Wall systems

Structural frames, bearing walls, metal and wood stud walls.

Concrete columns, concrete walls, precast concrete walls panels and columns, tilt-up
construction. Masonry walls unreinforced and reinforced, solid walls and cavity walls,
masonry columns and pilasters, lintels and sunshades. Structural steel framing, steel
columns, light gauge steel studs, balloon framing. Wood stud framing, stud wall sheathing,
wood columns, wood post and beam framing, Kerala traditional wooden wall systems.
Partition wall systems. Glass block walling system.
Discussion: Need for introducing Sustainable wall construction in buildings.
Exercise: Documentation of Kerala Traditional wooden wall systems.
Drawings: Precast concrete walls and connections.RCC lintels and sunshades, Structural
steel framing, Wood stud framing.
 WALL SYSTEMS
• Walls are vertical constructions of a building that enclose,
separate and protect its interior spaces
• Load bearing or non-load bearing
• Shear walls transfer lateral wind and seismic forces to the
foundation.
• Exterior wall construction should control the passage of
infiltrating air, sound, moisture and water vapor.
• Should be durable and resistant to the weathering effects
of rain wind and sun and also fire resistant
• Interior walls and partitions should be able support the
desired finishing materials, provide the required degree
of acoustical separation and accommodate the
distribution and outlets of mechanical and electrical
services.
• Openings of doors and windows are constructed on walls
for physical access, natural light ventilation and view
 STRUCTURAL FRAMES
• Made of concrete, steel of timber
• Concrete frames are typically rigid frames and qualify as
noncombustible, fire-resistive construction.
• Steel and concrete frames can span greater distance and
carry heavier loads than timber structures.
• Structural frames can support and accept a variety of
nonbearing or curtain wall systems

CONCRETE AND MASONRY BEARING WALLS

• Non combustible. Rely on their mass for their load
carrying capability
• Strong in compression, require reinforcement to handle
tensile stresses
• Lateral stability depends on height to width ratio. Walls
may be left exposed.
 METAL AND WOOD STUD WALL
• Studs of metal or wood are spaced at 40 to 60 cm c/c.
• Spacing is related to the length and breadth of the
sheathing material.
• Studs carry vertical load while sheathing or diagonal
bracing stiffens the plane of the wall.
• Cavities of the wall frame accommodate thermal
insulation and outlets of electrical and mechanical
services.
• Stud wall frames may be assembled on site or panelized
off site.
• Stud walls are flexible in form due to the workability of
relatively small pieces and the various means of
fastening available.
 CONCRETE COLUMNS
• Reinforced concrete columns are usually cast with
concrete beams and slabs to form a monolithic structure.
Dowels tie column to
supported beams
and slabs. • Concrete columns are designed
to act together with vertical and
lateral reinforcement in resisting
applied forces
• Vertical reinforcement augments
the ability of a concrete column
to carry compressive loads resists
tensile forces when the column is
subject to lateral loads and
reduces the effects of creep and
shrinkage in the column.
• Lateral reinforcement restrains
the vertical reinforcement and
strengthens the column against
buckling
 CONCRETE WALLS

• Walls more than 25 cm thick require reinforcement in

two layers placed parallel with the faces of the wall.
• Minimum wall thickness – 15 cm for bearing walls, 10 cm
for non bearing walls, 5 cm min for non bearing interior
partition walls, 20 cm min for basements and foundations
of walls.
• Concrete walls usually rest on a continuous strip footing.
Wall is tied to its footing with dowels bent in alternate
directions.
• Anchor concrete walls to floor, slabs and columns and
intersecting walls.
• Bend horizontal reinforcement at corners and wall
intersections for structural continuity.
• 2cm min cover when concrete is not exposed to ground
or weather. 4 cm min cover when concrete is exposed to
earth or weather.
• consult a structural engineer for required size spacing
and placement of all reinforcement.

concrete walls anchored to floor, slabs and columns

and intersecting walls.
 PRECAST CONCRETE WALLS
• Precast concrete walls are cast and cured in a plant off
site, transported to the construction site set in place with
cranes and rigid components.
• The precast wall panels may be conventionally reinforced
or pre-stressed for greater structural efficiency, reduced
panel thickness and longer spans.
• Extra reinforcement may be necessary to resist the
stresses of transportation and erection
• Precast wall panels may be solid, composite or ribbed
construction.
• Window and door openings, corbels and anchoring
devices are cast into the wall panels.
 7 m high 7 m high 14 m high

9-25 cm thick 14-30 cm thick 30to 60 cm thick

Window and door

openings, corbels,
and anchoring
devices are cast into
the wall panels.
20cm width typical for all
panel types; up to 360
widths available

Solid Panels Composite Panels Ribbed Panels

• Precast concrete wall panels may serve as bearing walls
capable of supporting site cast concrete and roof systems.
• Floors and roofs that serve as horizontal diaphragms
transfer their lateral forces to shear resisting wall panels.
• The wall panels in turn must be stabilized by columns or
cross walls and transfer the lateral forces to the ground
foundation.
• All forces are transferred by a combination of grouted
joints, shear keys, mechanical connectors, steel
reinforcement and reinforced concrete toppings.
 TILT-UP CONSTRUCTION
• Tilt up construction is a method of casting reinforced
concrete wall panels on site in a horizontal position, then
tilting them up into their final position.
• Projections and pickup devices are cast into the upper
face.
• The concrete ground slab for the building under
construction usually serves as the casting platform.
• The casting platform should be level and smoothly
trowelled ; a bond breaking agent is used to ensure a
clean lift.
• Once the wall panels are cured to sufficient strength they
are lifted with a crane and set on their footings or piers.
• Wall panels must be designed to withstand the stresses
of being lifted and moved.
 MASONRY WALLS
• Masonry walls consist of consist of modular building
blocks bonded together with mortar to form walls that
are durable, fire resistant and structurally efficient in
compression.
• The most common types of masonry units are bricks and
concrete blocks.
• Masonry walls are constructed as solid walls, cavity walls,
reinforced walls or veneered walls

SOLID MASONRY
Solid masonry walls may be
constructed of either solid or
hollow masonry units laid
contiguously with all joints
solidly filled with mortar.
 CAVITY WALLS
Cavity walls are constructed of a facing and a backing wythe of
either solid or hollow masonry units, completely separated by a
continuous air space and bonded with metal wall ties or horizontal
joint reinforcement. Cavity walls have two advantages over other
types of masonry walls:
1. The cavity enhances the thermal insulation value of the wall
2. The air space acts as a barrier against water penetration if the
cavity is kept clear, and if adequate weep holes are provided.

Adjustable loop tie Cavity to be not

Ladder loop tie less than 5cm

Drip to prevent water

from running across

1.6 cm min mortar cover

for joint reinforcement
 REINFORCED MASONRY WALLS
Reinforced masonry walls use steel reinforcing bars placed in thickened
joints or cavities with a fluid grout mix of portland cement, aggregate,
and water for greater strength in carrying vertical loads and increased
resistance to buckling and lateral forces. It is essential that a strong
bond develop between the reinforcing steel, grout, and masonry units.

Reinforcing steel bars

are fully embedded in
portland cement grout.

Metal wall ties

6mm minimum between

reinforcement and masonry
MASONRY VENEER WALL
• In masonry veneer construction a single
wythe of masonry serves as a weather
barrier, and is anchored (not bonded ) to a
structural frame.
• In residential construction wood or metal
stud construction are typically faced with
brick or stone veneers.
• Masonry veneers can also be used as curtain
walls supported by steel or concrete frames.
 GLASS BLOCKS
• Glass block is a translucent, hollow block of glass with clear,
textured, or patterned faces, made by fusing two halves
together with a partial vacuum inside.
• Glass block may be used in non-loadbearing exterior and
interior walls.
• Various surface textures are available as well as inserts and
coatings to control heat gain, glare, and brightness.
• Special end and corner blocks are also available.
 STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING

• Conventional steel-framed structures are constructed of hot-

rolled beams and columns, open-web joists, and metal decking.
• Since structural steel is difficult to work on site, it is normally cut,
shaped, and drilled in a fabrication shop according to design
specifications; this can result in relatively fast, precise
construction.
• Steel framing is most efficient when columns are laid out to
support a regular grid of girders, beams, and joists.
• Resistance to lateral wind and seismic forces requires the use of
shear planes, diagonal bracing, or rigid framing with moment-
resisting connections.
There are three basic relationships
that may be established between
a structural steel frame and the
curtain wall or cladding it
supports.
• Column in front of the wall plane
• Column within the wall plane
• Column behind the wall plane

The framing or panels of a

curtain wall may be
supported in one of two ways:
• By the columns alone
• By the columns as well as by
spandrel beams or the edges
of floor slabs
• secondary framing of
mullions and shelf angles.
 LIGHT-GAUGE STEEL STUDS

• Light-gauge steel studs are manufactured by cold-forming sheet

or strip steel.
• The cold-formed steel studs can be easily cut and assembled
with simple tools into a wall structure that is lightweight,
noncombustible, and dampproof.
• Metal stud walls may be used as nonloadbearing partitions or as
bearing walls supporting light-gauge steel joists.
• As in wood light frame construction, the stud framing contains
cavities for utilities and thermal insulation and accepts a wide
range of finishes.
 Horizontal channel bracing

Diagonal steel
strap bracing
welded to studs
and runners

Secure strap
connection to stud
and runner with a
steel gusset
plate or welds

Splice runner sections

with a stud section
BALLOON FRAMING
Balloon framing utilizes studs that
rise the full height of the frame
from the sill plate to the roof plate,
with joists nailed to the studs and
supported by sills or by ribbons let
into the studs. Balloon framing is
rarely used today but the minimal
vertical shrinkage it affords may be
desirable for brick veneer and
stucco finishes.
PLATFORM FRAMING
Platform framing is a light wood frame
having studs only one story high,
regardless of the stories built, each
story resting on the top plates of the
story below or on the sill plates of the
foundation wall. Platform framing is
also referred to as western framing.
WOOD STUD FRAMING
WOOD STUD SHEATHING