CH 4

Simple Digital Filters
• Later in the course we shall review various

methods of designing frequency-selective
filters satisfying prescribed specifications
• We now describe several low-order FIR and
IIR digital filters with reasonable selective
frequency responses that often are
satisfactory in a number of applications
1
Copyright © 2001, S. K. Mitra
Simple FIR Digital Filters
• FIR digital filters considered here have
integer-valued impulse response coefficients
• These filters are employed in a number of
practical applications, primarily because of
their simplicity, which makes them amenable
to inexpensive hardware implementations
2
Lowpass FIR Digital Filters
• The simplest lowpass FIR digital filter is the
2-point moving-average filter given by
−1 z +1
H 0 ( z ) = 2 (1 + z ) =
1
2z
• The above transfer function has a zero at
z = −1 and a pole at z = 0
• Note that here the pole vector has a unity
3 magnitude for all values of ω
• On the other hand, as ω increases from 0 to
π, the magnitude of the zero vector
decreases from a value of 2, the diameter of
the unit circle, to 0
• Hence, the magnitude response | H 0 (e jω )| is
a monotonically decreasing function of ω
from ω = 0 to ω = π
4
• The maximum value of the magnitude
function is 1 at ω = 0, and the minimum
value is 0 at ω = π, i.e.,
jπ
| H 0 (e )| = 1, | H 0 (e )| = 0
j0
• The frequency response of the above filter

is given by
jω − jω / 2
H 0 (e ) = e cos(ω / 2)
5
jω
• The magnitude response | H 0 (e )| = cos(ω / 2)
can be seen to be a monotonically
decreasing function of ω
First-order FIR lowpass filter
1
0.8
Magnitude
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
6 ω/π
• The frequency ω = ωc at which
jωc 1
H 0 (e ) = H 0 (e j 0 )
2
is of practical interest since here the gain G (ωc )
in dB is given by
jωc
( ω
G c = 20 log10 H (e )
)
= 20 log10 H (e ) − 20 log10 2 ≅ −3 dB
j0
since the dc gain G (0) = 20 log H (e ) = 0

j0
7 10
• Thus, the gain G(ω) at ω = ωc is
approximately 3 dB less than the gain at ω
=0
• As a result, ωc is called the 3-dB cutoff
frequency
• To determine the value of ωc we set
jωc 2
| H 0 (e )| = cos (ωc / 2) = 1
2
2
which yields ωc = π / 2
8
• The 3-dB cutoff frequency ωc can be
considered as the passband edge frequency
• As a result, for the filter H 0 (z ) the passband
width is approximately π/2
• The stopband is from π/2 to π
• Note: H 0 (z ) has a zero at z = −1 or ω = π,
which is in the stopband of the filter
9
• A cascade of the simple FIR filter
−1
H 0 ( z ) = 2 (1 + z )
1
results in an improved lowpass frequency

response as illustrated below for a cascade
of 3 sections First-order FIR lowpass filter cascade
1
0.8
Magnitude
0.6
0.4
0.2
10 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
ω/π Copyright © 2001, S. K. Mitra
• The 3-dB cutoff frequency of a cascade of
M sections is given by
ωc = 2 cos −1 (2−1 / 2 M )
• For M = 3, the above yields ωc = 0.302π
• Thus, the cascade of first-order sections
yields a sharper magnitude response but at
the expense of a decrease in the width of the
passband
11
• A better approximation to the ideal lowpass
filter is given by a higher-order moving-
average filter
• Signals with rapid fluctuations in sample
values are generally associated with high-
frequency components
• These high-frequency components are
essentially removed by an moving-average
filter resulting in a smoother output
12
waveform Copyright © 2001, S. K. Mitra
Highpass FIR Digital Filters
• The simplest highpass FIR filter is obtained
from the simplest lowpass FIR filter by
replacing z with − z
• This results in
H1( z ) = 1 (1 − z −1 )
2
13
• Corresponding frequency response is given
by
jω − jω / 2
H1 (e ) = j e sin(ω / 2)
whose magnitude response is plotted below
First-order FIR highpass filter
1
0.8
Magnitude
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
14 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
ω/π Copyright © 2001, S. K. Mitra
• The monotonically increasing behavior of
the magnitude function can again be
demonstrated by examining the pole-zero
pattern of the transfer function H1(z )
• The highpass transfer function H1(z ) has a
zero at z = 1 or ω = 0 which is in the
stopband of the filter
15
• Improved highpass magnitude response can
again be obtained by cascading several
sections of the first-order highpass filter
• Alternately, a higher-order highpass filter of
the form
M −1 n −n
H1( z ) = ∑n =0 (−1) z
1
M
is obtained by replacing z with − z in the
transfer function of a moving average filter
16
• An application of the FIR highpass filters is
in moving-target-indicator (MTI) radars
• In these radars, interfering signals, called
clutters, are generated from fixed objects in
the path of the radar beam
• The clutter, generated mainly from ground
echoes and weather returns, has frequency
components near zero frequency (dc)
17
• The clutter can be removed by filtering the
radar return signal through a two-pulse
canceler, which is the first-order FIR
highpass filter H1( z ) = 1 (1 − z −1 )
2
• For a more effective removal it may be
necessary to use a three-pulse canceler
obtained by cascading two two-pulse
cancelers
18
Simple IIR Digital Filters
Lowpass IIR Digital Filters
• A first-order causal lowpass IIR digital
filter has a transfer function given by
 −1 
1− α 1+ z
H LP ( z ) =  
2  1 − α z −1
where |α| < 1 for stability
• The above transfer function has a zero at z = −1
i.e., at ω = π which is in the stopband
19
• H LP (z ) has a real pole at z = α
• As ω increases from 0 to π, the magnitude
of the zero vector decreases from a value of
2 to 0, whereas, for a positive value of α,
the magnitude of the pole vector increases
from a value of 1 − α to 1 + α
• The maximum value of the magnitude
function is 1 at ω = 0, and the minimum
value is 0 at ω = π
20
jπ
| H
• i.e., LP ( e j0
)| = 1, | H LP ( e )| = 0
jω
• Therefore, | H LP (e )| is a monotonically
decreasing function of ω from ω = 0 to ω = π
as indicated below
1
α = 0.8 0
0.8 α = 0.7
α = 0.5
-5
α = 0.8
Magnitude
0.6
Gain, dB
α = 0.7
-10 α = 0.5
0.4
0.2 -15
0 -20 -2 -1 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 10 10 10
21 ω/π ω/π
• The squared magnitude function is given by
jω 2 (1 − α) (1 + cos ω)
2
| H LP (e )| =
2(1 + α − 2α cos ω)
2
jω 2
• The derivative of | H LP (e )| with respect
to ω is given by
jω 2
d | H LP (e )| − (1 − α) (1 + 2α + α ) sin ω
2 2
=
dω 2(1 − 2α cos ω + α )
2 2
22
d | H LP (e jω )| 2 / dω ≤ 0 in the range 0 ≤ ω ≤ π
verifying again the monotonically decreasing
behavior of the magnitude function
• To determine the 3-dB cutoff frequency
we set
jωc 2 1
| H LP (e )| =
2
in the expression for the square magnitude
function resulting in
23
(1 − α) 2 (1 + cos ωc ) 1
=
2(1 + α 2 − 2α cos ωc ) 2
or
(1 − α) 2 (1 + cos ωc ) = 1 + α 2 − 2α cos ωc
which when solved yields
2α
cos ωc =
1+ α 2
• The above quadratic equation can be solved

for α yielding two solutions
24
• The solution resulting in a stable transfer
function H LP (z ) is given by
1 − sin ωc
α=
cos ωc
• It follows from
jω 2 (1 − α ) 2
(1 + cos ω)
| H LP (e )| =
2(1 + α 2 − 2α cos ω)
that H LP ( z ) is a BR function for |α| < 1
25
Highpass IIR Digital Filters
• A first-order causal highpass IIR digital filter
has a transfer function given by
1 + α  1 − z −1 
H HP ( z ) =
2  1 − α z −1 
where |α| < 1 for stability
• The above transfer function has a zero at z = 1
26
i.e., at ω = 0 which is in the stopband
• Its 3-dB cutoff frequency ωc is given by
α = (1 − sin ωc ) / cos ωc
which is the same as that of H LP (z )
• Magnitude and gain responses of H HP (z )
are shown below
0 α = 0.8
1 α = 0.7
α = 0.5
α = 0.8 -5
0.8
α = 0.7
Magnitude
Gain, dB
0.6 α = 0.5
-10
0.4
-15
0.2
0 -20 -2 -1 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 10 10 10
27 ω/π ω/π
• H HP (z ) is a BR function for |α| < 1
• Example - Design a first-order highpass
digital filter with a 3-dB cutoff frequency of
0.8π
• Now, sin(ωc ) = sin(0.8π) = 0.587785 and
cos(0.8π) = − 0.80902
• Therefore
α = (1 − sin ωc ) / cos ωc = − 0.5095245
28
• Therefore,
1 + α  1 − z −1 
H HP ( z ) =
2  1 − α z −1 
 −1 
1 − z
= 0.245238  
−1 
 1 + 0.5095245 z 
29
Bandpass IIR Digital Filters
• A 2nd-order bandpass digital transfer
function is given by
1− α  1 − z −2 
H BP ( z ) =  
2  1 − β(1 + α) z −1 + α z −2 
• Its squared magnitude function is
jω 2
H BP (e )
(1 − α) 2 (1 − cos 2ω)
=
30
2[1 + β2 (1 + α) 2 + α 2 − 2β(1 + α) 2 cos ω + 2α cos 2ω]
• | HBP (e jω )|2 goes to zero at ω = 0 and ω = π
• It assumes a maximum value of 1 at ω = ωo ,
called the center frequency of the bandpass
filter, where
ωo = cos −1 (β)
ω jω 2
ω
• The frequencies c1 and c 2 where | HBP (e )|
becomes 1/2 are called the 3-dB cutoff
frequencies
31
• The difference between the two cutoff

frequencies, assuming ωc 2 > ωc1 is called
the 3-dB bandwidth  2αand is given by
 2
 1 + α  −1 2α 
Bw = ωc 2 − ωc1 = cos  2
1 + α 
• The transfer function H BP ( z ) is a BR
function if |α| < 1 and |β| < 1
32
• Plots of | HBP (e jω )| are shown below
β = 0.34 α = 0.6
1
α = 0.8 β = 0.8
α = 0.5 1 β = 0.5
0.8 α = 0.2 β = 0.2
0.8
Magnitude
Magnitude
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
ω/π ω/π
33
• Example - Design a 2nd order bandpass
digital filter with center frequency at 0.4π
and a 3-dB bandwidth of 0.1π
• Here β = cos(ωo ) = cos(0.4π) = 0.309017
and
2α
= cos( Bw ) = cos(0.1π) = 0.9510565
1+ α 2
• The solution of the above equation yields:

α = 1.376382 and α = 0.72654253
34
• The corresponding transfer functions are
−2
1− z
H BP ( z ) = −0.18819
'
−1 −2
1 − 0.7343424 z + 1.37638 z
and
−2
" ( z ) = 0.13673 1 − z
H BP
1 − 0.533531z −1 + 0.72654253z − 2
• The poles of H BP ' ( z ) are at z = 0.3671712 ±
j1.11425636 and have a magnitude > 1
35
• Thus, the poles of H BP' ( z ) are outside the
unit circle making the transfer function
unstable
• On the other hand, the poles of H BP " ( z ) are
at z = 0.2667655 ± j 0.8095546 and have a
magnitude of 0.8523746
• Hence H BP" ( z ) is BIBO stable
• Later we outline a simpler stability test

36
• Figures below show the plots of the
magnitude function and the group delay of
" ( z)
H BP
7
1 6
Group delay, samples

0.8 5
4
Magnitude
0.6
3
0.4 2
1
0.2
0
0 -1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
37 ω/π ω/π
Bandstop IIR Digital Filters
• A 2nd-order bandstop digital filter has a
transfer function given by
1 + α  1 − 2β z −1 + z −2 
H BS ( z ) =  
2  1 − β(1 + α) z −1 + α z −2 
• The transfer function H BS (z ) is a BR
function if |α| < 1 and |β| < 1
38
• Its magnitude response is plotted below
1 1
0.8 0.8
Magnitude
Magnitude
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
α = 0.8 β = 0.8
α = 0.5 β = 0.5
0.2 α = 0.2 0.2 β = 0.2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
ω/π ω/π
39
• Here, the magnitude function takes the
maximum value of 1 at ω = 0 and ω = π
• It goes to 0 at ω = ωo , where ωo , called the
notch frequency, is given by
ωo = cos −1 (β)
• The digital transfer function H BS (z ) is more
commonly called a notch filter
40
jω 2
• The frequencies ωc1 and ωc 2 where | HBS (e )|
becomes 1/2 are called the 3-dB cutoff
frequencies
• The difference between the two cutoff
frequencies, assuming ωc 2 > ωc1 is called
the 3-dB notch bandwidth and is given by
−1 2α 
Bw = ωc 2 − ωc1 = cos  2
1 + α 
41
Higher-Order IIR Digital Filters
• By cascading the simple digital filters
discussed so far, we can implement digital
filters with sharper magnitude responses
• Consider a cascade of K first-order lowpass
sections characterized by the transfer
function
1 − α  1 + z −1 
H LP ( z ) =  
42 2  1 − α z −1
• The overall structure has a transfer function
given by K
−
1 − α 1 + z 1
GLP ( z ) =  ⋅ 
−1 
 2 1− α z 
• The corresponding squared-magnitude
function is given by
K
jω 2  (1 − α ) (1 + cos ω) 
2
|GLP (e )| =  
 2(1 + α − 2α cos ω) 
2
43
• To determine the relation between its 3-dB
cutoff frequency ωc and the parameter α,
we set
K
 (1 − α) (1 + cos ωc ) 
2
1
  =
 2(1 + α − 2α cos ωc ) 
2 2
which when solved for α, yields for a stable
GLP ( z ):
1 + (1 − C ) cos ωc − sin ωc 2C − C 2
α=
1 − C + cos ωc
44
where
C = 2( K −1) / K
• It should be noted that the expression for α
given earlier reduces to
1 − sin ωc
α=
cos ωc
for K = 1
45
• Example - Design a lowpass filter with a 3-
dB cutoff frequency at ωc = 0.4π using a
single first-order section and a cascade of 4
first-order sections, and compare their gain
responses
• For the single first-order lowpass filter we
have
1 + sin ωc 1 + sin(0.4π)
α= = = 0.1584
46
cos ωc cos(0.4π)
• For the cascade of 4 first-order sections, we
substitute K = 4 and get
C = 2( K −1) / K = 2( 4−1) / 4 = 1.6818
• Next we compute
1 + (1 − C ) cos ωc − sin ωc 2C − C 2
α=
1 − C + cos ωc
1 + (1 − 1.6818) cos(0.4π) − sin(0.4π) 2(1.6818) − (1.6818) 2
=
1 − 1.6818 + cos(0.4π)
47 = − 0.251 Copyright © 2001, S. K. Mitra
• The gain responses of the two filters are
shown below
• As can be seen, cascading has resulted in a
sharper roll-off in the gain response
0
K=1
Passband details
-5
0
K=4
Gain, dB
Gain, dB
K=1
-10 -2
K=4
-4
-15
-2 -1 0
10 10 10
ω/π
-20 -2 -1 0
10 10 10
48 ω/π

CH 4

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CH 4

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

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Simple Digital Filters

• Later in the course we shall review various

• The frequency response of the above filter

since the dc gain G (0) = 20 log H (e ) = 0

results in an improved lowpass frequency

• The above quadratic equation can be solved

• The difference between the two cutoff

• The solution of the above equation yields:

• Later we outline a simpler stability test

Group delay, samples

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