DISSERTATION TOPIC - Drainage

DISSERTATION REPORT
TOPIC:
“STUDY OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM WITH RESPECT

TO GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING OF CITIES”
BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE
by
WAQUAR SUHAIL
(ROLL No.- 1574881051)
Under the Supervision of
Ar. PUNEET SINGH
DR. A.P.J ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

ANSAL SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE LUCKNOW
May, 2019
DISSERTATION- 2018-19
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this research report entitled ““STUDY OF DRAINAGE
SYSTEM WITH RESPECT TO GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING OF CITIES”,

submitted bY WAQUAR SUHAIL, Roll no. 1574881051 embodies the work of
submission to the Department of Architecture, Ansal School of Architecture
,Lucknow.
……………………………
Ar. Puneet Singh
(Dissertation Guide)
……………………………. …………………………….
Prof. Ar. Jaya Srivastava Prof. Ar. Amitabh Sharma
(H.O.D., Architecture) (Dean, Architecture)
Department Of Architecture
Ansal School of Architecture, Lucknow.
2 | Page DRAINAGE SYSTEM||

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The path towards this dissertation has been challenging. Its completion is thanks in
large part to my mentor Ar. PUNEET SINGH who challenged, supported and stuck
with me along the way. I am tremendously fortunate to him who brought a depth of
knowledge that few people could match.
In addition to this I would like to thank my dean Ar. AMITABH SHARMA who
introduced the dissertation topic to me, which helped me a lot in the upgradation
of my knowledge about the various techniques and process involved in the topic.
Also I would like to thank my colleagues and friends, without their help this research
would be immaterialized.
Regards
WAQUAR SUHAIL
B-Arch 4th Year


CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 8
HISTORICAL ASPECTS AND BACKGROUND OF URBAN FLOODS AND

DRAINAGE SOLUTIONS ................................................................................................. 10
INDIAN SCENARIO WITH RESPECT TO GEOGRAPHY ............................................. 11
VULNERABILIES OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM ................................................................. 14
RESEARCH QUESTION ........................................................................................................ 14
AIM AND OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................ 14
CHARACTERIZING DRAINAGE PATTERNS IN RIVER NETWORKS .......................... 15
DRAINAGE PATTERN RECOGNITION ............................................................................. 16
3.1 Definition of Features in River Networks ...................................................................... 16
URBAN EXPANSION IN HILLY AREA AND DRAINAGE CONCERNS ........................ 17
1. DRAINAGE CONSIDERATION IN CASE OF EXPANSION FROM PLAINS TO

HILLS .................................................................................................................................. 18
2. DRAINAGE CONSIDERATION IN CASE OF EXPANSION RIDGE TO VALLEY 19
2.1 Consideration for Primary Valley Line (generally 2,3 or higher order drainage
line) .................................................................................................................................. 19
2.2 Consideration for a Secondary Steep Valley Line (generally 1 or 2 order drainage
line) .................................................................................................................................. 20
SOME ISSUES THAT NEED SPECIAL CONSIDERATION FOR HILLY AREA ............ 20
1. Design consideration of drainage channels, internal common drains and roadside drains
.............................................................................................................................................. 20
Choice of channel section .................................................................................................... 21
CASE STUDIES ...................................................................................................................... 21
1. SHIMLA, HIMACHAL PRADESH ............................................................................... 21
Physical Features ............................................................................................................. 23
River System .................................................................................................................... 23
Climate ............................................................................................................................. 24

Slope Analysis and Topography ...................................................................................... 25
Drainage Pattern............................................................................................................... 26
2. GUWAHATI, ASSAM .................................................................................................... 27
Rivers ............................................................................................................................... 28
Climate ............................................................................................................................. 28
Topography ...................................................................................................................... 29
Drainage Pattern............................................................................................................... 29
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 31


INTRODUCTION
The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as drainage and the network of
such channels is known as drainage system. The main elements of a drainage system are the
regulating, protective and conducting networks, which make up the drainage network; the
water relief system, that is the body of water such as river, lake or sea receiving the drained
water.
There are two uses for drainage systems as part of existing and developing
urban systems or cities. Drainage systems are in place to remove the excess
water in a development. This could be floodwater and rainwater and different
kinds of runoff. Drainage systems are also in place to remove wastewater
effectively and this is referred to as sewer system.
Drainage systems can be separate for storm water and sewers but sometimes
both these inputs drain into the same underground drainage system. The
advantage of having separate drainage systems is that storm water runoff is not
so dangerous that it has to be treated. This can be drained directly into water
bodies. Water containing sewage and industrial wastes, on the other hand, can
be extremely toxic. Therefore, they have to undergo at least a primary treatment
before they can be let into water bodies. Best example of this, we can see in
Indus Valley Civilization. The main sewer, connected to many north-south and
east-west sewers. It was made from bricks smoothened and joined together
seamlessly. The expert masonry kept the sewer watertight. Drops at regular
intervals acted like an automatic cleaning device. A wooden screen at the end of
the drains held back solid wastes. Liquids entered a cess poll made of radial
bricks. Tunnels carried the waste liquids to the main channel connecting the
dockyard with the river estuary. Commoner houses had baths and drains that
emptied into underground soakage jars.

figure1 Harappa's Drainage System (source: www.harappa.com)
Not having a proper drainage system in place will result in flooding of low-
lying areas, thereby causing property damage and health risks. An effective
drainage system is the one that removes all excess water without causing
inconveniences in terms of design. For example, in an area which has a lot of
buildings like residences and shops, there cannot be open drains that flow
through the areas.
Drainage systems are part of a city infrastructure and they are an important key
in urban life. If the drainage system fails, cities become subjected to floods, to
possible environmental degradation, to sanitation and health problems and to
city services disruption. On the other hand, urban rivers in different moments
of cities development history, have been considered as important sources of
water supply, as possible defenses for urban areas, as a way of transporting
goods, and as a means of waste conveying.
As cities started to grow, especially after the Industrial Era, urbanization

problems became greater and urban floods increased in magnitude and

frequency. The traditional approach for the drainage systems, which were
important as a sanitation measure in the first times of the cities development,
conveying storm waters and wastewaters, turned unsustainable. Flow generation
increased and end-of-pipe solutions tended to just transfer problems to
downstream. In this context, in the last decades, several approaches were
developed, in order to better equate flow patterns in space and time. However,
not only the hydraulics aspects are important. Technical measures do not stand
alone. The water in the city needs to be considered in an integrated way and
sustainable solutions for drainage systems have to account for urban
revitalization and river rehabilitation, better quality of communities’ life,
participatory processes and institutional arrangements to allow the acceptance,
support and continuity of these proposed solutions.
HISTORICAL ASPECTS AND BACKGROUND OF URBAN FLOODS AND

DRAINAGE SOLUTIONS
Several ancient civilizations showed great care when constructing urban
drainage systems, combining the objectives of collecting rainwater, preventing
nuisance flooding, and conveying wastes. During the Roman Empire Age,
significant advances were introduced in urban drainage systems. Concerns on
urban flooding mitigation and low lands drainage were very important to the
city of Rome, which arose among the hills of Lazio region, on the margins of
Tiber River. To meet urban drainage needs, a complex network of open
channels and underground pipes were constructed. This system was also used to
convey people’s waste from their living areas. During the Middle Ages, urban
centres suffered a great decay and people tended to live in communities sparsely
established in rural areas, near rivers, with minor concerns about urban
drainage. Sanitation practices have deteriorated after the decline of the Roman
Empire and surface drains and streets were used indiscriminately as the only
means of disposal and conveyance of all wastewaters. Later, when cities started

to grow significantly again, in the Industrial Era, urban drainage found itself
regretted to a second plane. The industrial city grew with very few guidelines.
The Liberalism influenced urban growth and there was a certain lack of control
on the public perspective for city development. Sanitation, then, became a great
problem and inadequate waste disposal led to several sort of diseases and
deterioration of public health. The role of urban drainage became very
important in helping to solve this problem and, more than often, it was
important to fast collect, conduct and dispose securely storm water and
wastewater. Focus was driven to improve conveyance and this was the main
goal of urban drainage, until some decades ago. However, considering the fast
urban growth of the last two centuries, and the fact that the world population
profile is changing from rural to urban, it became hard to simply look at urban
drainage and propose channel corrections, rectifications and other similar sort of
interventions. Canalization could not answer for all urban flood problems and,
in fact, this isolated action, in a local approach, was responsible for transferring
problems more than solving them. The increasing flood problems that the cities
were forced to face showed the unsustainability of the traditional urban drainage
conception and new solutions started to be researched. A sustainable approach
for drainage systems became an important challenge to be dealt with. Drainage
engineers became aware that the existing infrastructure was overloaded.
INDIAN SCENARIO WITH RESPECT TO GEOGRAPHY

The drainage pattern of an area is the result of the geological time period,
nature, and structure of rocks, topography, slope, etc. About 77% of the
drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the
Krishna, etc. is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal. On the other hand, 23%
comprising the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi, and the Periyar systems
discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea.

On the basis of the mode of origin, nature, and characteristics, the Indian
drainage is classified as −
THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE- Major Himalayan drainage systems are the
Indus(1114km), the Ganga(3990km), and the Brahmaputra rivers(2900km).
THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE.- Major peninsula drainage systems are the
Mahanadi(851km), the Godavari(1,465km), the Krishna(1400km),the

Kaveri(765km) and the Narmada(1312km) rivers.
The following table illustrates the major differences between Himalayan and the
Peninsular River system
CHARACTERISTICS HIMALAYAN RIVER PENINSULAR RIVER
Himalayan mountains (covered Peninsular plateau and central

Place of origin
with glaciers). highland.
Perennial; receive water from Seasonal; dependent on monsoon

Nature of flow
glacier and rainfall. rainfall.
Antecedent and consequent Super imposed, rejuvenated

Type of drainage leading to dendritic resulting in trellis, radial, and
pattern in plains. rectangular patterns.
Long course, flowing through

the rugged mountains
experiencing head ward Smaller, fixed course with well
Nature of river
erosion and river capturing; In adjusted valleys.
plains, meandering and
shifting off course.
Catchment area Very large basin. Relatively smaller basin.

Old rivers with graded profile,

Young and youthful, active
Age of the river and have almost reached their
and deepening in the valleys
base levels.
Figure 2 Drainage System In India (source- NCERT)

VULNERABILIES OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Changes of the climatic conditions will affect urban drainage systems, as they
are closely related to the weather phenomenon and are built as to cope with the
weather occurring.
Problems in the system due to climate change can be summarized as problems

with-
 flooding of surfaces and basements

 increased amount of combined sewer overflows (CSO)
 increase of the inflow to waste water treatment plants (WWTP)
 increase in pollutants spreading from urban areas to the environment.
The impacts needs to be described with indicators taking into account the
system behavior both before, during and after an event (e.g. urban flooding) has
occurred, and can be divided into
(A) description of the system performance
(B) capacity exceeding in the system, and
(C) description of consequences as a result of capacity exceeding.
The consequences can be divided into sustainable aspects as: technical,

economical, socio-cultural, environmental, and health.
RESEARCH QUESTION
 Geographic scenario of different cities of India.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES

 Study of drainage system with respect to geographical settings of cities.
 To understand the current scenario of drainage system in different
topologies that is in hill in India.

CHARACTERIZING DRAINAGE PATTERNS IN RIVER NETWORKS

With the passage of time, a drainage system achieves a particular drainage
pattern where its network of stream channels and tributaries is determined by
local geologic factors. Drainage patterns are classified on the basis of their form
and texture according to slope and structure. Their shape or pattern develops in
response to the local topography and subsurface geology.
River segments inside a river network can be organised in five types of

drainage pattern (Figure. 1). Dendritic pattern (Figure 1a) is the most common
form of river system. In a dendritic river system, tributaries of a main river join
together in a shape analogous to the twigs of a tree (Lambert, 1998). Parallel
patterns (Ritter, 2003) form where there is a pronounced slope to the surface.
Tributary streams tend to stretch out in a parallel-like fashion following the
slope of the surface (Figure 1b). In a trellis pattern (Figure 1c), the main river
flows along a strike valley and smaller tributaries feed into it from the steep
slopes on the sides of mountains. These tributaries enter the main river at right
angles, causing a trellis-like appearance of the river system. The rectangular
pattern (Figure 1d) is found in regions that have undergone faulting. Movements
of the surface due to faulting offset the direction of the stream. As a result, the
tributary streams make sharp bends and enter the main stream at high angles.
Reticulate drainage patterns (Figure 1e) usually occur on floodplains and deltas
where rivers often interlace with each other forming a net (Simon and Gerald,
2004).
Some experimental works have been done about morphological dependencies of river
channel patterns, such as straight, meandering and braid pattern. Schumm and Kahn
(1972) obtained an experimental relationship between slope and sinuosity for a
fluvial channel, which can show threshold changes between pattern types. Here,
sinuosity is a ratio of channel length to valley length. Results show that braided
pattern appears on steep low-sinuosity channels. Schumm (1977) improved his
model and pointed out that pattern adjustments, measured as sinuosity
variations, are closely related to the type, size, and amount of sediment load.
Although these works (e.g. Knighton, 1998; Lewin, 2001) about morphological
dependencies apply to river channel pattern rather than river network, some of
the indicators referred above can be considered in this paper.

Figure 3. Drainage network patterns (source- diagrams modified from Ritter, 2006)
DRAINAGE PATTERN RECOGNITION

Based on the description of different drainage patterns, each pattern has its own
characteristics, which can be reflected in some quantifiable variable related to
some topological and geometrical aspects. Therefore, each pattern can be
characterized by a combination of different variables. In this section, the method
for drainage pattern recognition is introduced. First, terms describing river
networks are defined then classification criteria are introduced and the different
steps of the process are detailed.
DRAINAGE PATTERN GEOMETRIC AND TOPOLOGIC

CHARACTERISTIC
DENDRITIC - tributaries joining at acute angle
PARALLEL - parallel-like
- elongated catchment
- long straight tributaries
- tributaries joining at small acute angle
TRELLIS - short straight tributaries
- tributaries joining at almost right angle
RECTANGULAR - tributary bends
- tributaries joining at almost right angle
RETICULATE - tributaries cross together forming a cycle
3.1 Definition of Features in River Networks

A river network is composed of several connected river segments. End points of
the river segments are the nodes. There are three types of node: the junction
node connecting river segments, the source node corresponding to river springs
and the outlet towards where the flow goes. A river network is located in a

catchment. The catchment controlled by a tributary flowing into a main stream

is called a sub-catchment. All these features are illustrated .
The river network forms a tree structure. The structure is built by assigning an
order number to each tributary. Ordering starts by assigning order 1 to
branchless tributaries. The order of a stream is always higher than the order of
its tributaries so that the highest order is assigned to the segment connected to
the outlet. Most relevant ordering schemes are the Horton-Strahler scheme
based on (Horton, 1945) and modified by Strahler (1957) and the Shreve
scheme (Shreve, 1966).
Figure 4. Features in river network (source- modified from Li, 2007)
URBAN EXPANSION IN HILLY AREA AND DRAINAGE CONCERNS

Drainage of a hilly urban area needs to be planned for future giving due
emphasis to its expansion pattern.
Irrespective of the expansion pattern, because of urbanization in the hilly area,
imperviousness of the surface increases and thus leads to high runoff
generation. Safe drainage of such high runoff to the ultimate outlet (river or
water bodies in the form of lake) always remains a challenging task. Design
discharge need to be calculated taking in to consideration the future possible
development in the area.
Discharge may increase with time primarily due to three factors:
1) increase in building density and paved area
2) increase in rainfall intensity because of impact climate change
3) increase of per capita water utilization because of improved life style and
better water supply.
Considering these factors, it is advisable to go for an appropriate design of the
drainage system, so that system remains sufficient to meet the increasing future
demand at least for the next 50 years
Rapid urbanization has led to a considerable stress on the environment. Lack of
judicious planning has given rise to a number of problems and their ill-effects

experienced have been considerably profound. Some of the hazards that have
surfaced over the recent times primarily because of the inadequate drainage
system are stated below.
 Flooding, water logging
 Hill slope Erosion
 Landslide and Subsidence
 Traffic problem
 Health hazard
Depending on origin of the residential development and culture of the

community, expansion in the hills may take place in two distinct patterns
1. DRAINAGE CONSIDERATION IN CASE OF EXPANSION FROM PLAINS TO
HILLS
I. Cutting of hills in any form (both horizontal and vertical/inclined) and
display of bare land should be avoided to the extent possible to resist
surface erosion, which affect the drainage system located at downstream.
II. To avoid hill cutting in a new propose development, the road systems
should be first planned and developed. Houses on stilt can then be
constructed by providing approach to the individual houses from
upstream side of the hill ground in natural slope. Care should be taken
while aligning the road to have minimum cutting and necessary measures
for stability of road side slope should also be taken up.
III. In case of a road passing through downstream face of a plot, stilt house
can be constructed with approach stair located in the front of the house.
IV. In cases, where vertical cutting is unavoidable, house may be constructed
in different layers with floors of different rooms at different level. This
will help reducing the height of vertical cutting. Such houses can have
internal steps to connect different floors.
V. Height or depth of permissible vertical cut should not only be decided
based on the cohesive property of the soil, but also by considering
behavior of the soil in saturated un-drained condition or under seepage
condition, i.e., by considering seepage pressure.
VI. For safe drainage of such housing area catch drain (in the form of contour
drain/graded drain) should be constructed on upstream of the built-up
area to divert the upstream storm water runoff away from the housing
area. Upstream face of such contour drain
VII. Provision of adequately sized pervious drain in the form of grass
waterway or boulder waterway should be provided to carry the diverted
water downhill safely. The pervious drain running downhill should
preferably be placed along a natural drainage line wherever possible.

VIII. For these manmade drains, constructed across the slope to carry water
downhill, both the vertical sides should be made permeable by providing
weep holes or flexible gabion structure depending on the size of the drain.
Basically, the bed and sides should be protected against erosion of
flowing water while maintaining free sub-surface drainage to avoid
failure of vertical sides.
IX. Size of the grass waterway or boulder water way should be calculated by
considering contributing area of the entire watershed and also by
considering the fact that time of concentration will change (generally
reduce) with increase of drainage density because of artificial drains.
Future land use pattern and management measures should also be
considered for calculating design peak discharge.
2. DRAINAGE CONSIDERATION IN CASE OF EXPANSION RIDGE TO VALLEY
2.1 Consideration for Primary Valley Line (generally 2,3 or higher order
drainage line)
With increase in discharge, the regime state of a primary valley line gets
disturbed and the primary valley line starts undercutting to achieve a new
regime state. This may lead to failure of a small portion of slope close to the
stream. Such small toe failure may add instability to a critically stable slope. By
the term critically stable slope we are referring to those hill slopes which,
because of saturation during the rainy season, remains marginally stable under
the overburden of traffic and building load. Therefore proper measures should
be taken to drain out the increased discharge through the natural primary valley
line. Following approach is suggested:
a) The bank line of such channel should be protected by retaining wall made
of rock block or gabion box depending on the steepness of the side slope.
b) Sufficient weep holes should be provided in case of concrete/masonry
retaining wall.
c) Width of such lined channel should never be reduced from its existing
natural width.
d) For a channel carrying debris and having moderate slope (say 10 < S < 30
) intermediate sill projecting from the bed can be constructed to reduce
the flow velocity. Deposition of debris on upstream of such sill will
gradually convert the channel in to a stable stepped channel.
e) For a channel having thick natural cover of boulder (which is found in
most of the natural channel) no additional measures is necessary for
protecting against scouring.
f) In absence of a boulder bed in a moderate slope discrete concrete block
may be placed to prevent scouring under the impact of high stream flow
velocity while keeping the bed permeable to allow infiltration.

g) In case of a steep channel (say S > 30 ) drop structure with a stilling basin
needs to be b constructed. Drop height (H) required can be calculated by
using the relation.
H= (S -S )L 0 n
Where S = existing bed slope, S = proposed permissible bed slope and L=
length of the slope. S can be calculated by using Manning's formula based
on the permissible velocity.
2.2 Consideration for a Secondary Steep Valley Line (generally 1 or 2 order
drainage line)
These valley lines are generally of very steep slope ranging from 30 o to 60o and
of narrow width ranging from 0.50m to 2.00m. As the slope approaches 90 the
waterway gets converted to waterfalls. Water, in such channels, flow with very
high velocity. High kinetic energy of such flow can cause severe scouring at
unprotected downhill portion. Scouring caused at toe of the slope by such flow
may promote land slip. In hilly area it becomes difficult to get sufficient space
for construction of a stilling basin to dissipate such high kinetic energy.
Therefore, for long slope, where reduction of slope is not possible and where
dissipation of energy by providing a stilling basin at downstream of the drop
structure is not practically feasible, stepped chute can be used to dissipate a
major part of the energy. Such stepped chute can be followed by a small scale
stilling basin to dissipate the remaining energy before releasing the water in to
the primary valley or to another steep channel reach. Inadequate design of such
steep drainage line may cause serious damage to the roads and culvert which
they cross on their way downhill. Therefore, such channels need to be designed
by applying state-of the art knowledge and considering future extreme
discharge condition. The design discharge may be estimated based on the
observed historical rainfall record, possible extent of urbanization and impact of
climate change.
SOME ISSUES THAT NEED SPECIAL CONSIDERATION FOR HILLY AREA
1. Design consideration of drainage channels, internal common drains and

roadside drains
 Design of individual plot should be responsibility of individual. Though
detail design may not be required to fix the size, detail planning of layout
is required to ensure that water from one plot does not overflow to the
nearby downstream plot. In case of difficulties, an internal common drain
passing through various plots may be provided with mutual agreement of
all individual owners

 Internal common drains and roadside drains have to be designed in order

to handle the peak runoff adequately. In case of a common system of
waste water and storm water the drain should be planned as cover drain
with cleaning provision.
 All these drain can be designed by following principle of most efficient
channel section, provided property boundary does not put any constraint
in adopting such efficient section. The geometric elements of most
hydraulically efficient sections for different type of channels.
Figure- 5 Types of channels(source- Drainage in Hilly Area, A Conceptual Guideline)
Choice of channel section

The primary factors that govern the selection of channel geometry are:
· Soil type (stability considerations); preferably inclined section in unstable soil

conditions.
· Ease for maintenance.
· Range of seasonal variation of peak discharge and minimum discharge.
· Availability of construction material
CASE STUDIES
1. SHIMLA, HIMACHAL PRADESH

Shimla district is part of north-western Himalayan Agro climatic region of
Himachal Pradesh located in the south.

Shimla District lies between 30º 45'48''-30º43'0'' North latitude and 76º 59' 22'' -
78º18' 40'' East longitude.
Figure-6 Location of Shimla (source- www.districtshimla.com)
Population- 813,384 (According to census 2011)
Total Area- 5,131 km2
Density- 160 person per km2
It has a total number of 2,897 villages, of these 2311 villages are inhabited and
the remaining are uninhabited. There are 10 Towns in the district. These include
one municipal corporation (Shimla), two Municipal Committees, (Rampur,
Theog), six notified area committees (Narkanda, Seoni, Chopal, Jubbal,
Kotkhai, Rohru) and one cantonment Board (Jutogh).
The district comprises of 7 subdivisions and 17 tehsils and sub tehsils The sub-
divisions are, namely Shimla (rural), Shimla (urban), Thoeg, Rampur, Rohru,
Chopal and Dodra Kawar. The tehsils are namely Seoni, Shimla urban, Theog,
Kumarsain, Rampur, Rohru, Kotkhai, Chopal, Jubbal-Cirgaon and Dodra Kwar
while Junga, Nankhari, Tikkar, Chela, Nerwa are the Sub-Tehsils. For the rural
development, the district has been divided into nine community development
Blocks, namely Rampur, Narkanda, Theog, Mashobra, Chopal, Jubbal-Kotkhai,
Rohru, Chhohara and Basantpur. Shimla district ranks 6th in order of area and
3rd with respect to population size, among the districts of Himachal Pradesh.

Figure-7 Map of shimla district (source- www.districtshimla.com)
Physical Features
Except a few small valleys the district is entirely mountainous. The elevation of
the district ranges from 300 to 6000 metres. The district has a number of peaks,
such as Jakhoo in Shimla Town, Siah near Chail, Churadhar in tehsil Chopal,
Chensal in Rohru tehsil and Hatoo in Narkanda tehsil and Shali in Seoni tehsil.
Mostly the terrain is rough. The prevalence of interlocking spurs, narrow and
steep sided valleys with high peaks and thick forest of Deodar and Kail
throughout the district are the general topographical features of the district. On
the whole, the soils are young and thin, however these get heavier and
comparatively acidic with increase in altitude.
River System
Shimla district is covered by the catchment area of the rivers Sutlej, Pabbar and
Giri. The district drains itself into these rivers. The Sutlej which is the principal
river of the district rises from Mansarover lake in the Eastern peaks of the
Himalayas. Taking it’s course through district Kinnaur the river enters Shimla
district at Badhal in Rampur
Tehsil and then takes course by touching Kumarsain tehsil and Seoni tehsil. The
main Khads falling in the river are Nogli, Machhada Bhaira and Kingal khad. In
addition, the Nallahs and other Khads of Khekhar, Chamola, Savera, Bagh etc.
also feed the river. All the above mentioned Khads and Nallahs are perennial

being snow fed and have regular flow ofwater throughout the year which,
ensures uninterrupted discharge of river.
The Pabbar river rises from the base of Chandernahan peak in between Sangla
tehsil of Kinnaur district and Rohru tehsil of Shimla district. The river takes
Southeastern course and passes through tehsil Rohru, Jubbal and merges with
river Tons at Tiuni in Uttrakhand. The river receives the entire drainage in these
two tehsils and is fed by Shikri, Andra, Pejore and Hatkoti streams/khads.
The Giri or Giri ganga originates from the hills, north of Churdhar called Kupar.
The river collects the drainage of the whole track north of Churdhar and Shimla
range. It flows Southwest until meeting the lines of outer Himalayas sharply
turning to the Southeast and passing through Kotkhai, Theog and Shimla tehsils.
The principal feeder of Giri is Ashni which rises from Mahasu in the Shimla
range and after receiving a considerable contribution from the eastern face of
the hill upon which the Shimla town stands, joins the Giri at a point where, the
river, turns South-East. The Giri and its tributaries also retain perpetual flow of
water.
Climate
There are four broad seasons. Winter normally starts from mid November and
continues till mid March. December, January and February are severe cold
months, when the winter season is at its peak. The upper reaches, have snow
and sleet while the rains are frequent in the lower areas and snow may fall as
early as the beginning of October but usually the areas have snow fall from the
later part of December and continues till mid of March. The higher peaks
experience heavier snowfall and it starts melting from March. From mid March
to mid May, climate in most parts of the district is at its bloom because of the
delightful spring. The nights are colder. The climate is comparatively hot from
mid May to mid July. The places situated in the lower reaches on the banks of
rivers and streams are, however, hot as in the plains. Rainy season generally

starts from mid July and extends up to the mid September. Autumn season is
generally very small from mid September to mid November. The extended rainy
season and early setting of winter are the reasons for its short duration. Due to
variation in altitudes, the temperature also varies considerably. Minimum
temperature in the higher reaches, goes down much below 0º C during the
winter months. The maximum temperature in the lower areas, exceeds even 40º
C during the summer months.
Rainfall- Most rainfall (rainy season) is seen in July, August and September.
having a average rainfall of 360mm.
Snowfall - Most snowfall is seen in January, February, March having a

maximum snow fall of 4.8cm
Slope Analysis and Topography

Slope violation is a regular occurrence in Shimla Planning Area. Construction
on slopes higher than 45 degree has been observed in many areas. Therefore,
risk analysis based on slope is important and a prerequisite for planning process
in any hilly and mountainous state. In addition of contour being the primary
source of slope analysis, satellite data has emerged to be very important source
of digital topographic database as also discussed above. In view of the fact that
Shimla falls in seismic Zone-IV of earthquake, experts say that it will have
cascading effect in terms of damage in case of any such occurrence. In such a
scenario, no building is safe. Therefore, risk analysis of such a zone is of utmost
importance, and slope analysis is crucial.
According to the Geological Survey ofIndia, slope more than 250 is not
conducive to urban use. However, as per the slope analysis of Shimla Planning
Area based on 30 meter ASTER data, most of the land falls above 250.
Constraint with this low resolution topographic data is that, it is not able to
detect high slope area, consequently it was not possible to accurately detect and
assess slopes above 450 with better accuracy.

Source- Geological Survey of India (1950).
Drainage Pattern
According to the slope and stability it is conclude that the drainage pattern of
Shimla is toward valley side, means rainwater runoff of slope area is run toward
the valleys. In shimla drainage is natural.. Rainwater Runoff is drain in to 3
rivers located in shimla. Hence the water flow from top to bottom (slopy area to
valley) condition of flooding and water clogging arises.
To mitigate flood damage in cities, pervious concrete has been developed as a

viable and sustainable alternative to traditional concrete to facilitate drainage.
Different levels of repeated water charging at designated time intervals
simulated the urban environment, and both runoff and drainage were
continuously monitored. The results highlight that runoff can take place after
certain time intervals despite the same water charge because of evaporation and
prewetting-induced changes in water-retention capacity. The effects of the
surface layer, the bedding layer, and clogging (all part of the urban areas) on the
drainage were also observed

Figure-8 Drainage pattern(Source- HPSPCB Shimla)
2. GUWAHATI, ASSAM
Guwahati, the capital city of the state of Assam in North-East India. Guwahati
is situated along the Brahmaputra River and is bound on the southern side by
the foothills of the Shillong plateau. Guwahati is also the business hub and the
largest city of Assam and the North-East.
14.1 per cent of the state’s population was living in urban areas in 2011. The
Guwahati Municipal Corporation (GMC), the city's local government,
administers an area of 216 square kilometres (83 sq mi), while the Guwahati
Metropolitan Development Authority (GMDA) is the planning and development
body of greater Guwahati Metropolitan Area. Guwahati is the largest city in
Northeast India.
Population - Guwahati municipal area population is 963,429

Guwahati Metropolitan Area population is 968,549

Area of GMC- 216 km2

Area of GMA- 262 km2
Density of GMC- 4,400/km2
Guwahati's 'urban form' radiates from a central core with growth corridors
radiating and extending towards the south, east and west. In the past few
decades, southern Guwahati areas such as Ganeshguri, Beltola, Hatigaon, Six
Mile and Panjabari began forming a southern sub-center surrounding the capital
complex at Dispur. The core area consists of the old city with Pan Bazaar,
Paltan Bazaar, Fancy Bazaar and Uzan Bazaar, with each area facilitating
unique urban activities.
Figure-9 Guwahati Municipal Corporation (source- govt. of india)
Rivers
Guwahati is situated between Southern bank of Bharmaputra river. The largest
amongst all the rivers flowing through or flowing in Assam. Near Sadiya, rivers
Siang (Dihang), Sikang (Dibong) and Lohit meets to form the River
Brahmaputra. In Assam, the Brahmaputra is also known as Luit.
Climate
The climate in Guwahati is warm and temperate. When compared with winter,
the summers have much more rainfall. The Köppen-Geiger climate
classification is Cwa.
The average annual rainfall at Guwahati is 1746.5mm (as worked out). About
90 % o f this rain occurs between April to September, the maximum rainy

months beingMay, June, July and August. The prevailing wind direction in
Guwahati is from North-East to South-West during the winter months while
during the summer it is from South-West to North-East The driest month is
December, with 6 mm of rain. In June, the precipitation reaches its peak, with
an average of 315 mm.
Topography
Guwahati exhibits a peculiar physiographic basis. Alluvial plains are
surrounded by hills and hillocks believed to be the partial extension of
Gondwana fandmass o f pre-Cambrian origin. A careful analysis of the
topography reveals that the greater Guwahati master-plan area can be divided
into six well-defined natural divisions. The old city lies in a horse - shoe shaped
valley surrounded on the north by the Brahmaputra river and on the other three
sides by low hills comprising Kharghuli and Chunchali hills in the east
(maximum height 216m), Japarigog (277m), Nakarashura hill (293m) and
Fatasil hills (292m) on the south and the famous Kamakhya (Nilachal hill) on
the west (Maximum height 303m). The average elevation o f this valley is about
52 msl, though there are many higher as well as lower pockets within this area.
Bounded by these hilly ranges on the north, Khasi & Jaintia hill ranges on the
south and east and the Fatasil hill on the west lies the broad plain which can be
termed as Beltola plain. This Beltola plain extends from NJE to S.W with an
average width of about 4 kms. Further to the west o f the city lies the Jalukbari-
Azara plain where the Deepar beel and its adjoining low-lying areas are located.
The North Guwahati -Amingoan area on the north o f the river Brahmaputra is
situated on a flat plain interrupted by some small rolling hillocks which has
made the river bank stable. The Agyathuri hill, situated on the western boundary
of this plain rises to a height of about 300m. There are also many low-lying
areas and beels in this region.
Drainage Pattern
Current scenario of drainage system in guwahati and its environment is quite
grim. the topography of the guwahati region controlling the natural drainage
became ineffective during the flood seasons. the bharalu river causes flood
during the summer season because of backflow of the bharamputra river. there
are no catch water drains along the foothills of Navagrahills, Sarania Hills,
Kalapahar Hills, Narakasur hills etc. to prevent the runoff from the hills to
habitat area of city. At present, Guwahati does not have a planned drainage
system with the exception of a small area where Town and Country Planning
development has implemented drainage schemes in the past. The GMC area has

got some roadside small drains which have problems of encroachments, poor
outfall channels, silting etc. Many areas of the city stay water-logged during
rainy season. The overall drain network in the city is highly insufficient. Most
of the drains fall on the upstream side of the river Bharalu, the level of which is
higher than the level of the drains, the outlet of the water is retarded by the
difference in the levels. Bharalu basin is also the most flood prone area. If the
Bharalu River fails, the entire drainage system of the city collapses. The main
causes for flooding include heavy situation on the Bharalu River and
encroachments on the natural drainage catchments areas. There are
encroachments on the drainage systems as well. Apart from that there is garbage
dumping which has resulted in blocking of natural drains. GMC needs to invest
in new infrastructure development and improve O&M of existing drains with
efforts at removing encroachments, regular de-silting and effective Solid Waste
Management to avoid dumping. The drainage infrastructure needs to be planned
„Basin wise‟ such that, if required, flood water may be diverted to other basins
when the capacity of one basin is full.
Figure 10 Drainage pattern (Source- ASCE Library)

CONCLUSION
It is conclude from the above study that the drainage system is an essential part
of living in a city or urban area, as it reduces flood damage by carrying water
away. Proper design of drainage system prevent the city from flood, water
clogging etc. From Study there are two type of drainage in India i.e THE
HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE and THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE. origin from
Himalayan mountains (covered with glaciers) and Peninsular plateau and central
highland respectivly. Know about the types of pattern i.e DENDRITIC,
PARALLEL, TRELLIS, PARALLEL, RECTANGULAR, RETICULATE .
Drainage system in hilly areas differently design as compare to plain areas.

Drainage system of hilly area is based on the settlement on the hills. Drainage
of a hilly urban area needs to be planned for future giving due emphasis to its
expansion pattern. Irrespective of the expansion pattern, because of urbanization
in the hilly area, imperviousness of the surface increases and thus leads to high
runoff generation. Safe drainage of such high runoff to the ultimate outlet (river
or water bodies in the form of lake) always remains a challenging task. Design
discharge need to be calculated taking in to consideration the future possible
development in the area. From the study we came to know how drainage system
is design in hilly areas by the case study of Shimla and Guwahati.
Temperature, rainfall, climate, topography, slope, population play a vital role in

the designing of drainage pattern.
City growth is a world trend and sustainability is a central point to be

considered in the next times to come. In a general way, however, great cities
present lots of problems to deal with: land use control needs, sub-habitation,
unemployment, poverty, inefficient transportation, insufficient public services,
lack of infrastructure, among others. The question of water resources
management and sanitation aspects are of fundamental importance in this
scenery. The urban flood problem is certainly one of the most important

challenges that cities will have to face. The urbanisation process is one of the
man-made actions that most affect floods. On the other side, in the context of a
city, the flood process is one of the facts that most degrades it. Considering
urban drainage in the context of the integrated city development, however, the
sustainability perspective opens a diversified set of opportunities to be explored
as integrated solutions, in the fields of hydraulic engineering, architecture and
urbanism, city planning and management, social disciplines and economy
concerns.
REFERENCES
1. Planning and Design of Drainage in Hilly Area, A Conceptual Guideline ,

department of civil engeneering, IIT guwahati (2012)
2. Census of India. 2011. [Last accessed on 2012 Jul 28]. Available from:
http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/hlo/hlo_highlights.html?drpQuick=
anddrpQuickSelect=and q=Census+Drainage+facilities+in+households .
3. Ling Zhang *, Eric Guilbert, A Study Of Variables Characterizing

Drainage Patterns In River Networks, Dept. of Land Surveying and Geo-
Informatics, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom,
Kowloon, Hong Kong (2012)

4. Drainage Of Roads And Slopes In Simla - A Case Study. Available from:

https://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=197423
5. Shashi Shekhar, Urban Sprawl and other Spatial Planning Issues in
Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, (2011)
6. Report of District Human Development,Shimla, Planning Department

7. Himachal Pradesh (2014)
8. Khorshed Alam, Aswhini Kumar Borah, Guwahati: The Gateway to the

East(2012)
9. Area, Topography And Climate, Study Of Blue - Green Algea In Greater

Guwahati, Chapter III
10.Kalita Utpal, Urban Governance and Service Delivery in Guwahati City,

Research Scholar, Department of Political Science, Assam University,
Assam, India (2015)

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DISSERTATION REPORT

“STUDY OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM WITH RESPECT

DR. A.P.J ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

This is to certify that this research report entitled ““STUDY OF DRAINAGE

SYSTEM WITH RESPECT TO GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING OF CITIES”,

Ar. Puneet Singh

Ansal School of Architecture, Lucknow.

2 | Page DRAINAGE SYSTEM||

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HISTORICAL ASPECTS AND BACKGROUND OF URBAN FLOODS AND

INDIAN SCENARIO WITH RESPECT TO GEOGRAPHY ............................................. 11

VULNERABILIES OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM ................................................................. 14

RESEARCH QUESTION ........................................................................................................ 14

AIM AND OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................ 14

CHARACTERIZING DRAINAGE PATTERNS IN RIVER NETWORKS .......................... 15

DRAINAGE PATTERN RECOGNITION ............................................................................. 16

3.1 Definition of Features in River Networks ...................................................................... 16

URBAN EXPANSION IN HILLY AREA AND DRAINAGE CONCERNS ........................ 17

1. DRAINAGE CONSIDERATION IN CASE OF EXPANSION FROM PLAINS TO

2. DRAINAGE CONSIDERATION IN CASE OF EXPANSION RIDGE TO VALLEY 19

Choice of channel section .................................................................................................... 21

CASE STUDIES ...................................................................................................................... 21

1. SHIMLA, HIMACHAL PRADESH ............................................................................... 21

Physical Features ............................................................................................................. 23

River System .................................................................................................................... 23

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Slope Analysis and Topography ...................................................................................... 25

2. GUWAHATI, ASSAM .................................................................................................... 27

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figure1 Harappa's Drainage System (source: www.harappa.com)

As cities started to grow, especially after the Industrial Era, urbanization

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HISTORICAL ASPECTS AND BACKGROUND OF URBAN FLOODS AND

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INDIAN SCENARIO WITH RESPECT TO GEOGRAPHY

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THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE- Major Himalayan drainage systems are the

Indus(1114km), the Ganga(3990km), and the Brahmaputra rivers(2900km).

THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE.- Major peninsula drainage systems are the

Mahanadi(851km), the Godavari(1,465km), the Krishna(1400km),the

CHARACTERISTICS HIMALAYAN RIVER PENINSULAR RIVER

Himalayan mountains (covered Peninsular plateau and central

Perennial; receive water from Seasonal; dependent on monsoon

Antecedent and consequent Super imposed, rejuvenated

Long course, flowing through

Catchment area Very large basin. Relatively smaller basin.

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Old rivers with graded profile,

Figure 2 Drainage System In India (source- NCERT)

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VULNERABILIES OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Problems in the system due to climate change can be summarized as problems

 flooding of surfaces and basements

(A) description of the system performance

(B) capacity exceeding in the system, and

(C) description of consequences as a result of capacity exceeding.

The consequences can be divided into sustainable aspects as: technical,

AIM AND OBJECTIVES

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CHARACTERIZING DRAINAGE PATTERNS IN RIVER NETWORKS

River segments inside a river network can be organised in five types of