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 Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 714–724

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Safety and efficiency assessment of a solar-aided coal-fired power plant MARK

a a a,⁎ b a a
Jianlan Li , Zhiyi Wu , Kuo Zeng , Gilles Flamant , Aosuang Ding , Jizhou Wang
a
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
b
Processes, Materials and Solar Energy Laboratory, PROMES-CNRS, 7 rue du Four Solaire, 66120 Font Romeu, France

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Hybridizing solar energy with a coal-fired power plant has proven to be an efficient way of reducing coal
Solar aided coal-fired power plant consumption and discharged pollutants. In this study, solar energy was employed to heat boiler inlet feedwater
Boiler safety through a solar high-pressure feedwater heater H0 to increase its temperature. Solar-aided feedwater heating of
Solar energy input maximum a N600-24.2/566/566 supercritical coal-fired power plant is discussed as a case study. An all-condition me-
Boiler efficiency
chanism model (ACMM) of SACFPP was proposed and simulated by MATLAB/Simulink. The maximum solar
Solar-to-electricity efficiency
energy input for the safe operation of a boiler was determined as 66,544 kW based on ACMM simulation results.
Moreover, the boiler efficiency and solar-to-electricity efficiency plummeted as solar energy input increased. The
solar-to-electricity efficiency decreased from 23.33% to 20.33% when the solar energy input increased from
16,636 kW to 66,544 kW (in 100%THA). The solar-to-electricity efficiency decreased from 16.76% to 13.29%
when the solar energy input increased from 16,636 kW to 66,544 kW (in 35%BMCR). A high unit load corre-
sponds to high solar-to-electricity efficiency. SACFPP had a high coal saving rate when it operated in a lower
load condition.

1. Introduction
Nowadays, coal-fired power plants supply most of the electricity
worldwide. Serious environmental problems are caused by coal com-
bustion in coal-fired power plants (CFPP). Solar energy, as a clean and
abundant energy that limits emitted pollution, has increasingly at-
tracted attention [1]. However, traditional standalone solar plants
(SASP) occupy a large area and have poor efficiency and costly short-
comings, all of which hinder their large-scale utilization [2]. Integrating
solar thermal energy into CFPP in a solar-aided coal-fired power plant
(SACFPP) has the potential to reduce the use of coal in CFPP and
overcome the drawbacks of SASP [3]. SACFPP has higher solar-to-
electricity efficiency (SEE) and lower levelized cost of energy (LCOE)
compared with SASP [4,5]. Research on SACFPP has mainly focused on
system integration, system operation characteristics, economic analysis,
and thermodynamic evaluation.
Several investigations have been conducted on the integration
modes and influence of solar energy introduction [6,7]. Hybrid solar/
coal power plant use solar energy in various ways, such as feedwater
heating, steam superheating, steam reheating, and air preheating [8].
Many researchers are interested in solar-aided feedwater heating in
SACFPP, which uses solar thermal energy carried by heat transfer fluid
to displace extracted steam from turbines in CFPP [9,10]. Energy and
exergy efficiencies of solar energy in SACFPP were higher than those in
SASP [7]. The substitution of high-pressure (HP) turbine-bled steam has
better performance compared with replacement of low-pressure tur-
bine-bled steam [11,12]. Yan et al. compared the performance of solar
energy with multi-point and multi-level integration for feedwater
heating and found that solar-to-electricity efficiency with a solar input
of 330 °C could be high as 45% and decreased to nearly 10% with a
solar input of 85 °C [11]. Popov obtained the highest solar-to-electricity
efficiency by using solar thermal energy to replace HP heaters together
with economizer [12]. Non-displaced feedwater heater operations af-
fected the performance of an entire plant [13]. Qin et al. compared 12
solar preheater (SP) combinations from four configurations and three
operation strategies [14]. They found that SACFPP has the highest
technical performance with the use of the S2 configuration (in which SP
was located between the highest-temperature FWH and the boiler) and
the CT strategy, in which the extraction steam flow rates to all high-
temperature FWHs are adjusted to ensure that the feedwater outlet
temperatures remain unchanged).
Some researchers have paid attention to economic analysis and
thermodynamic/exergy evaluation of SACFPP and observed that the
energy production cost of solar energy in SACFPP is lower than that of
SASP [4,15]. Zhu et al. used 5 methods to evaluate the solar heat
contribution in SACFPP based on exergy analysis [16]. They found that
taking the second law of thermodynamics into consideration based on
thermal economics is a practical method to evaluate solar contribution

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zengkuo666@hust.edu.cn (K. Zeng).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.08.049
Received 2 June 2017; Received in revised form 8 August 2017; Accepted 17 August 2017
0196-8904/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Li et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 714–724

Nomenclature SACFPP solar-aided coal-fired power plant

SASP standalone solar plants
B coal consumption (kg) SP solar preheater
F radiant interchange coefficient FWH feedwater heater
K convective heat transfer coefficient kW/(m2 °C)
P power output (kW) Subscripts
Q heat capacity (kJ)
S area (m2) bl boiler
T temperature (°C) c coal
b standard coal consumption rate (g/kW h) con convection
el electricity
Greek symbols fw feedwater
g gas
η efficiency he heat
σ0 Stefan–Boltzmann constant in inlet
ma main steam
Acronyms out outlet
ra radiation
ACMM all-condition mechanism model re reheated steam
CFPP coal-fired power plants s steam
HP high pressure sf solar field
IP intermediate pressure sol solar
LP low pressure

to electricity. Peng et al. evaluated the exergy of a 330 MW SACFPP and
found that LCOE was 20–30% lower than that of SASP [17]. Zhao et al.
found that relatively higher solar-to-electricity efficiency of SACFPP
results from solar heat set at around 300 °C and through the high energy
level of the replaced steam extractions, high collector efficiency, and
high turbine internal efficiency [18]. Zhai et al. evaluated the thermo-
economic cost of SACFPP modified from a 1000 MW CFPP and found
indicators for its energy-saving capacity and emission reduction [8].
The thermo-economic cost of electricity increased by 16.9–21.6% due
to the large investment in solar components. Feng et al. developed a
general thermal economic analysis method for SACFPP on the basis of
the thermodynamic cycle [19]. Another investigation that used off-
design performance analysis was also conducted under fluctuant direct
normal insolation [20–22].
The abovementioned research presented different perspectives on
integrating solar thermal energy with feedwater heating to reduce ex-
tracted steam from turbines. Proper integration of solar heat with
feedwater could achieve higher power efficiency than traditional SASP
technology could. The coal consumption rate for power generation
decreased by 17 g kW−1 h−1 for SACFPP compared with 660 MW su-
percritical coal-fired power plants [23]. Solar power efficiency was
around 16–20% [24]. In fuel-saving operation mode, the temperatures
of the main steam and reheated steam might decrease if a large amount
of solar thermal energy was introduced, thereby threatening the safety
of the boiler operation [25,26]. Thus, the boiler should not be regarded
as a black box, and calculations for inner heat transfer process and the
safe operation of the boiler should be taken into account.
In a coal-fired power plant, steam is extracted from turbines to heat
feedwater in stages, thereby increasing the inlet feedwater temperature
in the boiler and the thermal efficiency of the entire power plant [27].
Coal consumption can be reduced and efficiency can be increased
through solar energy input if the integration configuration can achieve
a high inlet feedwater temperature. This study developed a new feed-
water heating pattern. In this system, a solar HP feedwater heater H0 is
added to heat the inlet feedwater of the boiler. The extraction steam is
not replaced by solar heat. Instead, the solar heat is designed to further
enhance the temperature of inlet feedwater. The new solar HP feed-
water heater H0 will improve the operation performance of the SA-
CFPP. An issue that will be determined is what happens when solar
energy is used to enhance inlet feedwater temperature. An assessment is
conducted to verify the safety and efficiency of this new SACFPP
system.
In this paper, a creative solar thermal integration of the boiler of
CFPP is studied. A solar high-pressure feedwater heater H0 is used to
heat the inlet feedwater to further enhance its temperature. A 600 MW
coal-fired supercritical power plant is selected as a case study. An all-
condition mechanism model (ACMM) of SACFPP is proposed and si-
mulated by MATLAB/Simulink. The energy transfer submodels for each
exchanger of the boiler are developed. The maximum solar energy
absorption is determined to ensure the safe operation of the boiler.
Thermodynamic economy analyses are also conducted by using dif-
ferent solar energy inputs.
2. System description
Fig. 1 presents the SACFPP. The SACFPP system includes two sub-
systems: a coal-fired power plant and a solar collector field. The boiler
used in CFPP is a 600 MW supercritical once-through boiler, and tur-
bines are N600-24.2/566/566. Three high-pressure feedwater heaters
(H1, H2, and H3), a deaerator (H4), and four low-pressure feedwater
heaters (H5, H6, H7, and H8) are used. Hypothetically, a solar high-
pressure feedwater heater H0 is located between high-pressure feed-
water heater H1 and the economizer. The hybridization strategy of
SACFPP uses the solar heat carried by solar salt (40%KNO3-60%NaNO3)
from the solar collector field to heat the outlet feedwater of H1 through
H0, which improves the inlet feedwater temperature of the boiler to
decrease the coal consumption of CFPP [26].
3. Modeling the SACFPP system
3.1. All-condition mechanism model for SACFPP
An ACMM of SACFPP is shown in Fig. 2. The SACFPP system
comprises the boiler, turbines, feedwater heaters, the condenser, the
digital electric hydraulic control system, and other equipment. MA-
TLAB/Simulink is used to develop the mechanism model of SACFPP by
using the modularization method. The system configuration, operation
strategy, and coupling performance are analyzed with an off-design
condition. Variable operation parameters under different load and
boundary conditions are used for ACMM by coupling iterative

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J. Li et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 714–724

Fig. 1. Overview of a SACFPP.

computations with mechanism models. ACMM includes the boiler,
turbine, feedwater heating, and solar field submodels. The turbine,
feedwater heating and solar field submodels are essentially the same as
those presented in our previous paper [2]. The turbine unit consists of
nine stages that correspond to bleeding points. The coupling of turbine
pressure stages with other stages and feedwater heaters are simulated
based on the improved Flugel formula. The feedwater heater is divided
into three subzones: the superheater, condenser, and subcooler sub-
zones. The mass flow rate of superheated steam can be calculated based
on the heat transfer and enthalpy difference between the steam inlet
and H1 outlet [28]. The solar field submodel was proposed by
Mittelman et al. [29]. The boiler submodel as emphasized by this paper
is explained in further detail below.
3.2. Boiler model
The boiler system is divided into the coal feeder or mill, furnace,
economizer, water wall, superheat, reheater, and air preheater, as
shown in Fig. 3. Different methods are employed to simulate its sub-
systems to improve the boiler model precision. For instance, the lumped
parameter model is used to simulate the water wall and superheater,
and the non-equal fragment model is employed for the furnace

Fig. 2. Scheme of ACMM for SACFPP.

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J. Li et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 714–724

place in the water wall, while convection occurs largely in the super-
heater, reheater, air preheater, and economizer. The radiation can be
calculated by Eq. (1)

Qra = Fra Sσ0 (T14−T24 ) (1)

where Qra is the radiant heat transfer, kJ/kg; Fra is the radiant interch-
ange coefficient and varies under different operating conditions [30]; S
is the heat exchange surface area in the furnace, m2; σ0 is the Ste-
fan–Boltzmann constant; and T1 and T2 are the absolute temperatures of
high and relatively lower temperature objects, respectively.
Heat exchange mainly occurs through convective heat transfer be-
tween the flue gas and the working fluid in the horizontal gas pass and
tail flue of the boiler. Convection can be presented as
KS ΔT
Qcon =
B (2)

where Qcon is the convective heat transfer, kJ/kg; K is the con-

vective heat transfer coefficient, kW/(m2 °C) and varies under different
operating conditions [30]; S is the heat exchange surface area, m2; ΔT is
the temperature difference for heat transfer, °C; and B is the coal con-
sumption, kg.

3.2.2. Heat balance in boiler

A schematic diagram of heat transfer in the boiler is shown in Fig. 4.
Heat transfer occurs in several different ways through the boiler
equipment. High-temperature flue gas transfers heat to the work-
ing steam and the water fluid through heat convection. Coal combus-
tion in the furnace also releases heat to the working steam and the
water fluid in the form of radiation. Radiation heat exchange occurs
between adjacent equipment.
The heat balance of the equipment in the boiler can be given as Eq.
Fig. 3. Scheme of the boiler subzones.
(3)

simulation. In the non-equal fragment model, the heat transfer surface Qg,out ,i + Qs,out ,i + Qra,i − (i + 1) + Qra,i − (i − 1) = Qg,in,i + Qs,in,i + Qra,(i + 1) − i
is divided into different layers that correspond to different combustors + Qra,(i − 1) − i + Qcoal,i (3)
along a vertical direction. The unidimensional lumped model is used to
simulate each layer and assumes uniform combustion along a hor- where Qg,in,i and Qg,out,i are the inlet and outlet flue gas heat through
izontal direction. equipment I, respectively; Qs,in,i and Qs,out,i are the inlet and outlet heat
The feedwater is heated in solar high-pressure feedwater heater H0 of working steam and the water fluid, respectively; Qra,i−(i+1) and
by solar salt from the solar field. Then, the feedwater enters the boiler Qra,i−(i-1) is the radiation from equipment i to the adjacent equipment, i
to be heated and then flows through the coal economizer, the spiral + 1 and i − 1; Qra,(i+1)−i and Qra,(i−1)−i is the radiation from equip-
water wall, and vertical water wall 1. The feedwater will flow through ment, i + 1 and i − 1 to i; and Qcoal,i is the coal combustion heat
two different outlets of the vertical water wall 1; one part enters the transferred to the equipment i.
vertical water wall 2 and the divided platen superheater, while the
other part sequentially flows through the rear wall pendant tube and 3.2.3. Control system in boiler
the divided platen superheater. Finally, this mixture of steam and water In this SACFPP, a solar high-pressure feedwater heater H0 is used to
flows and absorbs heat through the rear platen superheater and first- heat the inlet feedwater, which may increase the temperature of the
stage superheater, and turns into superheated steam that leaves the main steam and threaten the safe operation of the unit. Thus, a control
boiler as the main steam. The main steam flows into the HP cylinder system is needed to maintain a stable main steam temperature at the
and transforms heat into kinetic energy. The exhaust steam of the HP boiler outlet when the aided solar energy fluctuates in SACFPP. All
cylinder reenters the boiler and is reheated in the horizontal low-tem-
perature reheater, ceiling reversal chamber, vertical low-temperature
reheater, and high-temperature reheater, and then flows into the in-
termediate-pressure cylinder and continues to work. Meanwhile, the
flue gas releases heat to the water and steam mixture when it flows
through the spiral water wall, vertical water wall 1, vertical water wall
2, divided platen superheater, rear platen superheater, high-tempera-
ture reheater, rear wall pendant tube, final-stage superheater, vertical
low-temperature reheater, ceiling reversal chamber, and horizontal
low-temperature reheater.

3.2.1. Heat transfer in boiler

The heat released in coal combustion is mainly transferred to water
through radiation and convection in the boiler. The water is heated into
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of heat transfer in boiler.
superheated steam that works the turbine. The radiation mainly takes

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J. Li et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 714–724

To evaluate performance, boiler efficiency is defined as the ratio of

absorbed heat rate of the working fluid to the coal combustion heat
rate, as shown in Eq. (6)
Qfw Qma + Qre Q Q
ηbl = = = ma + re
Qc Qc Qc Qc (6)
Qma
where is the ratio of the main steam absorbed heat rate to the coal
Qc
combustion heat rate; and Qre is the ratio of the reheated steam ab-
Qc
sorbed heat rate to the coal combustion heat rate.
Solar energy hybridizes the boiler through H0 and increases the
feedwater temperature that enters the boiler. Thus, the heat absorption
of the main steam and reheated steam in the boiler is reallocated, which
changes the boiler efficiency following Eq. (6).

3.4.2. Solar-to-electricity efficiency

The solar heat input to the feedwater increases the inlet water
temperature and inevitably reduces the coal consumption and flue gas
flow, thereby changing the boiler efficiency in SACFPP compared with
that in a CFPP. The boiler efficiency loss caused by solar heat input
should be compensated by solar energy to evaluate the actual con-
tribution of solar energy in the SACFPP system [2]. The actual solar
energy contributed is additional power from SACFPP, excluding the
power output of CFPP with the same main steam when CFPP operates
alone.
The actual contribution of solar energy in the SACFPP system can be
calculated as follows by Eq. (7):

Q
Psol = PSACFPP−PCFPP = PSACFPP × ⎛1− SACFPP ⎞
⎜ ⎟

⎝ QCFPP ⎠ (7)

where PSACFPP is the overall power output of SACFPP, kW; PCFPP is the
power output of the CFPP with the same main steam when it operates
Fig. 5. Main steam temperature control procedure. alone, kW; QSACFPP is the heat absorption rate of SACFPP, kJ/h; and
QCFPP is the heat absorption rate of stand-alone CFPP with the same
adjustments are performed automatically, thereby changing the op- main steam, kJ/h.
eration parameters (coal feed rate and air supply rate). The control Then, the heat-to-electricity efficiency in SACFPP is defined as Eq.
procedure of the main steam temperature is shown in Fig. 5. Tms and Tfd (8)
are real-time temperatures of the main steam and boiler feedwater, Psol
respectively. T0,ms and T0,fd are rated temperatures of the main steam ηhe,el = × 100%
Qsol (8)
and boiler feedwater, respectively, and they vary with load conditions.
where Qsol is the solar thermal energy input into the CFPP, kJ/h.
3.3. Model validation The solar-to-electricity efficiency in SACFPP can be presented as Eq.
(9)
Four different design conditions (100%THA, 75%THA, 50%THA, Psol Q P
and 35%BMCR) of a 600 MW supercritical CFPP are simulated to va- ηsol,el = × 100% = sol × sol × 100% = ηsol,he × ηhe,el
Qsf Qsf Qsol (9)
lidate the proposed ACMM. A comparison between the parameters of
design and simulation is presented in Table 1. Deviations between the where Qsf is the solar energy that arrives in the solar field, kJ/h; and is
design values and simulated values are all less than 1%, which means the solar-to-heat efficiency.
that the ACMM has sufficient accuracy to simulate the performance of
the CFPP. 4. Results and discussion

3.4. Performance evaluation index 4.1. Safety analysis of boiler

3.4.1. Boiler efficiency As solar energy input increases, the inlet feedwater temperature of
The absorbed heat rate of feedwater in the boiler consists of heat the boiler rises. The control system reduces coal feed rate and air supply
absorption rates of the main steam and reheated steam, which is shown rate according to the control strategy to ensure that the outlet tem-
in Eq. (4) perature and pressure of superheated steam are within a safe range for
the operation of the boiler. As a result, variation in the heating surface
Qfw = Qma + Qre (4)
temperature distribution and a change in boiler thermal efficiency
where Qma and Qre are heat absorption rates of the main steam and occur. These changes may cause overtemperature of the economizer,
reheated steam, kJ/h, respectively. the water wall, and the superheater, which threaten the safe operation
The coal combustion heat rate can be calculated by Eq. (5) of the boiler. The overtemperature increases as solar energy input in-
creases. Therefore, a standard for the maximum solar energy input for
Qc = BQnet (5)
the boiler should be available to ensure the safe operation of the boiler.
where B is the coal consumption rate, kg/h; and Qnet is the lower The heat exchange pipe (after attempering water) will not reach over-
heating value of coal, kJ/kg. temperature under a steady-state condition because of attempering

718
 J. Li et al.

Table 1
Design and simulation value of a 600 MW coal-fired plant in four conditions (100%THA, 75%THA, 50%THA and 35%BMCR).

100%THA 75%THA 50%THA 35%BMCR

Simulation value Design Deviation (%) Simulation value Design Deviation (%) Simulation value Design Deviation (%) Simulation value Design Deviation (%)
(°C) value (°C) (°C) value (°C) (°C) value (°C) (°C) value (°C)

Temperature in flue-gas side

Outlet of vertical water wall 1368.0 1367 −0.073 1328.0 1331 0.225 1292.0 1291 −0.247 1124.0 1128 0.355
Outlet of divided platen 1182.0 1184 0.169 1117.0 1118 0.089 1029.0 1025 −0.864 922.7 922 −0.076
Outlet of rear platen 1072.0 1075 0.279 1018.0 1012 −0.593 921.7 917 −0.923 835.0 835 0.000
Outlet of high-temperature 963.9 964 0.010 906.6 908 0.154 822.9 819 −0.685 758.4 756 −0.317
reheater
Outlet of rear wall pendant tube 944.3 946 0.180 893.6 891 −0.292 804.3 801 −0.773 741.1 739 −0.284
Hot section outlet of final-stage 860.7 861 0.035 814.6 813 −0.197 741.1 736 −0.893 692.1 690 −0.304
superheater
Cold section outlet of final-stage 797.3 798 0.088 755.5 756 0.066 688.1 685 −0.586 652.4 653 0.092
superheater
Hot section outlet of low- 754.8 754 −0.106 723.5 715 −1.189 656.4 648 −1.806 621.9 619 −0.468
temperature reheater
Outlet of ceiling reversal chamber 737.9 738 0.014 697.9 699 0.157 633.2 631 −0.528 608.7 604 −0.778

719
Cold section outlet of low- 537.8 538 0.037 507.2 506 −0.237 467.2 466 −0.275 455.6 454 −0.352
temperature reheater
Outlet of economizer 356.4 357 0.168 331.9 331 −0.272 296.8 296 −0.252 283.4 285 0.561

Temperature in steam-water side

Outlet of vertical water wall 414.8 415 −0.073 406.1 405 −0.272 362.6 362 −0.166 363.1 362 −0.304
Outlet of divided platen 471.3 471 −0.064 461.5 463 0.324 444.6 442 −0.588 463.4 460 −0.739
Outlet of rear platen 511.8 512 0.039 505.3 509 0.727 501.4 503 0.318 518.9 516 −0.562
Outlet of final-stage reheater 569.6 569 −0.105 569.3 569 −0.053 569.2 568 −0.211 555.3 555 −0.054
Outlet of rear wall pendant tube 423.1 427 0.913 422.2 427 1.124 374.4 373 −0.375 385.4 382 −0. 088
Hot section outlet of final-stage 570.9 571 0.018 571.5 571 −0.088 571.5 571 −0.088 571.0 571 0.000
superheater
Cold section outlet of final-stage 529.8 530 0.038 528.2 529 0.151 524.0 527 0.569 534.1 534 −0.019
superheater
Hot section outlet of low- 471.4 471 −0.085 464.6 465 0.086 465.2 463 −0.475 463.5 463 −0.108
temperature reheater
Outlet of ceiling reversal chamber 426.7 427 0.070 416.7 417 0.072 377.4 375 −0.640 384.4 382 −0.628
Cold section outlet of low- 444.9 445 0.022 436.2 437 0.183 440.1 438 −0.479 440.1 439 −0.251
temperature reheater
Outlet of economizer 329.2 329 −0.061 317.6 318 0.126 299.1 299 −0.033 293.3 295 0.576
Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 714–724
J. Li et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 714–724

water in the superheater and reheater [31]. A boiler safety analysis for
SACFPP that focuses only on the economizer, water wall, and super-
heater is conducted. The maximum solar energy input is determined
from this analysis.
4.1.1. Economizer safety analysis
SACFPP is simulated according to the standard operating procedure
and control strategies of CFPP. The operating parameters of the econ-
omizer with different solar energy inputs under four different design
conditions (100%THA, 75%THA, 50%THA, and 35%BMCR) are shown
in Table 2. All simulations were conducted when the unit was in a
steady state. According to the design parameters of CFPP, the boiler is
in a supercritical condition under 100%THA and 75%THA. The feed-
water pressures were 29.3 and 25.88 MPa, respectively, and were ad-
justed to a subcritical condition under 50%THA and 35%BMCR (the
corresponding feedwater pressures were 18.20 and 15.19 MPa).
A non-boiling-type economizer was used in the supercritical once-
through boiler. To ensure uniform distribution of water in the water
wall, the feedwater must not vaporize prior to its entry into the feed-
water header and water wall. The outlet temperature of the economizer
feedwater must be of a certain temperature to maintain undersaturation
[31]. As solar energy input increased, the temperature of undersatured
economizer outlet feedwater constantly decreased when the unit was in
a steady state (100%THA, 75%THA, 50%THA, and 35%BMCR), as
shown in Table 2. The temperature of undersaturation was 44.97 °C
with no solar energy input under 100%THA condition and was then
increased to 49.03 °C under 35%BMCR condition. The influence of solar
energy input on the economizer outlet feedwater temperature became
apparent as the unit load decreased mainly because of the mass flow
rate of the feedwater that decreased with the unit load [31]. A large
temperature difference in the feedwater can be caused by the same
solar energy input. The undersaturation temperature of the economizer
outlet feedwater must be higher than 10 °C based on the information
provided by the boiler’s manufacturer. In terms of safety, the maximum
solar energy inputs were 131,971, 117,734, 96,145, and 66,544 kW in
100%THA, 75%THA, 50%THA, and 35%BMCR conditions, respec-
tively. To maintain the temperature of the economizer outlet feedwater
within an acceptable range, redundant solar energy should be excluded.
The maximum solar energy input was determined as 66,544 kW for the
SACFPP in the ACMM from 35%BMCR to 100%THA.
4.1.2. Safety analysis of water wall and superheater
The boiler feedwater temperature increased with solar energy input
through H0, which might cause overtemperature of the feedwater in the
furnace heat exchanger, like the water wall, due to heat absorbed from
coal combustion. A high temperature creep might reduce the life of the
water wall. According to information on the boiler structure provided
by the manufacturer, the attempering water must be set between the
rear platen superheater and the final superheater for sprayed desu-
perheating. However, as solar energy input increased, the attempering
water was not enough to adjust the temperature to the designed point,
which might result in the overtemperature of the tube before the rear
platen superheater.
The maximum solar energy input needed to maintain the safe use of
the economizer was determined as 66,544 kW. Thus, the following
analysis is based on a solar energy input of 66,544 kW, which is re-
ferred to as risk condition. The operating parameters of the water wall
under 4 different design conditions (100%THA, 75%THA, 50%THA,
and 35%BMCR) are shown in Table 3. Although the feedwater tem-
perature increased because of the solar energy input, the coal con-
sumption was reduced automatically by the control system. Less heat
was absorbed by the feedwater in the water wall due to the reduced
heat from coal combustion. Table 3 shows that no obvious change in the
water wall operating parameter as a result of solar energy input took
place. The temperature variations of the spiral water wall and the
vertical water wall were all less than 11.5 °C. Overtemperature was still
present in the superheater as the outlet temperature of the water wall
continued to increase. However, reduced coal consumption led to a
lower flue gas temperature, which resulted in less con-
vective heat transfer between the feedwater and flue gas in the super-
heater [26]. Table 4 shows that the temperature variations of the su-
perheater were all less than 10.7 °C. The temperatures of the water wall
and the superheater were all within a safe range for the boiler tube
material (Table 5). A small increase in temperature due to solar energy
input would not cause high temperature creep. Thus, the water wall and
superheater working can operate safely with a solar energy input of
66,544 kW under 4 different design conditions (100%THA, 75%THA,
50%THA, and 35%BMCR).
4.2. Performance of SACFPP
4.2.1. Temperature variation and heat transfer
Flue gas temperature variation with solar energy input is presented

Table 2
Parameters of the economizer with different solar energy input.

Load condition Feedwater Feed water Solar Coal Economizer outlet Economizer Working fluid Undersaturation
temperature (°C) mass flow energy consumption temperature (°C) outlet pressure undersaturation temperature difference
rate (kg s−1) input (kW) (t) (MPa) temperature (°C) (°C)

100% 274 447.53 0 215.2 329.18 27.24 374.15 44.97

THA 294 447.53 43,797 207.8 341.65 27.23 374.15 32.50
314 447.53 90,007 200.1 353.89 27.23 374.15 20.26
331 447.53 131,971 193.0 364.18 27.22 374.15 10.03

75% 255 325.86 0 164.4 317.63 25.83 374.15 56.52

THA 285 325.86 47,009 156.4 337.43 25.83 374.15 36.72
305 325.86 80,231 150.9 350.65 25.82 374.15 23.50
326 325.86 117,734 144.6 364.20 25.82 374.15 10.05

50% 232 212.78 0 113.0 299.10 18.18 357.90 58.80

THA 262 212.78 29,985 108.0 315.90 18.18 357.90 42.00
292 212.78 61,861 102.6 332.56 18.17 357.90 25.34
321 212.78 96,145 96.8 347.88 18.17 357.90 9.98

35% 223 178.61 0 95.7 293.37 15.20 343.20 49.03

BMCR 253 178.61 24,905 91.5 308.49 15.20 343.20 34.71
273 178.61 42,328 88.6 320.20 15.19 343.20 23.00
298 178.61 66,544 84.7 333.21 15.19 343.20 10.01

720
J. Li et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 714–724

Table 3
The influence of solar energy input for water wall.

Load condition Item Solar energy Feedwater Spiral water wall Average wall Vertical water wall Average wall
input (kW) temperature (°C) working fluid outlet temperature of spiral working fluid outlet temperature of vertical
temperature (°C) water wall (°C) temperature (°C) water wall (°C)

100%THA Independent 0 274 398.3 424.1 414.8 437.5

condition
Risk condition 66,544 304 400.6 427.9 418.3 441.2
Difference 66,544 30 2.3 3.8 3.5 3.7

75%THA Independent 0 255 393.7 420 406.1 422.4

condition
Risk condition 66,544 296 397.2 426.1 411.2 428.1
Difference 66,544 41 3.5 6.1 5.1 5.7

50%THA Independent 0 232 361.8 404.4 362.6 367.1

condition
Risk condition 66,544 296 368.2 415.1 369.6 374.5
Difference 66,544 64 6.4 10.7 7 7.4

35%BMCR Independent 0 223 340.4 389.9 363.1 385.2

condition
Risk condition 66,544 299 346.8 401.4 372.6 396.2
Difference 66,544 76 6.4 11.5 9.5 11

in Table 6. The flue gas temperature significantly declined with solar
energy input due to the decreased coal feed rate. The outlet flue gas
temperatures of the vertical water wall were 1342 and 1296 °C under
100%THA and 75%THA unit load, respectively, with 66,544 kW solar
energy, which were lower by 26 and 32 °C, respectively, compared with
those in a standalone coal-fired power plant. With 66,544 kW solar
energy input, the outlet flue gas temperatures of vertical water wall
reduced by 49 and 51 °C under 50%THA and 35%BMCR unit load,
respectively. A low unit load corresponded to a high proportion of solar
energy accounted for by the total energy input of SACFPP. The influ-
ence of solar energy input on boiler flue gas temperature was sig-
nificant. As shown in Table 6, the temperature of the rear platen su-
perheater outlet flue gas decreased by 15 °C with 66,544 kW of solar
energy input in 100%THA, yet it decreased by 31 °C in 35%BMCR. As
depicted in Eq. (1), radiant heat was proportional to the flue gas tem-
perature raised to the fourth power. Convective heat was proportio-
nal to the flue gas temperature according to Eq. (2). The drop in the flue
gas temperature resulted in reduced radiant heat and convective heat in
the furnace. Specifically, the descending rate of radiant heat transfer
was significantly higher than that of convective heat.
Table 6 shows that the outlet steam-water temperatures of the
economizer were 346.7 and 344.6 °C under 100%THA and 75%THA
unit load, respectively, with the introduction of 66,544 kW solar en-
ergy. These two values are higher by 17.7 and 26.6 °C, respectively,
than those of the standalone coal-fired power plant. With 66,544 kW
solar energy input, the outlet steam-water temperatures of the econo-
mizer increased by 37.0 and 40.8 °C under 50%THA and 35%BMCR
unit load, respectively. The temperature increase was mainly caused by
feedwater heated by solar energy. The influence of solar energy input
on the economizer outlet feedwater temperature became apparent
when the unit load decreased mainly due to the feedwater mass flow
rate that decreased with unit load. The mass flow rates of feedwater
were 447.53, 325.86, 212.78, and 178.61 kg s−1 under 4 different unit
loads (100%THA, 75%THA, 50%THA, and 35%BMCR). The heat ab-
sorption rate of the main steam and the reheated steam following the
ACMM simulation (100%THA, 75%THA, 50%THA, and 35%BMCR) is
shown in Table 7. The ratio between main steam heat absorption rate
and feed coal combustion rate decreased significantly with solar energy
input, whereas solar energy input had little effect on the ratio between
reheated steam heat absorption rate and feed coal combustion rate. The
main reasons for the heat absorption rate difference can be concluded
as follows: Heat exchange mainly occurred through radiation in the
water wall. A reduction in radiant heat resulted in a significant decline
in main steam heat absorption. By contrast, the reheated steam mainly
absorbed heat through convection, which was not significantly affected
by the flue gas temperature.
The superheated steam temperatures in the hot section tube of the
outlet in a final-stage superheater were 570.9, 571.5, 570.9, and
570.1 °C under 4 different unit loads (100%THA, 75%THA, 50%THA,
and 35%BMCR), respectively. The reheated steam temperatures in the
outlet of the final-stage reheater under 4 different unit loads were
568.8, 568.6, 567.7, and 555.3 °C, respectively. These parameters
conformed to the set working conditions of a steam turbine, which
fluctuated slightly from set temperatures. The coal feed rate, air supply
rate, and first-/second-stage attempering water can be adjusted for
stable operation through the control system. The SACFPP can operate
steadily, thereby indicating good control system quality.
4.2.2. Standard coal consumption rate and boiler efficiency
The influence of solar energy input on the standard coal consump-
tion rate is shown in Fig. 6. The standard coal consumption rate was
reduced from 278.6 to 269.0 g/kW h, and 283.7 to 270.9 g/kW h under
100%THA and 75%THA unit load with increased solar energy input,
respectively. The coal saving rates were 9.6 and 12.8 g/kW h for
100%THA and 75%THA, respectively. However, under 50%THA and
35%BMCR unit load, the standard coal consumption rates declined
from 292.5 to 278.0 g/kW h and 321.7 to 303.6 g/kW h; the coal saving
rates were 14.5 and 18.1, respectively. SACFPP had a greater coal
saving rate when it operated in a lower load condition. The main steam
decreased when the unit load changed from 100%THA to 35%BMCR,
thereby indicating that the solar energy replacement ratio in the SA-
CFPP increased with the load reduction of the boiler at the same solar
energy input. Overall, the solar energy benefit was apparent at a lower
load, thereby increasing the coal saving rate.
The boiler efficiency of SACFPP with different solar energy inputs
(0, 16,636, 33,272, 49,908, and 66,544 kW) according to ACMM si-
mulation (100%THA, 75%THA, 50%THA, and 35%BMCR) are shown
in Fig. 7. Without solar energy input, the boiler efficiency of CFPP in-
creased as the unit load decreased. As shown in Fig. 7, the boiler effi-
ciency increased from 93.85% to 94.44% when the unit load decreased
from 100%THA to 35%BMCR. When the feedwater was heated by solar
energy through H0, the solar energy input had a negative impact on the
CFPP. The boiler efficiency plummeted as solar energy input increased.
Moreover, the negative impact became more serious with low unit load.
As depicted in Fig. 7, the boiler efficiency decreased by 1.24% with
66,544 kW of solar energy input in 100%THA and decreased by 4.30%

721
J. Li et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 714–724

Table 5

temperature of final
The allowed temperature for boiler tube material.

superheater (°C)
Average wall

Equipment Material Allowed temperature (°C)

Vertical water wall SA-213T12 560

578.6

578.5

581.2

580.8

578.9

578.7

576.5

575.2
−0.1

−0.4

−0.2

−1.3
Spiral water wall SA-213T12 560
Divided platen superheater SA-213T12 560
Rear plate superheater SA-213T23 570
working fluid outlet

Final superheater SA-213T91 650

Final superheater

temperature (°C)

571.54 in 35%BMCR. The coal feed rate and the air supply rate in the boiler
570.9

571.5

571.5

570.9

570.8

570.1
were reduced due to the high temperature of the inlet feedwater, but

−0.6

−0.7
0.04
571
0.1

the mass flow of feedwater remained stable. The temperature dis-

tribution of water/steam and flue gas in the boiler fluctuated, thereby
Average wall temperature of rear

negatively affecting the boiler efficiency [2]. The ratio between the
steam (main steam and reheat steam) heat absorption rate and the feed
coal combustion rate decreased with solar energy input, as indicated in
plate superheater (°C)

Table 7. On the basis of Eq. (6), the boiler efficiency can be the sum of
the ratios between the heat absorption rate and the feed coal combus-
tion rate. The effect of solar energy input on steam heat absorption can
be used to derive the change in the trend of boiler efficiency.
524.3

526.4

518.1

521.5

516.2

521.7

536.4
533
2.1

3.4

5.5

3.4

4.2.3. Solar-to-electricity efficiency

The solar-to-electricity efficiency of SACFPP according to ACMM
superheater working

simulation (100%THA, 75%THA, 50%THA, and 35%BMCR) is shown

temperature (°C)

in Fig. 8. On the basis of the aforementioned definition of solar-to-

fluid outlet

electricity efficiency, loss in boiler efficiency due to solar heat input

Rear plate

should be compensated by solar energy. The boiler efficiency plum-

511.8

514.3

505.3

509.4

501.4

507.8

518.9

523.3

meted as solar energy input increased. Solar-to-electricity efficiency

2.5

4.1

6.4

4.4

decreased from 23.23% to 20.33% (in 100%THA) and from 16.76% to

13.29% (in 35%BMCR) when the solar energy input increased from
divided platen superheater (°C)

16,636 to 66,544 kW. The boiler efficiency loss became apparent at a

Average wall temperature of

low unit load. These results suggest that additional solar energy is
needed to compensate for boiler efficiency loss [2].
A high unit load corresponds to a high solar-to-electricity efficiency.
The direct solar energy input was beneficial when the coal-fired unit
operated under supercritical load conditions (such as 100%THA).
However, the solar-to-electricity efficiency significantly reduced when
482.6

486.4

472.6

478.5

459.3

469.3

477.8

486.7

the coal-fired unit load fell to a subcritical state (such as 35%BMCR).

3.8

5.9

8.9
10

The solar-to-electricity efficiency was 20.33% with 66,544 kW of solar

energy input in 100%THA and decreased to 13.29% in 35%BMCR.
superheater working

Generally, the solar-to-electricity in a SASP is approximately 11–16%

temperature (°C)

[32]. The highest solar-to-electricity efficiency (23.23%) of this SACFPP

Divided platen

was much higher than that of SASP. The lowest solar-to-electricity ef-
fluid outlet

ficiency was 13.29% for the suggested SACFPP, which was obtained
471.3

475.4

461.5

467.9

444.6

455.3

463.4

473.1

with 66,544 kW of solar energy input (in 35%BMCR). These results

10.7
4.1

6.4

9.7

confirm the feasibility, practicality, and efficiency of the proposed

SACFPP.
temperature (°C)
Feedwater

5. Conclusion
274

304

255

296

232

321

232

321
30

41

89

89
The influence of solar energy input for superheater.

A N600-24.2/566/566 supercritical coal-fired power plant was hy-

input (kW)

bridized with solar energy by a solar high-pressure feedwater heater

66,544
66,544

66,544
66,544

66,544
66,544

66,544
66,544
energy

H0. For the novel SACFPP system proposed in this paper, solar energy
Solar

was employed to heat the boiler inlet feedwater for saving coal. An
0

ACMM of SACFPP was proposed and simulated by MATLAB/Simulink.

The outlet undersaturation temperature of the feedwater in the econ-
Risk condition

Risk condition

Risk condition

Risk condition
Independent

Independent

Independent

Independent

omizer and the average wall temperature of the water wall and su-
Difference

Difference

Difference

Difference
condition

condition

condition

condition

perheater were discussed in view of boiler safety. The maximum solar

Item

energy input for safe operation of the boiler was determined as

66,544 kW based on the ACMM simulation. Moreover, boiler effi-
35% BMCR

ciency and solar-to-electricity plummeted as solar energy input in-

100% THA

75% THA

50% THA
condition

creased. The solar-to-electricity efficiency decreased from 23.33% to

Table 4

Load

20.33% when the solar energy input increased from 16,636 kW to

66,544 kW (in 100%THA). A high unit load corresponds to a high solar-

722
J. Li et al. Energy Conversion and Management 150 (2017) 714–724

Table 6
The variation of parameters for a 600 MW coal-fired plant with 66,544 kW solar energy input.

100%THA 75%THA 50%THA 35%BMCR

Before (°C) After (°C) Before (°C) After (°C) Before (°C) After (°C) Before (°C) After (°C)

Temperature in flue-gas side

Outlet of vertical water wall 1368.0 1342.0 1328.0 1296.0 1292.0 1243.0 1124.0 1073.0
Outlet of divided platen 1184.0 1165.0 1118.0 1095.0 1025.0 999.5 922.0 894.2
Outlet of rear platen 1075.0 1058.0 1012.0 1001.0 917.0 898.1 835.0 815.1
Outlet of high-temperature reheater 964.0 949.6 908.0 892.1 819.0 803.8 756.0 742.0
Outlet of rear wall pendant tube 946.0 930.3 891.0 879.9 801.0 786.4 739.0 725.7
Hot section outlet of final-stage superheater 861.0 848.5 813.0 804.2 736.0 728.8 690.0 681.4
Cold section outlet of final-stage superheater 798.0 786.8 756.0 748.0 685.0 680.6 653.0 646.2
Hot section outlet of low-temperature reheater 754.0 744.2 715.0 716.5 648.0 649.3 619.0 616.0
Outlet of ceiling reversal chamber 738.0 728.3 699.0 691.7 631.0 626.6 604.0 602.9
Cold section outlet of low-temperature reheater 538.0 527.9 506.0 502.1 466.0 461.5 454.0 450.5
Outlet of economizer 357.0 368.2 331.0 350.8 296.0 330.9 285.0 323.8

Temperature in steam-water side

Outlet of vertical water wall 415.0 420.2 405.0 409.8 362.0 364.3 362.0 362.7
Outlet of divided platen 471.0 478.4 463.0 464.8 442.0 442.0 460.0 456.0
Outlet of rear platen 512.0 516.9 509.0 508.6 503.0 503.2 516.0 524.5
Outlet of final-stage reheater 569.0 568.8 569.0 568.6 568.0 567.7 555.0 555.3
Outlet of rear wall pendant tube 427.0 428.8 427.0 426.6 373.0 395.6 382.0 389.4
Hot section outlet of final-stage superheater 571.0 570.9 571.5 571.5 571.5 570.9 570.8 570.1
Cold section outlet of final-stage superheater 530.0 532.2 529.0 530.1 527.0 528.6 534.0 537.0
Hot section outlet of low-temperature reheater 471.0 469.5 465.0 464.7 463.0 460.8 463.0 459.5
Outlet of ceiling reversal chamber 427.0 432.8 417.0 421.0 375.0 379.6 382.0 383.0
Cold section outlet of low-temperature reheater 445.0 442.9 437.0 433.0 438.0 436.5 439.0 436.7
Outlet of economizer 329.0 346.7 318.0 344.6 299.0 336.0 295.0 335.8

Table 7
The heat absorption rate of main steam and reheat steam.

Load condition Solar Coal Heat absorption of main Heat absorption of reheat The ratio between main The ratio between reheat Boiler
energy consumption (t) steam rate (kW) steam rate (kW) steam heat absorption steam heat absorption rate efficiency
input (kW) rate and feed coal and feed coal combustion (100%)
combustion rate (100%) rate (100%)

100%THA 0.00 215.2 1,026,999 249,735 75.48 18.36 93.85

66,544 204.0 951,333 243,120 73.76 18.85 92.61

75%THA 0.00 164.4 780,906 195,912 75.13 18.85 93.98

66,544 153.5 708,581 189,744 73.02 19.55 92.58

50%THA 0.00 113.00 552,610 121,997 77.35 17.08 94.43

66,544 101.8 473,284 114,021 73.53 17.72 91.25

35%BMCR 0.00 95.70 476,532 95,050 78.76 15.71 94.44

66,544 84.5 394,245 87,351 73.79 16.35 90.14

Fig. 6. Standard coal consumption rate with solar energy input.

Fig. 7. Boiler efficiency with different solar energy input according to ACMM.

723
J. Li et al.
Fig. 8. Solar-to-electricity efficiency with different solar energy input according to
ACMM.
to-electricity efficiency. SACFPP achieved a high coal saving rate when
it operated in a low load condition.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the National Basic Research Program of
China (No. 2015CB251505) and the Fundamental Research Funds for
the Central Universities (No. 2016YXZD009, HUST).
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