1

A BOUND METHOD FOR CREEP ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES:

DIRECT USE OF SOLUTIONS IN ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY
By C.R. Calladine* and D. C. Druckert
A structure of given geometry is made of a material whose stress-strain rate law is of
the form
strain rate = B, (stress),
where B, and n are properties of the material. T h e authors set out to consider the effects
on the load-rate of deflection characteristics of the structure of changes in the index n.
A non-dimensional diagram is used to compare the load-rate of deflection characteristics
of the structure for M e r e n t values of n. A recent theorem is quoted which indicates that
in this diagram the (closed) curves corresponding to different values of n nest inside each
other as n increases. As the curves for n = 1 (which corresponds to linear elasticity) and
n+cc (which corresponds to perfect plasticity) may usually be established without
much difiiculty, they may therefore be used conveniently to locate the region in which
the curves lie for any other intermediate value of n. Inspection of the curves for different
values of n for several structures indicates that the theorem may become a useful tool in
the study of the steady creep of structures or, by analogy, the study of non-linear elasticity.

INTRODUCTION factorf, stresses (including ‘redundant’ stresses in statically

SEVERAL INVESTIGATORS (I)$ of the steady creep behaviour
of stable structures subject to unchanging loads and
temperatures have considered a material whose stress-strain
law in simple tension is
Z = Bnun . . . . . (1)
where i represents rate of change of strain with time, u
represents stress and B, and n represent the material
properties.
For a given structure carrying specified loads, solution
of the steady creep problem consists of finding a system of
stresses throughout the structure which is in equilibrium
with the applied loads, while the corresponding strain rates
(derived from the stress-strain law) are geometrically
compatible and satisfy the velocity boundary conditions
which are specified for certain parts of the structure. Briefly,
the advantage of equation (1) over other possible laws is
that, while it fits secondary creep data of several widely
used materials (in limited temperatures and stress ranges)
with an acceptable degree of accuracy (2) it is algebraically
simple, and readily permits the application of a solution
for one set of loads to proportional loading situations. For,
when all the loads acting on a structure are altered by a
The MS. of this paper was first received at the Institution on 23rd
August 1961 and in its revised form, as accepted by the Council for
publication, on 24th November 1961.
* University Demonstrator in Engineering, University of Cambridge.
t Professor of Engineering, Brown University, U.S.A.
8 A numericul list of references is given in the Appendix.
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE
indeterminate structures) are altered by the same factor
while the rates of change with time of strains and deflections
are altered by the factor f”.
ELASTIC AND PERFECTLY PLASTIC
ANALOGUES
Hoff (I) has pointed out that any structure of given geo-
metry and made of material obeying equation (l), which
carries specified loads and is subject to specified boundary
velocity conditions, behaves in a manner analogous to that
of a second structure which has the same geometry and
carries the same loads as the first, but which is made of
non-linear elastic material obeying the stress-strain law
E = B,un . . . . - (2)
and is subject to appropriate boundary conditions. The
transformation of a steady creep problem to the corre-
sponding problem in non-linear elasticity may simply be
thought of as the removal of the dot from iin equation (I)
and the replacement of velocities of points in the structure
by corresponding displacements.
The use of equation (1) (or, by analogy, equation (2)) for
general values of n as a model for real material behaviour
requires that d change sign when u changes sign. Equa-
tion (1) as it stands satisfies this requirement for positive
odd integral values of n (1, 3,5, etc.), so it is convenient for
the purposes of analysis to restrict attention to these values
of n. As this restriction on n does not invalidate general
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2 C. R. CALLADINE AND D. C. DRUCKER

conclusions it will, for the sake of simplicity, be taken to
apply throughout this paper.
Consider now a range of non-linear elastic materials
whose stress-strain laws for pure tension/compression are
expressed non-dimensionally as follows:
in a structure, nor even the magnitude of the highest stre55
levels: it should nevertheless be useful in dealing with the
large class of problems for which solution consists of the
estimation of the gross deformation of structures under
specified loading conditions. In the present paper the

(3 = (;)n . . . * (3)
authors set out first to explain the theorem in non-specialist
terms with reference to a statically determinate structure,
and secondly to present some illuminating examples of its
This equation is plotted in Fig. 1. For n = 1 the equation application to redundant structures.
reduces to Hooke's Law (linear elasticity). For larger values
of n the strain becomes more sensitive to stress as stress STATICALLY DETERMINATE
increases. In the limit as n + co no strain is possible except ILLUSTRATION
when a = ;,a at this stress the strain is not Uniquely The structure shown in Fig. 2, which is made of material
determined, and additional stress cannot be borne: that is, obeying the stress-strain law of equation (3), consists of
(as far as loading is concerned) the material is rigid- two equal straight bars of cross-sectional area A and length
perfectly plastic, with yield stress ur = am. L, pin-jointed to each other and to the rigid foundation.
The structure supports loads X and Y at the central pin,
BRACKETING OF ANSWERS
as shown.
Experimental work shows that, for a large variety of Let us define the function D as follows
materials in common use the range of values of n is bounded,
roughly, by 1 and 9. Analytical solutions to all but the most D = a€
trivial structural problems for values of n within this range (In the analogous steady creep problem D represents the
are notoriously difficult-even if n is restricted to integral energy dissipation rate per unit volume.) Let us now
values. It is interesting to examine therefore, in the light consider those combinations of X and Y which make the
of Fig. 1, how existing (or, at worst, readily obtainable) mean value of D (which we shall denote DAVG)throughout
solutions to problems involving specified relevant geometry the structure equal to D,, where
and loading conditions (1) in linear elasticity (n = 1) and D,, = a,€, . . . . -
(4)
(2) in perfect plasticity (n+ CQ) may be used most con- an and E , being quantities which enable equation (2) to be
veniently to 'bracket' solutions for intermediate values of n. cast in the non-dimensional form (3). Let W be the tension
A recent theorem (3) shows one way in which this in a bar of the structure, and let subscripts b and c refer to
bracketing may be performed. The theorem is concerned bars b and c respectively (Fig. 2). By equilibrium of the
not with complete solutions to structural problems (in- central pin
volving the determination of stress and strain throughout
structures) but with partial solutions for deflection of w6 = (x+Y)/d2
structures at the points of application of loads in the therefore Ob = Y)/1/2A (x+
direction of the loads. It offers no help in determining, for and € b = %[(X+ Y)/d2Aonln
example, the position of the most severely stressed material from equation (3). Consequently

Similarly
D, = uccc = anen [(Y--X)/1/2A~,]n+l
}
Db = Ubcb = U , E , [ ( X + Y ) / ~ / ~ A u , ] " + '
(5)

For the mean value of D to be equal to D,

LADb+LAD, = 2LADn
r

Fig. 1. Non-dimensional stress-strain relation ( 3 ) Fig. 2. Statically determinate example

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 A BOUND METHOD FOR CREEP ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 3

Substituting from equations (4) and (5) we have

as the relation between X and Y to give DAVG= D,,.

Equation (6) is plotted in Fig. 3 for several values of n: for
n = 1 the curve is a circle of radius 2/2 while for n += co
equation (6) degenerates into four straight lines which, as
may readily be verified, form the ‘collapse load envelope’
of perfectly plastic theory. In general, it may be shown that
curve (6) for any value of n = nl lies on or inside the
corresponding curve for any other value n = n2.
The foregoing simple example serves to illustrate the
general theorem established in reference (3). The theorem
may be paraphrased as follows:
For a set of structures of the same relevant geometry,
made of material obeying a stress-strain law

5 = (.E)n
En

and acted upon by i sets of independent loads Xi (0, E

and X are general strains, stresses and loads in a sense
that will be explained later) the surfaces in (i-dimensional)
Xi/unspace representing all values of Xilo,, for which
DAVG= 0,for any value of n lies outside (or, in the Fig. 3. F-curves for structure shozun in Fig. 2
limit, touches) the corresponding surface for any larger
value of n. the principle of virtual work for continuous displacement
compatible with constraints to give
ENERGY (DISSIPATION) SURFACES
IN LOAD- AND DISPLACEMENT-SPACE
The surfaces in force- or load-space for which DAVG= where J v denotes integration over the volume of the
D, (hereafter referred to as F-surfaces) have several inter- structure, V. If (Xb, X,) lies on F, J UE dV = crnenV by
esting and useful properties. These properties are discussed
below in terms of two-dimensional load-space for con- definition, so
venience; they apply in general terms to surfaces in multi- X&+XnrXm = u , , E , = ~ ~D,v . . (8)
dimensional load-space and, with simple modifications Let an xb, x,, set of axes be drawn parallel to the XbJ X,,,
which will be explained later, to surfaces in ‘reduced’ and axes and originating at the point (& X,) on F (Fig. 5a).
‘non-dimensional’ load space. Reduced load space (with Equation (8) indicates that the scalar product of the
which the theorem is concerned directly) is space in which vectors (xb,X,,) and (XbJ x,) is equal to crnenVeverywhere
Xila, is plotted. Non-dimensional load space, which is on F. Hence, given the curve F we could, if we knew the
often more convenient to use, is space in which loads are direction of the vector (xa, x,,,), find its magnitude (by a
plotted after having been made non-dimensional, as in graphical method, for example). It may be shown (4) that
Fig. 3, by division by urnand suitable structural dimensions. the direction of the x-vector corresponding to a point X
The structure S shown in Fig. 4 supports forces xb and
X,,,. The displacements of the points of application of these
forces in the direction of the force are #b and x,,, re-
spectively. (In the figure X, is shown as a couple; x, is
consequently a rotation about the axis of the couple.) The
loads xb and X , are in equilibrium with stresses cr through-
out the structure. The corresponding strains E are com-
patible with themselves and with the immovability of any
fixed supports to which the structure is attached. Consider
now a virtual displacement of the structure consisting of a
change in strain e and the (compatible) change in dis-
placement x b and x, of xb and X,,, respectively. Since Fig. 4. General structure with fmces and corresponding
the structure is in equilibrium throughout we may apply displacements
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 c
4 C . R. CALLADINE AND D. C . DRUCKER
DEFLECTION
VECTOR
xb
a Deflection vector is normal to F-curve.
I xm 1
b Load vector is normal to U-curve.
Fig. 5
on F is that of the outward-directed normal to F at that
point. (The displacement vector is directed outwards as
u,~E,,Vis essentially a positive quantity.) Hence, to find the
displacement vector corresponding to a point such as G in
Fig. 5a we may use the following construction. Produce
OG to H so that, to some suitable scale, OG.GH = D,V.
By the definition of the scalar product, the displacement
vector GK must be such that K lies on the perpendicular
to OG at H. Construct this perpendicular and also the
normal to F at G: these intersect in K, giving the required
vector GK.
If a vector OG' were set off equal to GK on a second
set of axes xby x, parallel to the X,, X,,, axes, motion
of G around F would cause G to generate a surface U in
x-space. By definition, points in x-space on U represent
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displacement configurations of the structure for which
DAVG= D,,and it may readily be shown that the normal
vector to u at the point x b y x, on u whose scalar product
with (xb, x,) is equal to D,V is the corresponding load
vector (compare Fig. 5a and b).
It is perhaps worth while to outline other features of F
and U,and their relation. Stability considerations (4) may
be invoked to show that both F and U are convex, with the
limiting possibility of flat regions (i.e. regions of zero
convexity). A flat region of F is associated with a single
displacement vector, and so corresponds to a single point
on U ; and vice versa. The geometrical relation which
facilitates the generation of F from U, and vice versa, will
be discussed in detail in a later section. It should be clear
that specification of F or U for a structure gives complete
information about the relation between the loads acting on
a structure and the deflection of the points of application
of the loads in the direction of the loads. If the deflection
of any unloaded point (or of a loaded point in a direction
other than that of the load) is of interest, it is of course
necessary to consider a corresponding dummy load to act
upon the structure, each dummy load giving an extra
dimension to load-space.
Interpretation for load states other than those of F (and
similarly for displacement states other than those on v) is
straightforward. If, for example, we wish to know the dis-
placements associated with the load point P in Fig. 5a, we
produce OP to Q on F ('proportional' loading), find the
dlsplacement vector corresponding to Q, and multiply it
by the factor (OPjOQ)". A corresponding procedure applies
in displacement-space.
If, throughout the preceding discussion of the properties
of the F- and U-surfaces, all load and stress quantities are
divided by and correspondingly all deflection and strain
quantities are divided by E,, it becomes clear that in reduced
load-space X / a , (and reduced deflection-space x / E , ) the
scalar product of corresponding (X/a,) and (XI€,) vectors is
equal to V , the volume of the structure, for all points on F
(and U). In non-dimensional load- and deflection-space,
the corresponding product is equal to a number V which
is readily determined once the precise form of non-
dimensionalization of loads and displacements has been
chosen.
USEFULNESS O F THEOREM
The possible usefulness of the theorem stated above now
becomes plain. Let us assume that linear-elastic and
perfectly plastic theory have enabled us to establish F1 and
F, for a given structure in reduced or non-dimensional
load space. If in some part of this load-space F1 and Fa lie
very close to each other, then either surface may be used
as a good approximation to F,, which enables a good
approximation to be made to the load-deflection character-
istics of the structure in this region of load-space for any
value of n whatever.
If on the other hand (and as is perhaps more likely) Fl
and F, do not lie so close to each other, a few isolated
points on F,,, found by separate analysis, may suffice to
Vo14 No I 1962
 A BOUND METHOD FOR CREEP ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 5

locate F,, over a wide region of load-space with sufficient Example (I): A pin-jointed frame-work
accuracy. Consider the statically indeterminate structure shown in
For example, F1 and F, are readily established for the Fig. 6. As only one joint moves it seems most convenient
structure shown in Fig. 2. The fact that these two curves to derive the F-curves by geometrical construction from
touch at four points immediately locates four points on F,, the more easily obtainable U-curves. We determine U as
for all values of n. If but a single point on F,, can be located follows. Imposing a deflection (x, y ) on the central joint,
in the region of greatest separation of Fl and F, (in this we find the strains in each bar by the use of simple
case, of course, the exercise is trivial) a guess for the whole ' geometry :
of F,, may be made with some confidence. The touching of
all F,, in this example at the points corresponding to X = (X+Y)/L\/~Y €, = (y-x)/L1/2~ =yfL1/2
and Y acting independently is due to the fact that, for these Substitution in equation (3) gives the stress in each bar;
special loading conditions, all the material in the structure hence we may find
has the same absolute value of stress. This is precisely the
condition for 'minimum-weight' design of the structure
jv OE d V = u E "Iv Ie/lq,,l(n+l)/n dV
under the specified loading (5). When a structure satisfies l€&,,p+l)/nAL+ l€J€,,1("+W"AL
= On€,,[
this minimum-weight criterion for a given set of loads, all
the surfaces F,, coincide at the corresponding point in +
I€&, I(n+*)/nAL1/2]
load-space. Minimum weight is both a necessary and a for the structure in terms of x and y. Setting this quantity
sufficient condition for the exact coincidence of all F,,. As equal to (volume of structure) x D,, i.e. to (2+ 1/2)ALu,,~,,
will be shown later, however, curves for different values of we find values of x and y defining U.
n may lie very close to each other in spite of wide departure It is necessary, for purposes of application of the theorem,
from the minimum-weight condition. to work either in reduced or in non-dimensional load and
If F, and F, are widely spaced, it will probably be deflection space: it is convenient to work in non-dimensional
necessary to locate several points on F,, before the complete space.
curve may be sketched with assurance. For structures of Setting, for example
this sort, it may be possible to devise semi-empirical rules xyl = X/€,L1/2, y' = Y/PJ1/2 . (9)
to help in the process of interpolation between F-surfaces ( L d 2 being a convenient length) the equation of U
for different values of n.
becomes
Ix'+Y' I(n+l)/n+ Iy' I (n+l)/n+ 1/21y ' l ( n + 1 ) / n = 2+ .,,9
--XI

EXAMPLES OF REDUNDANT STRUCTURES

It is appropriate now to study the relative disposition of the
. . - (10)
F-surfaces for different values of n for a few specimen This equation is plotted for n = 1, n = 3 and n 3 rn in
structures. In each of the following examples there are but
Fig. 7, giving the curves U in the first quadrant; x 2 0,
two independent sets of loading, so that the F-surfaces are,
conveniently, two-dimensional. It may well be that the
lessons learnt from these studies are applicable to multiple
loading conditions.
Y

y:Y'

Fig. 6. Statically indeterminate framework

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6 C. R. CALLADINE AND D. C. DRUCKER

.y >0. For the case n -+ 03, if y’ 2 x’ 0, y’+x’+y’-

x’+2/2y’ = 2+2/2, or y ’ = 1. If x’ y’ 0, x‘+y’+ >
x’-y’+&?y’ = 2+2//2 or 2r‘+.\/2y’ = 2 + d 2 so U
consists of straight lines, as shown. A convenient geo- Y.’ Y ’
metrical construction for F from U derives from the fact
that, if F and U in reduced load- and deflection-space
respectively are plotted on the same set of axes they are,
geometrically, reciprocal surfaces (6) with respect to the
surface whose centre is the origin and the square of whose
(constant) radius Ro is equal to V. (Equivalently, if F and
U are plotted non-dimensionally, they are reciprocal with
respect to the surface the square of whose radius is equal
to the non-dimensional form (V‘)of V.)In two-dimensional
space, F and U are reciprocal to a circle; that is, U is the
envelope of the polars of F, and vice versa (6). Thus,
given U and the circle T of radius Ro, an appropriate
construction for a point on F referred to the same set of
axes is (Fig. 8): F- and U-curves are reciprocal. The polar (N”) of a point (G)
on F with respect to circle radius Ro touches U.(For NN’ to be
(1) Draw a radial line OZ, which is to intersect F a t G. the polar of G with respect to circle radius Ro, OH.OG = Ro?.)
(2) Draw the tangent to U which is perpendicular to Fig. 8
OZ, cutting OZ at H and T (if at all) at N and N’.
(3) Draw the tangent to T at either N or N‘: this cuts hence, the stress and 0)in each of the three bars‘is the
OZ ar G, the required point (Fig. 8). If H lies outside T, same: thus for Y-loads, the structure is minimum weight.
step (3) is invalid, and the construction becomes: In contrast, the structure shown in Fig. 9 cannot satisfy
(3) Draw the tangent from H to T, cutting T at N; the simple minimum-weight condition for any loading
the perpendicular from N to OZ cuts OZ at G (not shown). condition (as there is no possible deformation of the
It is sometimes as simple to dispense with the drawing structure for which the strain is equal in each bar); conse-
of circle T, and to locate G from H by measurement and quently the F-curves are nowhere coincident (Fig. 10).
calculation, using the formula In Figs 7 and 10, as in Fig. 3, F3 is roughly equidistant
OH.OG = Ro2 from Fl and F,. This statement may possibly apply to a
Repetition of the process for a series of radial lines gives wide variety of pin-jointed bar structures.
a sequence of points on F from which the full curve may
be sketched. (See, for example, curves F and U in Fig. 5.) Example (2): A uniform rigid-jointed portal frame
Returning to the structure shown in Fig. 6 and defining with fixed feet (Fig. 11)
non-dimensional loads by (say) For beams and frames the relevant form of the stress-strain
X = X.\/2/anA, Y = Yd2/a,A . (11) law of equation (3) is
we find that the condition for a point on F or U, namely
xx+ Yy = (2+.\/2)LAo,rn (;)=($J . . .
becomes X x ‘ + Yy‘ = 2 + d 2 where K represents the change of curvature of the bar
As the right-hand side of this equation is by definition caused by bending moment M.
equal to R02, we have Ro = 2 / 2 + 4 2 = 1.85. Y
In Fig. 7 the circle radius Rois shown, together with the
curves F derived by reciprocation of the curves U.The fact
that all the F-curves lie outside the U-curves when the
same scale is used for both sets is fortuitous. It is sometimes
useful to draw the U-curves to ‘fill’ a given sheet of paper
and to adjust the size of the derived F-curves also to fill
the paper. This adjustment may readily be made either by
altering the constants in the equation corresponding to
equation (ll), or by having different scales for the two sets
of curves, or by both. I n Fig. 7, reciprocation of U , gives,
as may be verified, the perfectly plastic collapse load
envelope. (It would possibly have been quicker in this case
to have constructed F, by conventional methods.) Fig. 9. Statically indeterminate structure which does mi
The coincidence of all F,, at the Y-axis (Fig. 7) is due satisfr simple minimum-weight condition for any com-
to the fact that, under loading Y alone, the strain (and bination of X and Y
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 A BOUND METHOD FOR CREEP ANALYSIS O F STRUCTURES 7

or

I
I
3c Plastic collapse of the frame takes place when (7)
F,
5
Fol

XL
=4y ~

Equations (13) and (14), defining Fl and F, respectively,

are plotted (non-dimensionally) in the first quadrant of
1 (XLIM,, YLIM,) space in Fig. 12 (F, is symmetrical about
both axes). In contrast to the curves in Figs 3, 7 and 10,
Fl and F, differ considerably in size, which makes direct
use of F1 and F, as a guide to (say) F3 uncertain. However,
it is possible without much difficulty to obtain by numerical
0 -1- J
means the points at which F3 cuts the XLIM, and YLIM,,
0 1 3 axes. These are shown in Fig. 12. As the location of both
XI
of these points relative to Fl and F, is nearly the same, it
Y = Y d 2 / A a , ; X' = X1/2/Aa,,. seems plausible that F3 lies in the vicinity of the dashed
Fig. 10. F-curves for the structure shown in Fig. 9 curve sketched in Fig. 12.

For n -+ 03, M , equals the full plastic moment of the bar,
Mp, while for n = 1, equation (12) is equivalent to
K = M/EI
EZ being the 'flexural rigidity' of the bar; thus
MI/Ki = EI
For the frame of constant cross-section shown in Fig. 11,
conventional linear-elastic theory gives
Example (3): A ilat isotropic circular disc with a
concentric circular hole, loaded by axi-symmetric
radial edge tractions (Fig.23)
A specific but more general form of the stress-strain law
of equation (3) is required for this problem in plane stress.
Consider an element of material stressed in perpendicular
directions by a, and a,. In uniaxial tension in any direction,
we suppose that the stress-strain law is

K 1 yL3
Y = - '15
- MI

x=-.-
7 at
K' XL3
96 MI
Hence Fl is given by

I
I
I
0 A

0 ' 2 6' ' 8

-
4'
XL
4
L L L Fig. 12. Estimation of F3 for the portal frame shown in
Fig. 11. Purtalfiame Fig. I 1
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a C. R. CALLADINE AND U. C. DRUCKER

u von Mises ellipse.

Fig. 13. Symmetricul disc

An investigation of the stress-strain characteristics of the

material under the action of a, and u, together would enable
us to determine F,, in (ur, a,) space-the locus of points
such that
urEr+uece = uncn
The theorem stated above under Statically Determinate
Illustration holds for structures involving multi-axial stress
systems if the multi-axial stress-strain law is such that the
corresponding F-surfaces in stress-space are the same for
all values of n.
An example of such a stress-strain law in three dimensions
is that employed by Odquist (8). For a state of stress
defined by three principal stresses or, u, and a, the corre-
sponding strain rates are given by (in the notation of the
present paper) :
etc. The corresponding non-linear elastic material gives an
F-curve for principal stresses in two dimensions defined by
ur2+u,2-uru, = un2
for all values of n (Fig. 14u). F, represents the von Mises
(elliptical) yield locus (9), while for n = 1 the stress-strain
law defines a conventional (incompressible) linear-elastic
material having Poisson’s ratio equal to 5.
It is similarly possible to postulate a material having
equation (3) as its stress-strain law in simple tension which
has Tresca’s hexagon (9) as its F-curve for all values of n in
two-dimensional principal stress-space (Fig. 14b). The
resulting stress-strain relations for this incompressible
material in the three distinct regions of (uryue) space are
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 15. Note that in region (iii)
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE
1-1
b Tresca hexagon.
Fig. 14
€0 is positive and cr is negative. I n region (iii)’the converse
is true. Construction of the corresponding U-curve (which
is of course the same for all values of n) indicates the
possible variation of strain for stress points lying on the
common boundaries of pairs of regions in stress-space.
For n = 1 the material is linearly elastic with, effectively,
Poisson’s ratio in the r, 0 and z directions equal to zero or
unity within the different stress regions. Poisson’s ratio
lies between these extremes at the region boundaries.
For purposes of comparison of FlyF3 and F, for the
structure s h o w in Fig. 13, it is convenient to use the
generalized Tresca stress-strain law, as this makes analytical
solution possible for all values of n. The analytical solutions
are, of course, Werent for parts of the disc in different
regions of (or, us) space. The most convenient approach to
a complete investigation of the behaviour of a disc of given
dimensions u and b subject to arbitrary radial stress at
these two radii (Fig. 13) is to find stresses and strains for a
disc with such a large b/u ratio that the whole range of
stress-space is covered. In fact, two separatesets of boundary
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 A BOUND METHOD FOR CREEP ANALYSIS O F STRUCTURES
-
Oe
On
I
I REGION (ii)
REGION (iii)
Fig. 15. Stress-strain relation for Tresca hexagon
conditions for such a disc are required for a coverage of all
regions of stress-space-one in which a, has the same sign
at a and by the other in which a, has opposite signs at the
two edges. It is relatively easy to ‘cut out’ from this disc a
set of discs of a specified b/a ratio covering all possibilities
of the ratio of radial stresses at the two edges, and having
known corresponding values of cg. All that is now required
to associate each of these culled solutions with a point on
F or U is a factor f by which the stresses must be increased
throughout the disc to make DAVG = D,. Let u,, c, and
,, cg at radii a and b respectively. At radius b
u b y Eb denote a
the ‘working’ displacement associated with the stress is
equal to 2nb2tcb( t is the thickness of the disc), and at radius
a the corresponding displacement is equal to -2n-a2tra.
Applying equation ( 7 ) and dividing throughout by u,c,,:
-2
_L
Fig. 16. F-curves for disc with bla = 3
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9
From this equation DAVG/Dnmay be computed for the
disc for any known set of values of a,/o, c,/cn, ub/U,y q , / E n
and bla.
The scale factor f is given byf”+l = D,/DAv, and the
corresponding point on F is (fua/u,, fub/u,) in reduced
load-space. The normal vector to F represents (-2na*t~,/e,,
2rrb2tcb/cn)for a point on F, and the scalar product of this
vector and the corresponding load vector (a,/a,, ub/a,) is
equal to V (= n(b2-a2)t).
For the perfectly plastic analysis (giving F,) the
equilibrium and yield equations are solved simultaneously
for a disc with large b/u ratio, and solutions are culled as
before. Points on F, represent combinations of u,/u,, and
u b / u y for plastic collapse of the disc (uy being the yield
stress in pure tension).
FlyF3 and F, are shown in Fig. 16 for a disc having
b/u = 3. The straight portions of F, parallel to the ub/u,
axis represent collapse states in which the inner edge of
the disc is yielding plastically, while the outer edge, where
the material is not stressed to the yield point, is rigid. In
parts of (u,/a,, q,/u,) space Fl and F, lie very close to each
other, while in other parts they are widely separated. In
those regions where F1 and F, are close to each other F3
lies closer to F, than to Flywhereas in those regions where
the separation of F1 and F, is considerable, F3 lies closer
to Fl than to F,. The curves coincide at u,/a,, = q/a,
where, as all the material is in equal biaxial tension, the
minimum-weight condition is satisfied. Where the curves
are close to each other, however, the stress systems are not
necessarily similar for different values of n. Fig. 17 shows,
for example, the radial distribution of the ‘equivalent’stress
a* in the disc for different values of n when u, = 0;
equivalent stress being defined by
Vo14 No I 1962
10 C. R. CALLADINE AND D. C . DRUCKER

-
(I

Fig. 17. Comparison of equivalent stress distribution in disc

for bla = 3 and ua = 0, with D A V C = D,,

Material No. 'I

I
Composition
I

REAL MATERIALS
Application of the theorem to practical structures made of 1 Ni-Cr-Mo 500 1.3
2 Ni-Cr-Mo 500 2.7
real materials requires the assignment of definite values to 3 0.3 per cent C,
u, and E,. Referring to equations (2) and (3) we see that 1.4 per cent Mo 450 4.7
e,/a,* = &; that is, (u,~, E , ) may represent any point on 3 0.39 per cent C 400 8.6
I
the stress-strain curve (or for secondary creep, any point
on the stress-strain rate curve). Fig. 18. The reference point a,,, inmay be selected
Thus for each value of n in a set of real materials the arbitrarily
values of utland E, which are required to 'reduce' the loads
and deflections, and which appear in the definition of the feasible, therefore, to use a single structural model made of
standard dissipation-rate density D,, are fixed once the such a material
reference point on the stress-strain curve for the particular
value of n has been decided. Fig. 18 (derived from Table 11, (1) to investigate the linear-elastic load-deflection
p. 215 of reference (2)) shows secondary creep rate-stress response of the structure, and hence to obtain F1, and
curves (plotted logarithmically) for four different steels at (2) to investigate the plastic collapse behaviour of the
appropriate working temperatures, with arbitrarily selected structure, and hence to obtain part, at least, of F,.
reference points. (Compare Figs 18 and 1.) The freedom The creep properties of the material and the relative
of choice of the reference state of stress and strain afforded location of F1 and F, should give at least a guide as to the
by the theorem as presented in this paper is most advantage- necessity for performing an actual creep test on a structure
ous when materials of vastly different strengths at working of the real material at the working temperature.
temperatures (e.g. aluminium alloys and creep-resistant
steels) are being compared. The absolute size of the F- and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
U-surfaces in reduced load and deflection space is of course Professor Drucker gratefully acknowledges the support of
independent of the choice of reference point on the stress- Brown University and the John Simon Guggenheim
strain curve. Memorial Foundation during the sabbatical leave in which
this work was done.

AN EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Finally, it is appropriate to point out a direct application APPENDIX
of the theorem to experimental work. Some materials
REFERENCES
(mild steel, and 6061 T 6 aluminium alloy, for example)
have, at room temperature, a stress range over which the (I) HOFF,N. J. 1954 Quart. uppl. Math., vol. 12, p. 49, 'Appror-
h a t e analysis of structures in the presence of moderately
stress-strain behaviour is linear, and yet give structural large creep deformations'.
behaviour in the plastic range which agrees well with (2) MARIN,J. 1942 'Mechanical properties of materials and
predictions based on perfectly plastic theory. It seems design' (McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York).
JOURNAL MECHANICAL E N G I N E E R I N G SCIENCE Vo14 No I 1962

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 A BOUND METHOD FOR CREEP ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 11

(3) CALLADINE, C. R. and DRUCKER, D. C. 1962 Quart. uppl.
Maths., vol. 20, to be published, ‘Nesting surfaces of
constant rate of energy dissipation in creep’.
(4) DRUCKER,D. C. 19593. uppl. Mech., vol. 26; Truns. Amer.
Soc. mech. Engrs, vol. 81, p. 101, ‘A definition of stable
inelastic material’.
(5) DRUCKER, D. C. and SHIELD,R. T. 1957 Quart. uppl.
Maths., vol. 15, p. 269, ‘Bounds on minimum weight
design’.
(6) DURELL,C. V. 1948 ‘Projective geometry’ (Macmillan and
Co.Ltd, London).
(7) BAKER, J. F., HORNE,M. R. and HEYMAN, J. 1956 ‘The
Steel Skeleton’, vol. 2 (Cambridge University Press).
(8) ODQUIST,F. K. G. 1934 Proc. Fourth Int. Congr. uppl.
Mech., Cambridge, England, p. 228, ‘Creep stresses in a
rotating disc’.
( 9 ) HILL,R. 1950 ‘The mathematical theory of plasticity’
(Oxford University Press).

JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE V o l 4 No I I962

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