p r i v i l e g e d t o b e p a r t o f a s t u d y t e a m t h a t v is i te d N ew Yo r k
in M a r c h 1 9 9 6 t o d i s c o v e r w h a t w e i n t h e M e t co u ld le a r n f r om
w h a t c a n o n l y b e d e s c r ib e d a s a s t u n n i n g p e r fo r m a n c e in c r i m e
r e d u c t ion. It w a s a com pa re-a n d - c on t r a s t ex er cis e t h a t w a s bou n d
t o co m m a n d a p a rt icu la r fa s cin a tio n , if n o t en t h u s i a sm , fo r a n y
p r o f e s s i o n a l p o l i c e o ff ic e r — a n d i t c e r t a i n l y d i d i n m y c a s e .
W e w e r e l o o k in g f o r t r a n s f e r a b i l it y . W h i le t h e M e t h a s a l o t t o
offe r t h e w o r l d o f p o l ici n g , w e a c c e p t w i t h d u e h u m i li t y t h a t w e
d o n ’t h a v e th e m o n o p o ly o n g o o d i d e a s ( a n d , i n c i d e n t a l ly , w e
c o n s t a n t l y l o ok e l s e w h e r e in t h e U K for goo d p ra c tic e ). N a t u ra lly,
w e w e r e c o n s c i o u s of th e d iffere n t s ca le o f com p a ra b le p olic in g
p r o b le m s — 1 ,5 0 0 N e w Yo r k c i t iz e n s m u r d e r e d in 1 9 9 4 , f e w e r t h a n
1 5 0 in Lo n d on — to ge th e r wit h p r ofo u n d ly diffe r en t c u lt u r es — an
a r m e d p o pu l a ce ve r su s a n u n a r m e d o n e — t h e s e t w o d i ff e r e n c e s
b e in g m o s t p r ob a b l y lin k e d .
W e w er e a ls o sc ep t ic a l, a n d sp en t s o m e t i m e i n ‘d r i ll in g - d o w n ’
a n d ‘l ift i n g -s t o n e s ’ t y p e a c t iv it y t o ch e c k t h e v er a c i t y o f t h e
fi gu r e s . W e w e r e s e e k i n g t h e t r i c k w i t h s m o k e a n d m i r r o r s . W e
d id n ot fin d o n e ; w e fo u n d n o t h in g t o c o u n t e r t h e c la im t h a t t h e r e
is in t e gr it y in t h e r e s u lt s .
In s t e a d , w e f or m e d t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l v ie w t h a t t h e p o l ic e h a d
m a d e a d i ffe r e n c e t o c r im e r a t e s i n N e w Yo r k . W e d i s c o v e r e d a
p r id e in t h eir a c co m p lis h m e n t a n d a b e lie f t h a t m o re wa s
p o s s i b l e. W e fo u n d t h a t t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r ’s vis ion a n d m ot iva tio n
w e r e s h a r e d b y t h e fro n t -lin e p olic e o fficer a s we ll a s t h e d e t e c t ive
t o a b r e a d th a n d d e p t h i n t h e o r ga n i s a t io n t h a t m a d e u s e n v i o u s
o f h i s i n t e r n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a c h ie v em e n t . E ffe c t iv e e x te r n a l
m a r k e t in g h a d a ls o e n s u r e d w id e s pr e ad p u b l ic s u pp ort—a lthou gh
s u c c e s s in t h is r e s p e c t d i d n o t q u i t e fin d f a vo u r w it h h is M a y or ,
it would seem !
A b o v e a ll, w e s a w e xh i b it e d in p r e c i n c t c o m m a n d e r s a p r o p e n -
s it y t h a t m a y b e b e s t d e s c r i b e d a s ‘t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f g r i p ’— a
q u a l it y t h a t I h a v e r e ad F i e ld M a r s h a l l M o n t g o m e r y a d m i r e d m os t
in h i s gr o u n d c om m a n d e r s . 5 I m e n t io n a s u c c es s f u l W o r ld W a r II
g e n e r a l h e r e b e ca u s e I fo u n d t h a t m u c h of t h e la n g u a g e in a
s u cc e s s fu l N YP D is t a k e n fro m t h a t g r e a t c o n f li c t —‘w e h a v e t a k e n
t h e b e a c h e s ’ (M a n h a t t a n ), ‘w e n o w i n t e n d t o t a k e t h e fi e ld s a n d
h e d g er o ws ’ (B r oo k ly n ). Su c h r e fe r en c e s m a y a c c o u n t fo r t h e
r e l a x e d a t t i t u d e t h a t i s e vi d e n t in t h e N YP D c o m m a n d t e a m t o
in c r e a s e d co m p l a in t s a b o u t h a r d p o lic in g .
To c o n c lu d e t h e w a r a n a l og y, I w a s a ls o s tr u c k b y t h e fo cu s on
i n t e l li ge n c e , t h e qu a lit y of w h ich is like ly t o c on tr ib u te s ign ifi-
c a n t l y t o vi c t o r y in a n y b a t t l e .
P r o m i n e n t in eve ry p olic e b u ildin g w e vis it e d w a s t h i s s i m p l e ,
e a s i ly u n d e r s t o o d i n s t r u c t i o n :
Fo u r s te p s to cr im e c on tr ol:
tim ely an d a ccu ra te inform at ion
e f fe c t i ve t a c t i c s
rap id deploymen t
r e l e n t l e s s f o ll o w -u p a n d a s s e s s m e n t
I c a n l i ve w i t h t h i s m e s s a g e — I h a v e in f a ct p la g ia r is e d it
u n m e r c i fu l l y a s y o u ’l l r e a d l a t e r . It i s o n e p r o c e s s y o u c a n a p p ly
t o a n y p o l ic in g p r o b l e m , a n y w h e r e . It m a p s n e a t l y on t o t h e M e t ’s
st r a t e g i c a p p r o a c h , a lr e a d y in p l a c e , t h a t w e c a l l in t e l li ge n c e - l e d
po l i c i n g . It c ou ld in for m a s u cc es s fu l p a r t n e r s h i p e n t e r p r i s e ; it
co u ld d es cr ib e p r ob lem -s olvin g p olic in g. It is , I b e l ie v e , on e o f th e
m a j o r c a u s e s o f t h e d iffe r en c e in N e w Yo r k .
T h e W o n d e r o f Co m p s t a t
B e fo r e d es cr ib in g t h e M et a p p ro a ch I wo u ld ju s t lik e t o t o u c h o n
t h e C om p s t a t p r o ce s s . It is a n a m a z in g d is p la y fo r t h e o n l oo k e r .
I w e n t t w i c e , t h e s e c o n d tim e vir tu a lly u n a n n ou n ce d ju s t in c a s e
it w a s s o m e s o r t o f s e t - p i e c e for vis i t o r s . I t w a s n o t — i t r e a l ly d o e s
t a k e p la c e a t 7 a . m . fo r th r e e h ou r s o n t w o m o r n i n g s e v e r y w e e k .
Mu ch of t h e b u si n e s s w a s t o d o w i t h c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e
grea t bu rea u x: pa trol, det ective an d n ar cotics, wh o h ithe rto h ad
o p e r a t e d in is ola t i on . W e d o n ’t h a v e th e p r o b l e m o f s e p a r a t e
h i e r a r c h i e s h e r e b u t w e c e r t a i n ly w o u l d n o t d e n y p r o b l em s w i th
co-ord ina tion.
T h e r e w a s c on s t a n t g o o d p r a c t i c e b e in g d r a w n o u t a n d s h a r e d .
W it h e i g h t o f th es e s e s s io n s a m o n th e a c h pa tro l boro u gh ,
c om p r i s in g a d o ze n o r s o p r e c in c t s , w o u l d b e i n v ol ve d i n t h e
p r e s e n t a t i o n o n a f ou r - w e e k c y c l e . Ye t e a c h o f t h e s e v e n a b s e n t
bor ou gh s sen t a n obs erver t o m on itor th e ses sion for good
pr a c t i c e d e v e l o p m en t. T h at i s s o m e th irs t f o r l e a r n ing.
W h e n t h e front -lin e p e op le c o m p l a i n e d a b ou t poor s u p p o r t fr om
t h e c r i m i n a l j u s tice s y s t e m t h e l o c a l d i s t r i c t a t t o r n e y s t o o d u p
a n d prom ised to do better , an d also sp eak t o the ju dge. When
t h e r e w a s s o m e t h i n g w r o n g w i t h t h e c o m p u t e r p r o v id i n g t h e
m a p p in g a n a l y s is fo r th e p r ec in c t, t h e IT ma n a ge r w a s c a l le d t o
a c c o u n t t h e r e a n d t h e n i n p u b l i c. H e t o o p r o m i s e d t o d o b e t t e r
a n d a c c ep t e d a t ig h t d ea d l in e t o re p or t b a c k . W h e n a p la n w a s
b e i n g d i s c u s s e d t o t a r g e t a p a r t ic u la r h o u s i n g p r o j e c t , a c o m m u -
n it y re pr es en ta tive from th e eq u ivale n t o f ou r p olice con su lta tive
g r o u p w a s i n v i t e d t o c o m m e n t , t h u s p r o v i d i n g l e g i t im a c y t o t h e
ac t i v i t y .
It is a ls o n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e s t r a t e g y w h ic h d e s c r i b e s a c t i vi t y
a k i n t o z e r o t ole ra n ce is on ly on e o f se ven th a t in clu d e ‘Cu rb in g
Yo u t h Viole n c e in Sch o o ls ’ an d ‘B re a k in g t h e C yc le o f D o m e s t i c
V io l e n c e ’, m o r e s y n o n y m o u s w ith com m u n ity polic in g th a n an y
z e r o - t o le r a n c e c lic h é . In d e e d , t h e r e is a s m u c h in t h e ‘R ec la im in g
t h e P u b l i c S p a c e s o f N e w Yo r k ’ st ra tegy a b o u t p a r t n e r s h ip —n ois e
p o l l u t i o n , ille ga l d u m p i n g a n d s a le of a lc o h ol t o m i n or s —a s t h e r e
is a b o u t p e d d l e r s , p a n h a n d l e r s a n d s q u e e ge e cle a n e r s . 6
O b vio u s ly , t h a t w h i c h w a s e n t e r t a i n i n g fo r t h e o n l o o k e r w a s
s o m e wh a t p r e s s u r i s e d fo r t h e p r e c i n c t co m m a n d er u n d e r t h e
s p o t l ig h t , s u rr ou n d ed a s th ey w er e b y em b a rr a s s in g h igh lights of
th eir own per forma n ce. Bu t th ere wa s n o pre ss u re to ch eat or

m a s s ag e th e fi gu r e s : i n fa c t t h e c o n t r a r y w a s t r u e . A n d t h e on ly
a c tu a l e m b a r r a s s m e n t i s w h e n c r im e g o e s u p a n d you d o n ’t h a ve
a plan to de al with it, in ot h e r w ord s, wh en you fail to de m on -
s t r a t e t o s e n i o r o ff ic e r s t h a t y o u h a v e a g r i p o n t h e p r o b l e m .
M u c h o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n w a s s u p p o r t i v e — ‘h a v e y o u c o n s i d e r e d
t h i s ? ’, ‘t a l k t o H a r r y a b o u t t h a t ’ w i th t h e v i e w i n g p e e r g r o u p
h ea vily i n v o lv e d . I a ls o ob s er ved s om e, a lb eit s u cc es s fu l, p re cin c t
c o m m a n d e r s b ris tlin g w ith p rid e a t t h eir a ch ieve m en t, cle a rly
d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e c om p l e te cr im e a n d d is o rd e r p ic tu r e wa s a t
t h e ir fin g e rt ip s .
The View of London

N o w t o t h e vie w o f Lo n d on co n ce r n in g z er o t ol er a n ce . As I
m e n t i o n e d a b o ve , i n o u r s t u d y o f N e w Yo r k w e w e r e l o o k i n g f o r
tra n sf e r a b i l i t y . I b e li e ve w e f ou n d m o r e s i m i l a r i t i e s in a p p r o a c h
t h a n d i ffe r e n c e s . F o r r e a s s u r a n c e I l oo k t o t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r ’s
five y e a r s t r a t e g y s e t o u t in t h e a d o c u m e n t c a lle d The Lond on
B e a t, 7 b r o a d l y a r o u n d t h e t h e m e ‘t h e r i g h t p e o p l e d o i n g t h e r igh t
t h in g s in t h e r ig h t wa y’. Th e r ig h t t h in g s a re ta c k lin g cr im e a n d
pa t r o l l i n g e ff e ct i ve l y w h i c h I b e li e ve a r e n o t d i s c r e e t a c t i v it i e s a n d
p r o b a b ly a m o u n t t o t h e s a m e t h i n g in t h e m in d s o f t h e p u b l ic ,
a n d in d e e d i n t h e co n te xt of th e ze ro -to ler a n ce de ba te . Th e
Comm issioner ha s issu ed a clear exh ortation in th is docum ent :
‘W e c a n a n d m u s t m a k e a n i m p a c t o n c r im e . In t e l li ge n c e - l e d
policing an d p ar tn ers h ip initiatives a re th e wa y forward .’
In o u r p o l ic in g p la n f or 1 9 9 7 / 8 8 w e h a v e m a i n t a in e d o u r c r im e
c l e a r a n c e t a r g e ts fo r b u r g la r y , r ob b e r y a n d d r u g d e a l in g w h i le
in t ro d u cin g a n e w o b j e c t i v e o f c r i m e r e d u c t i o n . T h i s i s n o t a s e a -
c h a n g e , m o r e a gr a d u a l tr a n s i tio n w it h o u t lo s in g t h e a d va n t a ge
o f o u r c u r r e n t ‘c r i m e c le a ra n c e ’ a p p r o a c h . Aft e r a l l, t h e M e t ’s
Op e r a t i o n B u m b l e b e e w h i c h , in 1 9 9 3 , in t r od u ce d a s h a r p e r f o c u s
o n c l e a r i n g u p t h e c r im e o f b u rg l a r y h a s r e s u l te d in t h e lo we s t
leve l of re co rd ed re s id en tia l b u rg la ry in Lon d on s in ce 1 9 8 9 .
M o r eo ve r , in t h is fir s t y ea r w e h a v e n o t s e t a n u n r e a l is t i c
t a r g e t , n or h a v e w e lim ite d s u c c e s s b y a im in g l ow , r a t h e r , w e h a ve
t h r o w n t h e ch a llen ge t o r ed u ce cr im e t o a ll 63 o f o u r o p e r a t i o n a l
co m m a n d u n i t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s i n t h e M e t (t h e e q u i va l e n t of Ne w
York ’s p re cin ct co m m a n d er leve l).
T h i s fi n a n c i a l ye a r e a c h o n e o f t h e m m u s t :
a s s i m i la t e l o c a l c o n c e r n s th rou gh l o c a l con s u l t a t i o n a b ou t l o c al
crime a nd disorder p roblems
i d e n t ify c r i m e - p r o n e a r e a s o r ‘h o t s p o t s ’ t h r o u g h d e t a i l e d
a n a l ys is
r e d u c e o f fe n c e s t h e r e i n a d e f in e d p e r i o d
m onitor progres s an d m inimise displacem ent
t o a c h i e ve a n o v e r a l l r e d u c t i o n i n c r i m e .
W e h a v e i d e n t i f ie d t h e r o u t e f r o m i n f o r m a t i o n t o a c t i o n a s
i n p u t , a n a l y s is , o u t p u t a n d o u t c o m e .
In p u t is e ve r y s n i p p e t h ea rd o n t h e s t re e t, e ve r y p i e c e of inform a -
t i o n f r o m a g en c ie s a n d co n fid e n t ia l a n d a n o n y m o u s i n fo r m a n t s ,
a n d a ll o f o u r i n fo r m a t i on t e c h n o l og y w h i c h s t o r e s a n d p r o c e s s e s
th e inform at ion.
A n a l y s i s i s t h e fu n d a m e n t a l p r o c e s s fo r e n a b l i n g u s t o t a k e t h e
corre ct a ction in re sp on se t o all th is inform at ion.
O u t pu t i s t h e p r o d u c t o f a n a l y s i s — in t e l li ge n c e w h ic h m u s t b e
actiona ble.
O u t c o m e i s d e f in e d a s q u a n t i fi a b l e a n d m e a s u r a b l e r e s u lt s
a r is in g f r o m a c t i vit y w h i ch i s t h e n a s s e s s e d fo r le a r n i n g a n d t o
i n f o r m t h e i n p u t p h a s e . H e r e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y e x is t s t o c h e c k t h e
fo c u s o f a c t i vi t y a n d f in e t u n e t h e d i r ec t io n .
T h e s e fo u r p h a s e s m a ke a n ot h er virt u ou s c irc le th a t w e h a ve
d e v e l op e d in t o a fr a m e w or k for c r im e re d u c tion (Figur e 1 , p . 1 3 7 ).
W e a c c ep t , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e i s n o s h o r t a g e o f in f o r m a t i o n , n o r
h a s th er e eve r b e e n , a s a n y s e a s o n e d p o l ic e o f fi c e r w i l l t e l l y o u .
Th e c h a l le n g e i s p r o p e r ly t o f il t e r i t , a d d t h e c a t a l y s t s f r o m
ex is tin g m a t e r ia l , g r a d e a n d p r i or it is e it for a c t i on — t h e p r o ce s s o f
effec tive a n a lys is .
U n d e r d a t a p r otection legis la tio n w e g r a d e i n t e l li ge n c e c u r r e n t ly
o n a fo u r b y fo u r m a t r i x t h a t d e a l s w it h r e l ia b i li t y o f s ou r ce an d
a c c u r a c y o f c o n t e n t . H o w ev er , A1 i n t e l li ge n c e m a y n ot b e p a r t i c u -
la r l y r e le v a n t o r s u p p o r t i ve t o t h e p o l ic i n g p la n t h a t w e h a v e s e t
o u t s o w e h a v e d e ve lo p e d a n a d d i t io n a l m a t r i x t h a t p r o vid e s a
rou gh gu ide to th e pr iority we sh ou ld afford.
A s s e s s m e n t will b e a g a in s t t h e p r i o r i t ie s s e t ou t in t h e p la n a n d
t h e u r g e n c y o f a c t io n r e q u i r e d .
L e ve l 1 i n t e l li ge n c e w i ll b e b o t h u r g e n t a n d i m p o r t a n t t o t h e
p o l ic i n g p la n t h a t s p e c i f ie s t e rr o ris m , b u r g l a r y, rob ber y, c a r c r im e
a n d d r u g s - r e l a t e d c r i m i n a l it y ( a s w e l l a s a n y o t h e r l o c a lly
id en tifie d c r i m e o r d i s o r d e r p r o b l e m ) a s t h e t a r g e ts fo r c r im e
red u ction .
Leve l 2 i n t e ll ig e n c e w il l a l s o s u p p o r t t h e p l a n b u t la c k of
u r g e n c y a llo ws t im e t o p la n a s u r ve illa n c e or ot h er in te rd ict ive
oper at ion.
L e ve l 3 c a t e r s for t h e m y r ia d o f u r g e n t op e r a t io n a l m a t t e r s t h a t
a r e o u t s id e o f t h e b r oa d p la n b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s h a v e t o b e h a n d le d
b y p o li ce , o ft e n t h e s e r v ic e o f l a s t r e s o r t .
It fo ll ow s t h a t L ev e l 4 i n t e ll ig e n c e t h a t i s n e i t h e r u r g e n t n o r
s u p p o r t i ve o f t h e p o l ic i n g p l a n m a y n e v e r be a ct ion ed . Th a t is a n
a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e f a c t t h a t , w i th fin it e r e s ou r c e s , w e c an n ot a c t i on
everyth ing—b u t a t le a s t w e will b e d o in g t h e righ t t h in gs wh er eve r
p o s s i b l e.
im portant t o policin g plan
1 2
u rg e n t ro u t in e
3 4
uns upportive to po licing plan
An a d d it io n a l c o n c e r n w e h a ve a b ou t t h e p ro d u ct of a n a lys is is
its r e l e va n c e t o t h e t a s k o f t h e r e c i p i e n t ; o n t h e L o n d o n B e a t
t h e m e o n e co u ld d e s cr ib e t h is a s t h e righ t i n t e l li ge n c e t o t h e righ t
people at th e right time.
W e s e e t h i s i n t h r e e b r o a d a r e a s . O f f ic e r s i n v o l v e d i n r e s p o n s e
n e e d t o b e b r i e fe d t o d a y a b o u t w h a t h a p p e n e d y e s t e r d a y a n d la s t
w e e k o n t h is d a y a s a m i n i m u m , t o g e t h e r w i t h a m e n u o f
in te lligen ce -ga th er in g or p re ven tive ta s k s th ey s h ou ld u n d e r t a k e
in t h e i r u n c o m m i t t e d t i m e , w h e n n o t r e s p o n d i n g t o e m e r g e n c y
c a l l s fo r a s s i s t a n c e .
T h o s e in volved in in te rd ict ive a n d s u r v e il la n c e o p e r a t i on s n ee d
t o b e b r i e fe d i n a r a t h e r d iffer e n t w a y wit h pr ed ict ive or pr oa ct ive
i n t e l li ge n c e p a c k a g e s .
M a n a g e r s a n d l ea d e r s in v olv ed in s t r a t e g ic c h o i ce a n d t h e
t a s k in g o f re s ou rc es n ee d th e h igh er leve l b rie fin g a n d a n a lys is
r e l e va n t t o t h o s e c h o i c e s .
N o t e t h a t I h a v e allu d e d t o b rie fin g i n e v e r y s c e n a r i o — w e
b e l ie v e t h i s i s m i s s i on - c r i t ic a l a c t iv it y a n d a l o n g w i t h d e - b r i e f in g
it a l s o fe a t u r e s a s a n o b je c t iv e in o u r p o l ic in g p l a n fo r t h is y e a r .
To s u m m a r i s e o u t p u t , o u r t h ir d p h a s e i n t h e f r a m e w o r k , it i s
th at th e produ ct of inpu t an d an alysis sh ould be:
tim ely a n d a cc u ra te in te lligen ce wh ich is
r e le v a n t t o t h e t a s k o f t h e r e c ip i e n t s o t h a t t h e
r ig h t t a ct ic s c a n b e
rap idly deployed then
r e l e n t l e s sl y f o llo w ed t h ro u g h a n d
c o n t i n u o u s l y a s s e s s e d f or e f fe c t i ve n e s s .
S im ila rit y w i t h t h e N YP D p r o c e s s w il l b y n o w b e o b v i o u s s o I
w o n ’t d e n y i m i t a t io n — i t ’s s u p p o s e d t o b e t h e g r e a t e s t fo r m o f
fla t t e r y a f t e r a l l— a n d w e t h i n k i t h a s e x c e l le n t s y n e r g y w i t h o u r
o w n d o i n g - t h e - r i g h t - t h i n g s - t h e - r i gh t - w a y t h e m e .
All c r im e is e v id e n c e o f c r im i n a ls a t w o r k a n d ou r fr a m e w or k for
c r im e re d u ct ion ca n b e d es cr ib ed a s offen ce -c en tr ed . In t h e
a n a l ys is p h a s e w e m u s t a s k t h e q u e s t io n s : w h o ? w h e n ? w h e r e ?
to wh o m ? h o w? a n d w h y ?
W h e n w e k n o w w h o , w e ca n ta rg et th e offen de r. We h a ve
c o m p l e t e ly re-e n g in e e re d o u r in te llig en c e s y s t e m t o f o c u s o n
p r o m i n e n t c rim i n a ls a s s e s s e d a t t h e l o c a l l e ve l , a n a p p r o a c h
r e p l i c a t e d a t e v e r y o p e r a t i o n a l t i e r . At l o c a l l e v e l, a ‘p r om n o m ’ a s
w e s t y le t h e m w i ll n o t b e t h e h e a d o f a n o r g a n i s e d c r im e s yn d i -
c a t e , m o r e l ik e l y a 1 5 - y e a r - o l d p r o l i fi c t h i e f. B u t b y fo cu s s in g a t
a n y o n e t im e o n f ou r o r five o f t h e s e p ro lific offe n d e r s , w e a i m n o t
on ly t o d e t e r t h r o u g h p l a c in g t h e fe a r o f c a p t u r e f ir m l y i n t h e i r
h e ar t s b u t a ls o t o m a x im i s e c r im e r e d u c t io n wit h t h e ir in c a r ce r a-
t i o n w h e n th ey d o offen d. Th es e a re th e r ela tive fe w , r e s p on s i b le
f or a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e v o lu m e o f c r i m e .
W h e n y o u a n s w e r t h e q u e s t io n s ‘w h e n , w h e r e a n d t o w h o m ? ’,
y o u c a n lim i t t h e op p o r tu n it y fo r th e o ffe n d e r b y m e a s u r e s t o
a void re pe at victim isa tion (e.g. lock s a n d a lar m s); by d e s ignin g
o u t c r i m e b y , f o r e x a m p le , r e m o v in g v u l n e r a b l e w a lk w a y s ; b y t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f C C T V s c h e m e s ; a n d b y t h e d i r ec te d u s e o f t h a t
o t h e r w i s e u n c o m m i t t e d p a t r o l t im e a s s u g g e s t e d e a r l ie r .
B y a s k i n g t h e q u e s t i o n ‘h o w ? ’ y o u w i l l i d e n t i f y t h e m e a n s b y
w h i c h y o u c a n d i s r u p t t h e ir m e t h od s. Kn o w n r o b b er s c a n b e
o p e n l y film ed b y in t e l li ge n c e o ffic e r s in t h e m o rn in g t o d e t e r t h e m
f r o m co m m itt in g cr im e k n ow in g t h a t t h e c lo t h in g of t h e d a y is o n
p o l ic e v id e o . C r i m i n a l s w h o o p e r a t e a f t e r d a r k c a n h a ve c u r f e w s
i m p o s e d u p o n t h e m w i t h d oo r s te p a va ila b ility on d e m a n d a s p a r t
o f t h e i r b a i l c o n d i t io n s i m p o s e d b y t h e c o u r t s .
As k t h e q u e st io n ‘wh y? ’ a n d y o u c a n f i n d w a y s t o w e a k e n t h e i r
m o t i v a t i o n . O n e f a m o u s b u i l d in g s o c i e t y w a s t op o f t h e lis t t o b e
vis ite d b y a r m e d r o b b e r s . W e t o ld t h e m t h e y w e r e c a r r y i n g t o o
m u c h i n t h e i r t i lls . T h e s im p le ex p ed ien t of re d u c in g till holdin gs
e n s u r e d t h e y w e n t t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e li s t b e ca u s e it w a s s i m p ly
not wort h t he r isk of robbin g them an y more.
As w i ll b e a p p a r e n t , o u r a p p r o a c h is a l s o e s s e n t i a lly a p a r t n e r -
s h i p a p p ro a ch a n d i n v olve s u s in m a n y va r ia t io n s o n a t h e m e o f
p ro b lem -s olvin g policin g , p a rticu la r ly wh e n i t c o m e s t o r e p e a t
vic tim i s a tio n , a n d lim i tin g op p or t u n it ie s fo r t h e cr im i n a l.
As t o ou t c o m e , t h e fo u r t h lin k i n t h e c h a i n , w e a r e l o o k i n g f o r
p e r fo r m a n ce fr o m o u r O c c u p a t i o n a l C o m m a n d U n i t (O C U )
c o m m a n d e r s a s n ev e r b e fo r e — t h e y n o w h a v e t o a c h i e v e b o t h a
red u c t i o n in c r im e a n d a n in c r ea s e in p r i m a r y c le a r -u p s . App lica -
t i o n o f p r e s s u r e fo r q u a n t i fi a b le r e s u l t s i s n o t q u i t e in t h e st yle o f
N e w Yo r k , b u t i n o u r o w n r e s e r v e d B r i t is h f a s h i o n I b e l i e ve w e
ha ve made a pr omising start.
At t h e s am e t i m e o n e h a s t o b e c a r e f u l in a p e rfo rm a n c e r egim e
t h a t i t ’s n o t p e r f o r m a n c e a t a n y p r i c e . P er fo r m a n c e m u s t h a ve
qu a l i t y , i n t e g r i t y a n d le g itim ac y .
Q u al it y — w e m u s t n e v e r f or g e t w e a r e h e r e t o s e r ve t h e p u b l ic a n d
t h a t g iv in g a q u a l it y s e r vi ce t o t h e v ic t im i s p a r a m o u n t .
In t e g ri t y — m u s t b e t h e g o ld e n t h r e a d h o l d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e
t o g e t h e r a n d c a p a b l e o f a u d it t o en s u r e t h a t d a t a a r e n ot m a s -
s a g e d , c r im e is n o t ‘c u ffe d ’ a n d w e d o n o t s k e w t r u e p e r f o r m a n c e
b y a n yt h in g t h a t c o u l d b e in t e r p r e t e d a s c h e a t i n g o n t h e fig u r e s.
A b o v e a ll, l e g i t i m a c y m u s t b e t h e b y-w or d for a ll polic e a c tivity,
o p e r a t i n g w i th i n t h e la w a n d w i th t h e c on s e n t a n d s u p p o r t o f t h e
c o m m u n i t y . It w o r k s h a n d i n g l o ve w i t h d i s c r e t i o n .
W h a t W o u l d O f fi c e r K e l l y H a v e D o n e ?
Th e t o u g h e r t h e c h a l le n g e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e q u ir e m e n t fo r t h e
in t e r p r e t a t i o n of legitim ac y to b e rig h t. T h is is e s s e n tia lly a b o u t
l o c a l n e t w o r k in g y i e ld i n g l o c a l m o o d — m o r e n e e d f o r g o o d
i n t e l li ge n c e h e r e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , w e m u s t n e v e r s h y a w a y f r o m o u r
d u t y t o t h e o ve r a l l g o od —t h e p u b l ic tra n qu illity. As Lord S c a r m a n
a d v is e d , w h e n w e a r e g o i n g t o d o a n y t h i n g t h a t w i l l i m p a c t o n
m i n o r i t ie s in t h e c o m m u n ity , w e m u s t t ell t h em ou r p la n s a n d
e n l i s t t h e i r s u p p o r t . H e d i d n o t s a y : ‘D o n ’t p o l ic e t h e p r o b l e m ’.
M an y o f t h e p o lic in g p r o b lem s w e h av e t oda y a r os e from los s of
g r ip , s o m e t im e s d u e to co m m u n ity s en s itivit y. S u ch gr ou n d is
h a r d t o re ga i n b e ca u s e c r im e a n d d i s o r d e r h a v e b e c o m e e n -
t r e n c h e d . W e h a v e t o r e - im p o s e R i c h a r d M a y n e ’s p o l i c in g m o d e l
a n d in d oin g s o g e t p r e t t y c l o s e t o z e r o - t o le r a n c e o r a t l e a s t
m i n i m u m - d i s c r e t io n , h a r d - n o s e d p o l ic i n g t h a t , w h e n r e q u i r e d on
b e h a lf o f t h e l o c al c o m m u n i t y, is a l wa y s in t e llig en c e -le d a n d in
p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h o t h e r s . O f fi c e r Ke l ly w o u l d h a v e d o n e n o l e s s .
Conclusion
To s u m m a ris e t h e Lo n d on view of ze ro to ler a n ce : th e M et is
c o m m i t te d t o c r i m e r e d u c t i o n ; o u r a p p r o a c h i s in t e l li ge n c e l e d ;
a n d will b e in p a rt n er sh ip w it h lo ca l c o m m u n i t i e s . In a d dition, w e
b e l ie v e t h a t , in lin e w i th o u r s t u d y o f N e w Yo r k , t h e c r i t i c a l f a c t o r
for s u c c e s s w il l b e t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f g r i p b y lo c a l p o l ic e
c o m m a n d e r s o n t h e g r o u n d w h o k n o w b e s t h ow to d elive r t h is
d e m a n d i n g p e r fo r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t .
An d p e r f o r m t h e y a ll m u s t , if o u r e xh o r t a tio n fo r le s s c r i m e i n
Lo n d on is to b ec om e m or e t h a n ju s t a n ot h er ra in d a n ce .
In 1 8 2 9 , t h e e x p e c t a t i o n w a s a t le a s t a s h ig h . To q u o te S ir
R ic h a r d M a y n e a g a i n : ‘W h e n i n a n y D i vi s i on o f fe n c e s a r e f r e -
quen tly comm itted, there m u st be r eas on to su spect tha t the
p o l ic e i s n o t i n t h a t D i v is i o n p r o p e r l y c o n d u c t e d ’. 9
W e a t th e co m m a n d l e ve l i n 1 9 9 7 m u s t e n s u r e r e s o n a n c e f o r
t h e r a in d a n c e m e s s a g e . In t h e M e t w e a r e s u p p o r t i n g t h e t h r u s t
for c r i m e r e d u c t i o n t h r o u g h p r o v is i o n o f t h e b e s t t e c h n o l og y w e
c a n a f fo r d , c o- o r d in a t i on o f effo r t , p a r t i cu l a r l y to u n d e r p i n t h e
a n a l y tic a l fu n c t io n , a n d t h e c o m p r e h e n s i ve a n d s y s t e m a t i c
sh arin g of good pract ice.
I s t a r t e d t h i s p a p e r w i t h a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e w o n d e r fu l s im p licit y
o f S i r R i c h a r d M a y n e ’s m e s s a g e t o t h e n e w M e t r o p o l it a n P o l ic e .
W e s h ou ld a ll b e p r o u d o f t h e e n d u r i n g m a g n i fi c e n c e of a p o l ic i n g
s y s t e m t h a t w a s l a i d d o w n i n t h e l a t e 1 8 2 0 s a n d w h i c h s e es it s
r e n a i s s a n c e i n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 0 s a s i n t e l l ig e n c e - l e d c r im e r e d u c t i o n ,
in p a rt n er s h ip wit h th e c om m u n ity . ‘Zero to le r a n c e ’ d o es n o t d o
i t ju s t i c e !
F ig u r e 1
137
138
No t e s
E di t o r’s In t r o du c t i o n
1 Den n is, N. and Erd os, G., Fam ilies With out Fa the rhood ,
Lo n d o n : IE A H e a lt h a n d W e lfa r e Un i t , 1 9 9 2 , p p . 8 9 - 9 0 .
2 F ra n k Nix was a war ded th e Edwa r d M ed a l —a m e d a l l a t e r
revoked to b ecom e th e Geor ge C r os s . Fort u n at ely T h e Ti m e s
carr ied h is ob it u a ry (h e d ie d 8 Au g u s t 1 9 9 6 ) , a n d t h e r e fo r e
leaves on p u blic record an exemp lary work ing-clas s life, what
is toda y called a ‘role model’. The deta ils typify the d ifferent
way in which youn g m e n h a n d l e d t h e i r p r ob l e m s o f p o ve r t y
a n d u n e m plo ym e n t in h is c o m m u n i t y a s c o n t r a s t e d w it h t h e
wa y in w h ic h va n d a l s a n d t h e li ke we r e h a n d l in g t h e ir s o n
th eir esta tes i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s . ‘H e . .. a s a yo u n g m a n i n t h e d a ys
of th e Depress ion ... ha d often t a ke n pa r t in t h e m i n e r s ’ r id e
from Ti b s h e lf t o S k eg n e s s a n d b a c k , a r ou n d t r ip o f 1 3 0
miles.’
3 Comb e, V. , ‘C a r e y i s Ag a in s t Q u i ck - fi x S o lu t i o n s’, Da ily
Te le g ra p h , 8 J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7 .
4 By 1 9 9 7 a m a i n l ea d e r w r it e r o f t h e n e w s p a p e r o f t h e
con se rva tive est ab lish me nt was provok ed b eyon d m e a s u r e
b y a New Yea r m es sa ge fr o m five bis h op s to de n ou n c e t h e
Chu rch o f E n g l a n d (o n c e ‘t h e T or y p a r t y a t p r a y e r ’) a s a
soc iology d e pa r t m en t a t p ra y er . ‘If it h a s ever m e n tio n ed t h e
n a t io n a l c r im e r a t e . . . i t is o n l y t o b l a m e p o ve r t y . . . [Ye t ] one
of th e principa l caus es of ... p o ve r t y . . . i s p r e ci s e ly t h e
i m m o r a l con du ct wh ich th ey h ave s o sign al ly c on d o n e d b y
failin g to con dem n. ’ ‘A Shower of Bish ops’, S u n d a y
Te le g ra p h , 5 J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7 .
5 ‘S o fa r p olic e h a ve a rr e st e d a n d c h a r ge d 19 a du l t s a n d
juveniles . . . Al l a r e from th e Kendr ay es ta te, Ba rn sley, kn own
loca lly a s th e Br on x . .. Th e h ou s e h a d b ee n le ft emp ty after
t h e t e n a n t h a d a r o w w it h a n e ig h b o u r a n d w a lk e d o u t .
Cou n cil w o rk m e n s e a l e d t h e d o o r a n d b o ar d ed u p th e
wind ows ... Wh en it wa s c h eck ed fou r d ay s la te r a ll th e
c o n t e n t s ha d been stolen.’ The items looted included a t wo-
piece s u i t e , t a b le s , c h a i rs , t h e TV s e t , t h e c o ok e r , a k a r a o k e
m a ch in e a n d o t h e r el ec t r ic a l e q u ip m e n t . Wilkins on, P.,
‘Women Strip ped Hou se of Conten ts’, T h e Ti m e s , 1 4
D e ce m b e r 1 9 9 6 .
N O TE S 139
6 Pilgr im T r u s t , Men Wit h ou t W ork , with an Intr odu ction b y t h e

Archb ish op of York, Ca mb ridge: Cam bridge University Press ,
1938, p. 75.
7 ‘Ruth less Raver in a Class of Her Own’, T h e Su n d ay Tim es ,
5 J an ua ry 199 7. [Emp ha sis a dded .]
8 Th r ou gh a n a rt ic le in T h e S u n d a y Tim e s M a ga z in e in
Novemb er 19 89 , an expa nd ed vers ion of which was
p u b l is h e d a s The Em erg in g B ritis h Und erc la s s , Lo n d o n : IE A
H e a lt h a n d Welfar e Un it, 1 99 0. Th e r ea ct ion of th e s ocia l-
affa irs aca dem ic estab lishm ent was a choru s of assu ran ces
t h a t t h e r e wa s n o t h i n g t o b e a l a r m e d a b out . He wrote t wo
m o r e a r t i c le s fo r T h e S u n d a y Tim es , p u b l is h e d i n M a y 1 9 9 4 ,
a n d r ep r in t e d a s Un d e rc la s s : Th e C ris i s De e p e n s, London :
IE A H ea lt h a n d Welfar e Un it, 1 9 9 4 , b y w h ic h t i m e b o t h t h e
cogency o f h is m es s a ge an d t h e o b vi ou s f a c t s a ll a r ou n d h a d
m u t e d th e op po sit ion so m ewh at . His series of articles which
b e ga n with ‘Senten ced to a Crime Wave’, T h e S u n d a y Tim es ,
5 J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7 , w e r e h a r d l y c h a l le n g ed o n t h e fa c t s , ex ce p t
b y a s m all a n d d es pe ra te h ar d c ore of wh at Cla u de Ra in s
called ‘th e us ua l su spe cts’. Ch a r l es M u r r a y h a d a l r e a d y
descr ibed t h e Am e r i c a n s i t u a t i on a s i t h a d d e v e lo p e d u p t o
1 9 8 0 in h is in fluen tial b ook, Los in g Gro u n d : Am eric a n S ocia l
Po lic y 1 9 5 0 -1 9 8 0 , New York: Ba sic Books, 1 984 .
9 The B rit is h C rim e S u r ve y 1 9 9 6 , Lond on: Home Office,
Septem ber 19 96 . Th is is n ot th e fu ll re po rt . Th e full repor t is
pu blish ed lat er by HMSO.
1 0 Thou gh th is id ea is gr eet ed with pu zzled am az em en t, as if it
w e r e t h e gre at es t n ovelt y in th e wor ld, by ‘soc ial e xp er ts ’ in
t h e 1 9 9 0 s , r i gh t o r w r on g i t is a h i s t or ic a l comm onp lace.
Plato’s fr ie n d Ar c h yt a s of Tar en tu m , for e xa m ple , s aid in t h e
m i d d le of the fourth cent ur y B.C. th a t s e n s u a l gr e e d , ‘t h e
m o s t fa t a l c u r s e g iv en b y n a t u r e t o m a n k i n d ’, in c i t e d m e n t o
b e tr a y t he ir cou nt ry (no news to th e KGB or the CIA), an d
com m it ra pe, ad u lter y a n d every ot he r kin d of sexu al
outr age. ‘Where [sexua l] self-indu lgence reigns, decen t
beh aviou r is excluded.’ Archyta s’s obs ervation received
Cicero’s ap pr ova l in h is d iscou rs e on old a ge. Cicero,
S e l e ct e d W o rk s , H ar m on d s wo rt h : Pen gu i n , 1 9 7 1 , p p . 2 2 8 - 2 9 .
1 1 T a k en b y it s elf t h e en v ir on m e n t a l a r g u m e n t w o u l d ju s t i fy a
m a s s i ve increa s e i n t h e p a r t o f t h e i n d i vi d u a l ’s e x t er n a l
circu ms tan ces con st itu ted by th e police. An a dd itiona l
a s s u m p t i o n is ther efore neces sa ry an d is ad ded , b u t ra rely

if e ve r m a d e e x p li ci t —t h a t t h e s e ‘e x t er n a l c ir c u m s t a n c e s ’ t o
wh ich t h e c r im i n a l is p o w er l es s l y s u b j e c t d o n o t in clu d e
p oli ci n g it s el f.
1 2 Morga n , P., D elin q u e n t Fanta s i e s, Lo n d o n : Te m p l e S m it h ,
1978, p. 57.
1 3 Mu r r a y, C. , ‘Loa d in g t h e S ca le s of J us tice’, T h e S u n d a y
Tim es , 1 9 J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7 .
1 4 T h e S u n d a y T im e s , 11 J uly 19 93.
1 5 These idea s a re p rop a g a te d in m a n y fo r m s , b u t m o s t
exp licitly by th e so-called ‘post-m odern ists’. One p op u l a r
sou rce o f p o s t -m o d e r n is m a n d d e c o n s t r u c t io n is m h a s b e e n
t h e writings of the Fren ch p hilosoph er Michel Fouca ult. (See,
e.g. h i s Ma d n es s an d Civiliza tion (1 9 6 1 ), Lo n d o n : 1 9 7 1 ; The
Order of Things (1966), London : 197 0.)
1 6 In s o fa r a s th e report wa s accu rat e, the a tta ck was inten ded
t o d en igr a t e t h e Vi ct o r ia n s , a n d b y c om p a r i s on t o p u t
m o d e r n so ciet y in a fa vou ra ble ligh t. It is t h e a tta ck on
‘Vic t or ia n va lu e s ’, wh i ch a r e de n ig ra t ed t od a y a s p re se n t in
m o d e r n s o c ie t y , t h a t is relevant her e. The S u n d a y T im e s , 2 2
D e ce m b e r 1 9 9 6 .
1 7 ‘A politica l organ ization with con tin u ou s op era tion s [e in
politisch er A n s t a l t s b e t ri e b] will be c alle d a “sta te ” in s o fa r a s
its ad min istr at ive sta ff su cces sfu lly uph olds t he claim to a
m on op oly of th e legitimate u s e of p h y s i c a l c o m p u l s i on i n t h e
enforcemen t of its order.’ Weber, M., E con om y a n d Socie ty :
A n Ou tlin e o f In te rpre ta tiv e S ociology , Be rk eley, Ca liforn ia:
University of Californ ia Pres s, 19 78, p . 54.
1 8 C lu t t e r b u c k , C., B rit a in in A g on y : T h e Grow th of Political Vio-
le n ce , Ha rm on ds wor th : Pe n gu in , 1 98 0. Th e s t a r k es t e xp r e s -
sion of t h is weaken ing of th e legitima cy of th e sta te’s
m on opo ly of violen ce is th e freq u en cy wit h wh ich pu rp ort ed ly
‘con fr on ta tion al’ int erviewers (with rep u ta tion s for th e
fe a r le s s qu es tion in g of polit icia n s t o p r o t e ct ) fa i l t o ch allen ge
t e r r o ri s t s w h e n t h e y p u t th eir own u se of force in a t ta ck in g
t h e sta te on th e s am e foot in g a s t h e s ta te ’s u se of force in
co m b a t t in g t h em . ‘We wa n t a ll w ea p on s t o b e r em ov ed !’
1 9 Ha milton , A., J ay, J . an d Mad ison, J ., Th e Fe d e ra lis t: A
Com m en ta ry o n th e Cons titution of t h e Un i te d S t a t e s (1 7 9 2 ),
New York: Ran dom Hous e, 193 7.
N O TE S 141
2 0 P a r s on s , T., ‘Devian t Beh aviou r a nd th e Mech an ism s of

Soc ial Con tr ol’, T h e S o ci a l S y s t e m , London : Tavistock , 195 2,
p p . 2 4 9 - 3 2 5 . P a r s on s , T. a n d B ale s, R.F. , ‘Fam ily S t r u c t u r e
a n d th e Socialization of the Ch ild’, Fa m ily , S o cia liz a t io n a n d
Intera ction Process , Lon do n : Rou tle dge an d Kega n Pa u l,
1956.
2 1 Dewey, J ., Exp erien ce a nd Ed uca tion (1 9 3 8 ), Ne w Yo r k :
Mac m illan , 1 9 5 0 , p . 1 3 . Th i s w a s t h e b o ok ’s t w e lft h r e p r i n t .
2 2 Ibid . , p . 6 8 .
2 3 Dewey’s exp lic it a dvoca cy of teach ing a s s u rrep titiou s
m a n i p u l a t io n r a t h e r t h a n o p e n e d u c a t ion h ad a rous ed
feelings o f d is t a s t e in s o m e q u a r t e r s m u c h e a r l ie r .
‘Ever yth in g m u s t b e s t r a i gh t f or w a r d ... an d a l l m a n i p u l a t io n
avo ide d by which ingen ious ped agogu es s eek t o work u pon
t h e cha ract er s of their p up ils withou t th eir kn owledge.’
Ad a m s , J . (ed.), T h e Ne w T e a ch in g, Lon d on : H od d er a n d
S t o u gh t o n , 1 9 1 8 , p . 1 1 .
2 4 Mailer, N., ‘The Wh ite Negr o’, in h is A d v e r tis em en ts for
My s elf , Ne w Yo r k : P u t m a n , 1 9 5 9 .
2 5 Gl a ze r , N., ‘On S ub way Gra ffiti in New York’, T h e Pu b l ic
In te re s t, Winter 19 79.
2 6 Mailer, op . cit . , p p . 3 1 3 , 3 2 0 - 2 1 .
2 7 Lain g, R.D., The Politics of Exp erien ce, New York : Pan th eon ,
1 9 6 7 . For a fuller discu ssion of th ese developmen ts, s ee
M a gn e t , M., T h e Dre a m a n d t h e R e a lit y : T h e Six ties ’ Legacy
t o t h e Un d e rc la s s , New York: Morrow, 19 93.
2 8 J a c k Ke r ou a c ’s On the R oa d ca n be ta ke n as th e s ta rt in g
po in t o f t h e w id e n i n g in t h e p o p u l a r i t y t h is lit er a tu re of—a
s l og a n o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s — ’t u r n o n , t u n e i n a n d d r o p o u t ’.
2 9 Th is was cert ainly tru e after th e impea c h m en t in 17 87 of
W a r r en H a s t i n g s ov er h i s r u l e a s fi r s t gover nor -gen era l of
In d ia . In h i s im p e a c h m e n t s p e e ch Bu r k e e n ca p s u la t ed t h e
policy t h a t wa s t o ch ar ac te rize Br itis h i m p e ri a li s m a n d m a k e
it distinctive as c o m p a r e d w it h th e imperialism of th e other
E u r op e a n p o we r s—t h a t Br ita in s h ou ld go ve rn o th e r n a t io n s
‘u p o n th eir own prin ciples a nd not o u r s ’. (I r el a n d w a s n e a r l y
alwa ys an exce pt ion al c as e.) Wh en , a fter th e S eco n d Wor ld
W a r , t h e c o lo n i a l a u t h o r it i es w e r e fa ce d w it h —s a y—t h e Mau
Mau in Ke n ya in s t e a d of Ga n dh i’s c ivil dis ob ed ien ce in Ind ia,
t h e ‘illegitima cy’ of th e us e of force in th e i n t e r es t s of

im pe ria lism fed ba ck t o som e exten t to s u p p o r t critical
as se ss m en ts of dom es tic p olicing.
3 0 H ow a r d , M., ‘Wha t a Cr im in al F ea r s is Wh a t Stops Him’, The
S u n d a y Tim es , 1 9 J an u ar y 19 97 . Mich ae l Howa rd wro te th is
ar ticle a s t h e cu rr en t Hom e Se cre ta ry.
3 1 In th e Un ite d S ta te s t h er e wa s a five-fold in cr ea se in violent
cr im e fr o m t h e m i d -1 9 5 0 s t o t h e m id - 1 9 9 0 s . Wi th e ve r y
d e c a d e te en ag e violen ce in p a r t i c u la r b e c a m e n o t o n l y m o r e
fr e q u e n t , b u t a ls o n a s tie r . B et we en 1 9 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 4 t h e r e
w e r e 1 2 0 , 0 0 0 mu rders —twice the d eath toll of the Vietn am
W a r . Al l t h i s wa s d u r in g a p e r i od o f e c on o m i c p r os p e r i t y
wh en th ere h ad been no d epr ess ion r esem bling t he sca le of
t h a t o f t h e ea r ly 19 3 0 s , a n d t h er e h ad be en a five- fold
i n cr e a s e i n s o c ia l e xp e n d i t u r e in r e a l t e r m s . S ee B en n e t t ,
W.J., Dilulio, J .J . J r. an d Walters, J .P., Moral Poverty a nd
How to W in A m erica ’s W a r Against C rim e a n d D ru g s, New
Yo r k : S im o n a n d S c h u s t e r , 1 9 9 6 .
3 2 See, for ex a m p le , Ke llin g, G. L. a nd Coles, C.M., B r ok e n
W in d ow s : Re s toring Ord er a nd Re du cing Crim e in Ou r
Com m u n itie s , N ew Yo r k : F r ee P re s s , 1 9 9 6. Th i s is a n
a s s es s m en t of th e new crim e-red u c tion po licin g po licies in
New Yor k C it y (e s p ec ia lly in t h e s u b wa y s), Se a tt le , B u ffa lo
an d S an Fra nc isco.
Crime is Down in New York City: Blame the Police

1 The US equ ivalent of the 9 99 em ergen cy ser vices telep hon e
nu mber.
2 Wilson, J .Q. a n d Kelling, G.L., ‘Broken Windows’, Atlantic
Mon th ly , Ma r c h 1 9 8 2 , p p . 2 9 - 3 8 .
3 H a r v a r d B u s i n e s s Sc h o ol Ca s e S t u d y # N 9 -3 9 6 - 2 9 3 , 1 1 Ap r i l
1 9 9 6 , p p .8 - 9 .
Ze r o To l e ra n c e : S h o rt - t e rm F i x , Lo n g -t e r m Li a bi l it y ?
1 Wilson, J .Q. an d Kell in g, G.L., ‘Broken Windows’, Atlantic
Mon th ly , Ma r c h 1 9 8 2 , p p . 2 9 - 3 8 .
2 Ibid . , p . 3 0 .
3 Gold st ein , H., Prob lem Orie n te d Policin g, Lo n d on : Mc G r a w
Hill, 199 1.
N O TE S 143
4 Th e fu ll ‘aim ’ of th e Th am es Valley P olice is :

‘Work in g with ou r comm un ities, to redu ce crime, disord er
a n d fe a r , a s t h e le a d in g ca r in g a n d p r ofe s s ion a l Police
Service’.
‘Th e Th a m es Valley “STYLE” of policin g is ch ar ac ter ised by:
• cons ulta tion with local comm un ities
• working in p art ners hip with other agencies
• ta cklin g cau ses , n ot ju st sym pt oms .
We call this Prob lem-Solving Policing.’
5 Governm ent Wh ite Paper on Police Reform , Lond on: HMSO,
1 9 9 3 , p a r a . 2 .2 .
6 P e rh a p s t h e m o s t a p p r op r ia t e e xa m p le is th e Brixton
d i s o rd e r s on 10 -1 2 Apr il 1 9 81 . In h is r e p o r t t h e Rt . H on . t h e
Lord Scarm an , OBE criticised th e s tyle of policing opera ted
in Br ixt on —in clu di n g in flexib ilit y, o ver r eac tion to m inor
d i s o rd e r , an d ‘satu ra tion ’ p a trolling of th e st reet s. Lord
S c a rm a n n a m ed t h e p olic in g of B r ixt on a s on e o f th e fa c t o r s
which con trib u ted to th e dis ord ers . ‘Repor t to th e Rt. Hon .
William Whitela w CH, MC, MP, Sec ret ar y of Stat e for th e
Hom e D e p a r t m e n t , o n t h e B r ix t on D i s o rd e r s of 1 0 -1 2 Ap r i l
1 9 8 1 ’, Lo n d o n : H MS O , No ve m b e r 1 9 8 1 .
7 In 1 9 9 4 t h e r e we r e 1 , 5 6 1 r ec or d e d m u r d e r s a n d n on -
negligent ma ns lau ghters in New York City; th er e we re 16 7 in
London . Sou rce : Crime in the Un ite d S t a t es 1 9 9 5 , US
D ep a rt m en t o f J u s t ic e , a n d Crimin al S ta tist ics Engla n d &
W a le s 1 9 9 5 , Home Office.
8 Ibid . In 1 99 4 t he re wer e 2,6 67 rep or t e d r a pe s , a n d 7 2 , 5 8 8
reported robber ies, in N ew Yo r k Ci ty ; t h e r e we r e 1 , 3 7 5
rep orte d ra pes an d 2 5,7 93 rep orte d rob ber ies in London .
9 In Oct ob er 19 95 th er e we re 37 ,4 49 sw orn officers in t h e
NYPD, s ervin g a p op u l a tio n of 7 , 31 9 ,5 4 6 . In t h e Me t ro p olit a n
Police th ere were 28 ,04 2 p olice officers ser ving a pop u lation
of 7,10 6,93 5. Th am es Valley Police, with 3,77 8 police
officers, ser ve a p opu lation of 2,01 4,1 48 . Sou r ces: NYPD;
Crim e i n th e U n it e d S t a t e s 1 9 9 5 ; Home Office; Tha mes Valley
Police.
1 0 ‘Se tt in g th e S ta n da rd s for Policin g: Meet in g Com m u n ity
Expec t a tions ’, ACPO Str ategic Policy Documen t, Opera tiona l
Policin g R ev iew , F eb r u a r y 1 9 9 0 .
1 1 Au d i t Com mis sion , S treet w ise : Effective Police Patrol,

London : HMSO, 199 6.
C o n fi d e n t Po l i c in g i n Ha rt l e p o o l
1 Sour ces of in form at ion in Ha rt lep ool we re u n failin gly h elp ful,
from th e Ha rtle po ol Ma il, t h e l ib r a r ia n s a n d offic ia ls of a ll
k in d s , t o p le a s a nt c ou p les ju st pa ss ing b y on es ta tes or
p eop le at ma rket sta lls, who p olitely want ed to k now h ow
th ey c ou ld a s sis t a m a n s tr a n ge ly m a k in g n o t e s , a n d w e r e
eager to con t r ibu te th eir own kn owledge of crime a nd
po licin g in t h eir h om e tow n . With ou t d etr ac tin g from t h e
valu e of all t h eir con tr ibu tion s, we s h ou ld lik e to th a n k
P r in c i p a l Pla n nin g Officer Rich ar d Wald me yer b y na me for
s h a r i n g h i s k n ow le d ge wi th u s .
2 Gun inc iden ts in H ar tlep ool from Augu st 19 94 to M a r c h
1996:
A u gu s t 1 9 9 4 : Sc r ap dea ler Ter ry Rich ar ds on is s h ot t h rou gh
a wind ow at h is West View hom e.
Augu s t 1 9 9 5 : Gra ha m Re ad ’s h ome on t he Owton Man or
e s t a t e is s h o t a t .
O ct o b e r 1 9 9 5 : Brian Kerr is s hot as he tries to flee from a
gan g who bu rst in to his h ome.
F eb ru a ry 1 9 9 6 : Ha rr y Lan ca st er is t h o u g h t t o h a v e tu r n e d a
gu n o n h im s elf a ft er s h oo tin g h is fa t h er in h is h om e on t h e
Owton Man or esta te.
March 1 9 9 6 : Arm ed po lice ca lled t o th e Midd leton Gra n ge
sh op pin g cen tr e a fter a m an is s po tt ed with a p ist ol.
March 1 9 9 6 : G ra h a m Rea d is in volved in a s eco n d s h oot in g
in c id e n t . (So u r ce : H u n t er , N. , ‘Ge t Th es e G u n s Off Ou r
Stree ts’, Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 26 Ma rch 199 6.)
3 C le v e la n d C o n s t a b u l a ry : Ch ie f In s p e ctor ’s Annu al Re por t
1994-95, p. 20.
4 Ha rtlepool Ma il, 1 1 Nove m be r 1 99 5. Th e Co u rt of Appe al d id
increa se h is sen ten ce (Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 5 Ma r c h 1 9 9 6 ).
5 S h a w , B., C le v e la n d Constabulary: Ch ie f Ins pe c tor’s Annu al
R e p ort 1 9 9 5 -1 9 9 6 , p . 5 .
6 Bone, J ., ‘New York Cu rbs Its Mur der Ra te’, T h e Ti m e s , 3 0
Decemb er 19 96 . Mu rr ay , C. , ‘Loa din g th e Scales of Ju stice’,
The S u n d a y T im e s , 1 9 J an u ar y 19 97 ; a n d Let ts , Q. , ‘Join in g
t h e Resistan ce in th e Big Apple’, T h e Ti m e s , 2 4 J a n u a r y
1997.
N O TE S 145
7 ‘Ye a r l y Sta tistics for Hartlepool’, su pplied b y Har tlepool

Dist rict of Clevelan d Co n st ab u lar y.
8 T h e r e were 2,3 00 t hefts of vehicles in 19 94, d own to 1 ,000
in 1996.
In 19 94 th e a vera ge mon th ly figur e for th efts of vehicles
was 19 2. In 1 99 6 th e avera ge mon th ly figure wa s 8 4.
In 1 9 9 4 t h e lo we s t mon th ly figure wa s 13 4. In 1 9 96 t h e
lowest m ont hly figur e was 56. Ibid .
9 T h e r e were 2 ,70 0 d om es t i c b u r g l a r ie s i n 1 9 9 4 , d o wn t o
1 , 9 0 0 in 1 9 9 6 .
In 1 9 9 4 t h e ave ra ge m on th ly figu re for d om es tic
bu rglaries w a s 22 5 . In 1 9 9 6 t h e a verage m on t h ly fig u r e a s
155.
In 1 9 94 t h e lo we st m on t h ly fi gu r e w a s 1 6 1 . In 1 9 9 6 t h e
lowest m ont hly figur e was 89. Ibid .
1 0 T h e r e were 2,20 0 th efts from veh icles in 1 9 94 , d ow n to 1 , 8 0 0
in 1996.
In 1 9 9 4 t he a verage m ont hly figure for th efts from
vehicles was 1 80. In 1 996 th e average m o n t h ly figure wa s
153.
In 1 99 4 t h e lowes t m on th ly figure w as 1 10 . In 1 9 96 t h e
lowest m ont hly figur e was 101 . Ibid .
1 1 C h ie f In s p e c to r’s R e p ort 1 9 9 5 -1 9 9 6 , p . 5 .
1 2 Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 1 Au g u s t 1 9 9 6 .
1 3 Crim in a l S t a t is t i cs E n g la n d a n d W a l e s, Lond on: HMSO,
a n n u a l ly .
1 4 Evening Gaz ette (T ee s s id e ), 1 9 De c em b e r 1 9 9 6 .
1 5 Ibid .
1 6 Den n is, N. and Erd os, G., Fam ilies With out Fa the rhood ,
London : IEA Health an d Welfare Un it, 199 3, p. xv.
1 7 Ch ie f C on s ta bl e’s Re po rt 1 9 9 5 -1 9 9 6 , p . 4 .
1 8 Murr ay, C., T h e S u n d a y T im e s , 1 9 J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7 .
1 9 Howard , M., T h e S u n d a y T im e s , 9 J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7 .
2 0 Ray Mallo n ’s c om m en t, re po rt ed in : Hu n te r, N. , ‘Crim e in
T ow n H it s a New Low as Police Get Tough ’, Ha rtle po ol Ma il,
7 Ju ly 1996.
2 1 Steele, J ., ‘My Beat Has Becom e Bor ing, Sa ys th e Police Chief

Who Cu t Crim e’, Da ily Te leg rap h , 2 1 J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7 .
2 2 Ibid .
2 4 McC or m a c k , M.H., The 11 0% Solu tion , Lo n d o n : C h a p m a n ,
199 0. (Pan Book s, 19 92.)
2 6 Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 1 0 J u l y 1 9 9 6 .
2 7 J es n ey, J ., ‘Detec tive Ray Talk s t o Nation on Tou gh Sta nce’,
Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 1 Au g u s t 1 9 9 6 .
2 8 Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 2 2 Ap r il 1 9 9 6 .
2 9 Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 1 0 J u l y 1 9 9 6 .
3 0 Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 6 J u l y 1 9 9 6 .
3 1 H ow a r d , M., Th e S u n d a y T i m e s , 19 J an ua ry 199 7. Michael
Howa rd was writ ing a s H om e Se cre ta ry.
3 2 Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 1 5 -1 9 M a y 1 9 9 5 .
3 3 Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 1 5 -1 9 M a y 1 9 9 5 .
3 4 H u n t e r , N., ‘Ou t of Touch ’, Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 15 November
1995.
3 5 He add ress ed, for examp le, a m e e t in g in H u l l a t t e n d e d b y
5 0 0 m e m b e r s of the Hu mb ers ide Associa tion of Neighb ou r-
hood Watch Grou ps.
3 6 Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 3 Ap r il 1 9 9 6 .
3 7 He a d d s , ‘b u t it w a s n o t i n t h a t s p i r it t h a t t h e y fo u g h t ’.
Or well, G., ‘E n gla n d You r En gla n d ’ [fr om The Lion and the
Unico rn (1941)], Th e O rw ell R e a d e r, N ew Yo r k : H a r c o u r t ,
B r a c e, 1 9 5 6 , p . 2 5 3 .
3 8 J es n ey, A., ‘Teess ide Pos t for Pop u la r Detect ive’, Ha rtlepool
Ma il, 9 S ep t e m b e r 1 9 9 6 .
3 9 J es n ey, A., ‘The Str ong Arm of the Law’, Ha rtle po ol Ma il, 9
Au g u s t 1 9 9 6 .
N O TE S 147
4 0 J es n ey, A. , ‘N o Le t - u p i n t h e Figh t Aga in st Cr im in als : Actin g

D C I t o Ke e p u p t h e Good Work’, Ha rtlepool Ma il, 1 3 Au g u s t
1996.
Crime and Culture in Hartlepoo l

1 Bogd a n o r , V. and Skidels ky, R. (eds.), The Age of Af flue nce
1 9 5 1 -1 9 6 4 , London : Macmillan , 197 0.
2 S a y er s , R.S., A H is tory of E con om ic Ch a n ge in E n gla n d 1 8 8 0 -
1 9 3 9 , Oxford: Oxford Un iversity Press, 1 967 , pp. 4 5-59 .
3 Ha rtlepool Loca l Plan , B or ou gh of H a r t le p oo l, Ma y 1 9 9 4 , p .
14.
4 Tr u a n cy a n d t r u a n c y - r el a t e d cr i m e we r e b e in g d e a l t wi t h b y
a Non- Atten der s’ Project , in volving go v er n m en t fun ds for
com p u terized s c h o o l r e gi s t e rs a n d a s u p p o r t u n i t ‘t o
r e h a b i li t a t e perp etu al non -atten ders an d disa ffected
children ’.
Two Deta ch ed Youth Work e r s w er e t o b e e m p l o ye d t o
r a is e a w a r e n es s a b o u t ‘s e xu a l h e a lt h , d r u g s a n d a lcoh ol’
am ong th e 16-2 4 year -olds on th e two esta tes.
Th e sport s’ facilities would be link ed i n s u c h a wa y a s t o
enh an ce ‘secu rity an d cont rol’, with th e ass is ta nc e of ‘a
comp reh ens ive closed-circu it TV syst em’.
Th e Crime Preven tion Pa n el of on e of th e loca l sc h ools
prom otes ‘d r u g ed u c a t io n ’ a n d c o -o p er a t e s w it h t h e lo ca l
police in comb atin g ‘petty crim e’. The Police, Fire and
Amb ula nce s e r vi ce p u t s on a nt i-crime displays t o the a rea’s
pr ima ry-s ch ool ch ild r e n o f, fo r e xa m p l e , t h e d a n g e r t o t h e
c u l p r it ’s own life an d limb of ‘joyrid in g’—of cra sh in g t h e ca r
tak en with out th e owner’s cons ent .
A project entitled th e Good, the Ba d an d t h e Ugly w ill u se
a t ea m from Ha rt lep ool Bo rou gh Cou n cil to l ea d ‘w or k s h o p s ’
in t h e sc h ools o f t h e t wo h ou s in g e st a te s, th r ou g h wh ic h th e
p u p i ls c a n voice the ir opin ions on va riou s top ics , in clu din g
crime.
5 S u n d e r l a n d C it y N e w s , No . 4 , J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7 .
6 In 199 1 over 99 p er cent of Hart lepool’s res idents were white.
Of t h e l es s t h a n on e in a h u n d re d ‘in e th n ic gr ou p s ot h er
t h a n wh ite ’, m ore th an h alf we re from th e In dia n su b-
con t in e n t (a n et h n ic gr ou p t ha t in E n gla n d pe rfor m s
s ign ifican tly be tt er in sc h ool a n d a t wo rk th an th e E n glish
th ey live a m on g). A fu r t h er 1 5 pe r c en t were Ch ines e (whose
edu cationa l and econom ic performan ce is even higher t h a n

t h a t o f t h e As i a n s ). OPCS, C e nsu s 1 99 1: Key St atis tics for
Loca l Au th oritie s , Lo n d o n : H MS O , 1 9 9 4 , p . 8 4 .
7 Th e overall figure for Ha rtlep ool was 0.7 per cen t. In th ree of
t h e worst wa rds th e ethn ic minority figures were 0.2 p er
c e n t , 0.3 p er c e n t , a n d 0 . 4 p e r c en t . C le ve la n d C o u n t y J oin t
St ra te gic Unit Inform a tion Sys tem , Area Sn aps hots ,
m i m e og r a p h e d .
8 M a r tin , R., Hist orical Notes an d Pers ona l Recollections of
W e s t H a rt le p oo l a n d Its F ou n d e r, Wes t H ar tle po ol: Ma rt in ,
1924, p. 151 and pp. 166-69.
9 Ibid , p. 15 2.
1 0 Cowley, C., A ir R a id s o n t h e H a rt le p ools: Rep rinted from
A r ti cl e s in t h e North ern Da ily Mail, 1943. No pu blisher
sh own. (Photocopy in Hart lepool centra l libra ry.)
1 1 T r ib u t e t o Te d Le a d b i t t er , MP, Radio Clevelan d, 24 Decemb er
1996.
1 2 Ma n y people ca n r emem ber, a nd talk a bou t, th e films t hey
s a w in th e 1 94 0s or 1 95 0s at th e E m pir e. S itt in g in
M a cd o n a l d ’s tod ay , th e ep itom e of th e d eloca lized m ilie u ,
th ey ca n st ill ea sily fin d t h em se lves ch at tin g to an oth er wis e
co m p l e te s t r a n g e r a b o u t t h e s c h o o l t h a t ( it t u r n s o u t ) t h ey
both went t o as ch ildren, an d very easily discover th at t hey
h a v e c om m o n a c q u a in t a n c e s . H a r t le p u d li a n s u s ed t o
a r ra n ge t o m ee t on e a n ot h er u n d er t h e c loc k of La m b ’s t h e
jewe ller s i n Ly n n S t r e et . By 1 9 9 6 ev en t h a t w a s b a c k in
wor kin g ord er , a n d p en sio n er s w er e r em in isc in g a bo u t a ll
t h e p r op o sa ls o f m a r r ia g e t h a t ha d been ma de u nd er it. Th e
l oc a l p r es s k n e w t h a t t h e r e w e r e read ers int erested in su ch
t h i n gs , becau se s o m a n y o f t h e m h a d b e e n p a r ti ci pa n t s i n
t h em .
‘He H a d J u s t E n ou g h Mo n ey For Sp ecial Ring’, Ha rtlepool
Ma il, 1 6 De c em b e r 1 9 9 6 .
1 3 In 1 9 1 2 m or e t h a n 24 0 s h ips of th e m er ca n tile m ar in e h a d
‘H a r t l ep o o l’ o n t h e i r s t er n .
1 4 Bet ween 187 8 an d 19 00 t he a nn ua l outpu t of one of
Ha rt lep ool’s sh ip-ya rd s wa s on six oc ca sion s t h e h ighe s t of
a n y in B rit a in .
N O TE S 149
1 5 Har tlepool y a r d s h a d b u i l t 3 3 s h i p s to t a ll in g 1 7 8 ,0 0 0 g ro s s
ton s i n 1 9 1 3 . In 1 9 3 1 t h e y b u il t n o n e , in 1 9 3 3 th ey a ga in
b u ilt n o n e , a n d in 1 9 3 5 t h e y b u il t o n ly t wo , t o ge t h e r 1 0 ,0 0 0
g ro s s t o n s . H a r t le p o ol im p o r t e d a b o u t t w o -t h i r d s of t h e p i t -
p r o p s fo r t h e Du r h a m a n d M id la n d s c oa lfield . In 1 9 2 7 i t
import ed over 0. 8 m illion ton es of pit pr ops. By 1 93 3 t h is
figu re h ad be en re du ced to 0 .4 m illion ton s. Fis h l a n d in g
h a d b e e n 1 7 ,0 0 0 ton s in 19 20 ; in 19 33 on ly 7 , 0 0 0 t o n s w e r e
l a n d e d . In 19 20 th e valu e of im po rt s h a d b ee n £5 m illion . In
th e ear ly 193 0s th e value was un der £ 1 m illion. This was a
m u c h m o r e s e ve r e loss th an either th e Tyne or the Hu mb er
p o r ts , whe re th e valu e of im po rt s w as re du ced in th e per iod
b y one h alf. Lock, M., T h e H a rt le p o ol s : A S u r v e y a n d Pla n ,
West Ha rt lep ool: Wes t H ar tle po ol Bor ou gh Cou n cil, 1 9 4 8 , p .
41.
1 6 Lock, op . cit . , p . 3 1 .
1 7 S h ip b u ild in g at Har tlepool en ded with th e com pletion of t h e
‘B la n c h l a n d ’ on 3 1 Octob er 19 61. S pa ldin, S., S h i p b u il d e rs
of the Ha rtle po ols , Ha rt lep ool: Ha rt lep ool Bo rou gh Cou n cil,
1986.
1 8 Ibid ., p. 31 .
1 9 See th e a ccou nt of interw ar Britis h p olicing—an d of
p r ovin cia l life be fore t h e 1 91 4- 18 wa r—given con vin cin gly
from h i s ow n e xp e r ie n c e b y Harr y Daley, a police con st ab le
who beca u se of h is in telligence an d s exu al ori e n t a tion
b ec am e a m in o r d a rlin g of the Bloomsb ur y Group . Daley, H.,
This Sm all Cloud , London : 198 6.
2 0 Sayer s, op. cit., p . 9 4 .
2 1 Lock, op . cit . , p . 2 3 .
2 2 Lock, op . cit .
2 3 Th e po pu lat ion of En gla n d a n d Wa l es h a d r i s e n 1 8 6 0 -1 9 0 1
from 2 0 m illio n to 32 m illio n . Th e nu mb er of recorded crimes
h a d fallen from 88,0 00 t o 81,0 00. Crimin al S ta tist ics E n gla n d
a n d W a l e s , Lond on : HMSO, an n u ally.
2 4 Lock, op . cit .
2 5 In hou sing, by th e mid-19 90s th e five bas ic amen ities,
in c lu d in g t h e in t e rn a l w.c. , wer e u n ivers ally pr ovide d. On ly
1.2 p e r c en t o f h o u s e h o l d s l a c k ed o r s h a r e d t h e u s e o f a b a t h
or sh ower an d/ or a w.c. Th e s ta tis tic s n ow d ea lt r a t h e r w it h
‘n o c a r ’ h o u s e h o l d s (4 7 p e r c e n t ) a n d h ou s eh old s wit h ou t
c en t r a l h e a t in g (2 3 p e r ce n t ). By th e t im e o f t h e C en s u s of
1 9 9 1 th e ca tegory of ‘mo r e t h an 1 . 5 pe r so n s p er r oo m ’ h a d
been d is c a rd e d a s i r r el ev a n t t o m o d e r n h o u s i n g c on d i t io n s ,
an d only two per cen t of Hartlepool’s h ous eholds lived even
a t m o re th a n one pers on per room . The ren t of the p oor was
paid a s h ous ing ben efit by th e sta te.
2 6 H a r tl e pool: A Co m m u n i t y T h a t ’s M a k i n g It H a p p e n, Har tlepool
Ci t y C h a lle n ge , n o d a t e [1 9 9 6 ? ].
2 7 0 P C S , Key Population and Vital Statistics: Local and Health
Auth ority A re a s , London : HMSO, 19 93 , p. 1 00 . The n at iona l
figures were 24 p er cent ma les, 25 p er cent females.
2 8 A r e c en t r e p o r t —n o t a b o u t H a r t l e p oo l—s h o w s t h e e x t en t t o
which th e rou te to e du cat ion beyon d s ch ool ha s been opened
u p s i n c e t h e 1 95 0 s . An A-level equivalent is n ow on offer
which i s a c ce p t e d fo r e n t r y t o a t le as t on e U n i ve r s i ty a n d t o
other i n s t it u t i on s o f fu r t h e r a n d h i g h er e d u c a tion in wh ich
one of th e s kills requ ired is ‘cooking for sedu ction’. The
In d e p e n d e n t, 7 No ve m b e r 1 9 9 6 .
2 9 In t he wors t war d for u n em ploym en t, S t. H ilda ’s, o n ly 70
per cent of the econ omically active males were em p l oy ed .
T h e r e w er e ot h e r wa r d s whe re fewer t ha n 8 0 p er cen t of t h e
m en h ad job s. Th e t own figur e is for Ma y, t h e wa rd figu r e s
a r e for J a n u a r y. Offic e fo r N a t iona l Statist ics an d th e Tees
Valley J oint St rat egy Unit.
3 0 Mill, J .S ., ‘Of Loca l Re p res en tative Bodies’, O n R e p re s e n t a t i v e
G ov e rn m e n t, Lo n d o n : 1 8 6 1 .
3 1 Mem be rs h ip c a r d PAA 730 565 , Whitbu rn an d Mars den Clu b
a n d I n s t it u t e , 1 9 8 5 .
3 2 Th e r u l e s o f n e a r l y a l l w or k in g m e n ’s c lu b s closely followed
t h e m o d e ls l a id d o wn b y t h e Wo r k in g Me n ’s C lu b a n d
I n s t it u t e Union. The clu bs en joyed cer t a in privileges over
other es ta blis h m en ts se llin g a lcoh olic d r in k s by ha ving th eir
ru les registered u nd er th e cur rent In d u s t r ia l an d Provident
S o ci et y Ac t s .
3 3 Ha rtle po ol: A Co m m u n ity T h a t’s M a k i n g It H a p p e n, Har tlepool
Ci t y C h a lle n ge , n o d a t e [1 9 9 6 ? ].
N O TE S 151
3 4 Th e words a re th ose of Samu el S m ile s, in a pas sa ge in which

h e t r i es t o a c c ou n t fo r t h e e xt r a or d in a r y fo rt it u d e t h a t t h e
B r it is h civilian s bes ieg e d in L u c k n o w s h o we d d u r i n g t h e
In d ia n Mu t in y . Th e p a s s ag e i s p a r ti cu l a r ly a p t when app lied
t o H a r t le p oo l, fo r t h e r e m e m b e r ed ‘h e ro of Lu c k n o w’ w a s a
nort h-ea stern er , Gen er al H ave lock , wh os e s ta tu e s ta n ds in
Tra falga r Squ are, a n d wh ose n am e u se d t o gra ce m an y a
n o r t h -e a s t p u b a n d a t l e a s t on e c in e m a . I t is d o u b l y a p t ,
b e ca u s e i n h is A u t ob io gra p h y S m i le s w r it e s t h a t S e l f-H e lp
was written to illus tra te an d en force th e power of anoth er
n o r t h -e a s tern er’s ‘g re a t w o rd ’—P e rs e vera n ce. Sm iles, S., Self-
He lp : With Illus tration s of C on d u c t an d Pers ev era nce (1 8 5 9 ),
London : IE A H e a lt h a n d W e lfa r e Un i t , 1 9 9 6 , p p . 1 4 3 - 4 4 .
Althou gh th e book is called S e l f-H e lp i t is q u i t e cl ea r t h a t i t
cou ld h a ve been with equ al propr iety called M u tu a l
Im p r ov e m e n t, fo r it em ph as izes so m u ch th e imp orta nc e of
se lf-st rivin g a n d se lf-im pr ovin g peop le workin g with an d for
one another.
3 5 S a c k s , J ., ‘Fait h in th e Fa m ily: Deva lu in g Dom es tic ity is
Fat al to Society’, T h e Ti m e s , 2 5 F e b ru a r y 1 9 9 7 .
3 6 M os e r , C.A. an d Scot t, W., B rit is h T ow n s : A S ta t is t ic al S t u d y
of th eir Socia l an d E conom ic Differen ces , E din b u rgh: Oliver
a n d B o yd , 1 9 6 1 , p . 1 1 6 .
3 7 About 4 5 per cen t of the children b o r n o u t s i d e m a r r i a ge w er e
registered b y cohab iting couples.
3 8 Th e highes t ra te of children born outs ide ma r r ia g e wa s in
one o f t h e po or e st a n d in p a r t s mos t ra vaged u rb an ar eas of
E n g la n d , Kno ws ley, Me rs eys ide (j u s t u n d e r 5 0 pe r c en t). Th e
lowest r a t e w a s in R i ch m o n d s h i r e , No r t h Yo r k s h i r e (12.5 per
c e n t ). 0PCS, Key Popula tion a nd Vital S ta tist ics : Loca l a n d
H e a lt h A u th o rit y A re a s , Lo n d o n : H MS O , 1 9 9 3 .
By t h e m id - 1 9 9 0 s th e m i d d le - a n d u p p e r - cl a s se s h a d
bou gh t in o n a n en o r m ou s s c a le a new set of do m es tic
emp loyees t o a c t in loco p a ren tis , a s a so rt of se con d fa m ily
for t h eir ch ild r en . (See T h e S u n d a y T im e s , 5 J an ua ry 199 7.)
3 9 ‘C la r e Ra yn er , th e a gon y a u n t, sa id . .. “Se xu al p rob ity is a
luxu ry. You h ave to ha ve a roof over y ou r h e a d a n d a j ob t o
afford a wife and ch ildren. ”’ Da n iels , A., ‘Cr im e “du e t o la x
mor ality”’, G u a rd ia n , 2 J a n u a r y 1 9 9 7 .
4 0 Ma s on , P., T h e En g lis h G e n tle m a n : T h e R is e a n d F a ll o f a n d

Id e a l (1982), Lond on: Pimlico, 1 9 9 3 , p. 2 14 . The va st ar ea of
t h e S u d a n (fo u r t i m e s t h e a r e a o f T ex a s ) w a s r u l e d w it h a
h igh d eg r ee of c on s en t b y a co r p s of a d m in is t r a t or s (th e
S u d a n Political Service) th at in th e fifty-s i x y e a r s of i t s
existence n ever exce ed ed 40 0 B rit ish officials, a nd rar ely
exceeded m o r e t h a n 1 2 0 . D a m e M a r ge r y P e r h a m w r o t e t h a t
t h e colonia l Distr ict Com mis sion er wa s on e of t h e ‘s u p re m e
t yp e s ’ pr od u ced by B rit ish cu ltu re. Per ha m, M., ‘Intr o-
d u ct io n ’t o Hend erson , K.D.D., The Mak ing of M od e rn S u d a n ,
Lon do n : 19 53 , p . xiii.
4 1 G o r er , G.E.S., Exploring English Cha racter, Lond on: Cress et
P r es s , 1 9 5 5 .
4 2 Let ter of 28 S eptem ber 1 984 . Harr ison, T., Th e Du rha m
Ph e n o m e n on , Lond o n : D a r t on , Lo n g m a n a n d T od d , 1 9 8 5 , p p .
104-05.
St r a t hc l y de ’s S p o tlig h t I n itia tiv e

1 Wilson, J .Q. an d Kellin g, G. L., ‘Br ok en Win d ows’, Atlantic
Mon th ly , Ma r c h 1 9 8 2 , p p . 2 9 - 3 8 .
Ze r o To l e ra n c e : t h e Vi e w fr o m Lo n d o n
1 Mayne, Sir Richa rd, Ge n era l Ins tru ctio n s for t h e Dif f e re n t
Ra nk s of th e Police Force, 1 8 2 9 .
2 Ibid .
3 R e p or t of the Rt. Hon . Lord Sca rm an OBE, ‘The Brixton
D is o r d er s , 1 0 -1 2 Ap r il 1 9 8 1 ’, C om m a n d P a p e r 8 4 2 7 .
4 Wilson, J .Q. an d Kelling, G.L., ‘Broken Windows’, Atlantic
Mon th ly , Ma r c h 1 9 8 2 , p p . 2 9 - 3 8 .
5 H am ilt on , N., Monty : Mast er of t h e Ba t tle f ie ld 1 9 4 2 -1 9 4 4 ,
S c ep t r e Bo ok s , 1 9 8 3 .
6 Th e New York City Police Depar tm ent Agenda fo r 1 9 95 a n d
B e yo n d .
7 T h e Lo n d on B e a t, Metropolitan Police Service 199 6.
8 Met rop olita n Police Se rvice Pla n 19 97 / 98 .
9 Mayne, S ir Richar d, op. cit.

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The IEA Health an d Welfar e Unit

Choice in Welfar e No. 35

The IEA Health an d Welfar e Unit

Typ es et by th e IE A Hea lth a n d Welfa re Un it

Forew ord t o th e S econ d Ed ition Da vid G. Gre en vii

Ed itor’s In trod u ction

Crime is Down in New York City: Blame th e Police

Con fiden t Policing in Ha rtlep ool

Crim e an d Cu ltu re in Har tlepool

St ra th clyd e’s Sp ot ligh t In itia tive

Zero Toleran ce: A View from Lond on

Norman Denn is is Gu est Fellow in th e Dep ar tm en t of Religious

William Griffiths BEM QPM was app ointed C om m a n d er (C r im e )

officer in v a rio u s d ivis io n s . Th i s wa s i n t e rs p e r s e d wit h p e r io d s

J o h n Orr OBE QPM CIMgt join ed th e Kilm a rn oc k Bu rg h Polic e

T HE TER M ‘zer o t ole ra n ce ’ is a n u n fortu na te one. Few people,

effec tive ly protecting them from a t t a c k s on th eir r igh t to go a b o u t

Zero- tolerance po licin g is ba s ed on th re e id ea s . O n e is t h e

affect t h e d a ily life of m o s t p e op le e xc e p t i n t h e c o m p a s s i on a t e

victimh ood, a n d a t r a n s f e r of a t t r ib u t io n s o f c a u s alit y fr om t h e

policing wit h in its p r o p er lim i t ed doma in—does n o t p r et en d to b e

un ders tood) no great h arm is done.

b e m a d e , a n d t h e r e fo r e t h e p o in t is n o n s ens e. Their wh ole

1 9 3 1 a n d 1 9 9 7 s o m ew h a t m ore sim ply a n d c on vinc in gly? Migh t

t h ey b e h a ve we ll. An o th er disincentive to b eh a vin g b a d l y is p u b l ic

which t h e y a llow th eir feelings of fru str ation to grow an d

in t h is cu lt u re of life lon g m on oga m y.

when w e d o t a k e t h e t er r i b l e ex p er ien ce of u n em p loym en t fu lly

a t a b u s stop. It concern ed a s even-ye a r- old who h a d been in th e

confiden ce of police person nel t h e m s elve s in t h e le git im a c y a n d

s t yle s ’, non e of which could be grad ed ab ove or below any other

t o th e you ng cr imin al or d r u g u s e r h im s e lf. No t s u r p ris in gly, h e

in general which h as been pr ovided with th e n ew m egap hon e of

o r d in a r y const able. Th e c on s t a b l e h a d don e not hin g. He h a d ju s t

J a m e s Ma d is on , th e con st itu tiona l t h e or et ic ia n , 1 9 wa s th erefor e

The Revolt Aga inst Respec ta bility

w it h th e p olic e . .. Th e h ood lu m is t h e r e fo r e d a rin g t h e u n k n ow n ,

ties for s elf-centred ‘fu lfilm en t’. Th e n e w m e d i a of co m m u n ica tio n

b e c on tr olle d by a n y a ct ion s wit h in th e p owe rs of th e p olic e.

N E W YORK City, a city th at only th ree yea rs ago h ad a

Am e r ic a n so ciet y a n d it s c ities ’ st re et s w er e b eco m in g m or e

r e t u r n in g to th e con cept of being a pa rt of th e com m u nity, n ot

ove ra ll c r im e c o n t r ol m et h od ology. Ble n d in g t h e b e n e fit s o f r a p i d

m on ey. Pr oc ee d in g down Fift h Aven u e, t h e m ile of des igner s t o r es

We dem an ded t h a t precinct com m a nd ers p lace du al emp h a s is

over sigh t could n o longer be a chie ved th rough specialised

m e n t s . Not tr u s tin g th em wit h on -go in g in ves tig a tio n s o c cu r r i n g

Give the Police th e Credit

u s som e of the cred it when it goes down —and sta ys down a s I

cr ed ib le t o t ro u b le- m a k er s . Ma n y k n ow t h e lim ita tio n s of p olic e

Wh y h a ve I s t a rt ed t h is e s s a y b y reference to San Diego, when

t h e su per ficial, h igh pr ofile prom otion of ‘Z er o Toleran ce’. Th is is

‘Z e ro T o l e ra nce’ and ‘B roken Wind ow s’

The Police Role in Tack ling Disord erly

which is an ti-social, s u c h a s va gr a n t s lyin g o n t h e e d ge of a

Policing and Partne rship

service; t h e h igh wa ys a u th orit y; th e edu cat ion a n d youth d e p a r t -

v er y complex one, b y a lm o s t a n y m e a s u r e one cou ld wish to us e.

b e ca u s e of the fear of p olic e c or ru p tio n s h ou ld po lice officer s b e

d i s p r o p o r t io n a t e to t h e a ct u a l ris k o f bec om in g a cr i m e vict im .

c o ve r s th e wh ole r a n ge of po licin g, p a rticu larly crim e red u ction

a n d t h e pr open sity for violen t cr ime—a nd fear of crim e—is on a

need s a n d th rou gh ch an ges in so cia l at tit u de s a n d m et h od s o f soc ial